All About Problem

Virus

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Thu, 10 Mar 2011 16:44:00 +0000

VIRUS is an application that can replicate itself in a computer network, is destructive and has the ability to infect other files to have the same qualities as himself. The virus will change the size of the infected program without changing the modification date of the application. History virus: In 1949, John von Newman, who created the Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer (EDVAC), presented a paper entitled "Theory and Organization of Complicated Automata." In his paper discussed the possibility of a program that can spread by itself. In 1960, experts at the lab BELL (AT & T)-the largest laboratories in the world that has produced a lot of things in the world of computer-trying to implement the theory expressed by john v neuman. They toyed with the theory to a type of game. On the sidelines of their break time, the researchers made the game with a program that can destroy your opponent artificial program, the ability to fix themselves and then standing behind the opponent's attack. This game program also can reproduce itself automatically. War of the program is called Core War, the winner is the owner of the largest remaining programs within a certain time interval. Because the program is aware of the dangers when leaked exit lab (especially because C and C + + is one of the high-level programming language - easy to learn), then each finished the game, the program is always destroyed. In 1970, the company Xerox introduced a program used to assist the smooth working. 1980, the program which was used as a game 'dangerous' is finally out of the lab, spread beyond the lab environment, and began circulating in the cyber world. 1981, A Virus of the same name by author, Elk Cloner, was born in the TEXAS A & M. Spread through Apple II floppy disk that has the operating system. The destroyer is displaying a message on the screen: "It will of get on all your disks It will of infiltrate your-chips-yes it is the Cloner!-It will of stick to you like glue It will of-modify RAM too-send in the Cloner!" 3 November 1983, Len Adleman inaugurated the name "virus" in a seminar that discusses how to create viruses and protect yourself from viruses. 1986, Brain Virus (also known as viral Pakistan), widespread in Indonesia, is the most appalling Virus dikala it. Because of its spread enormously this year that it was mentioned by some people of Indonesia as the early emergence of computer viruses. The birth of this virus is also in conjunction with [PC-Write Trojan] and [Vindent]. In 1988, emerging large-scale attack against Machintosh by the virus [MacMag] & [scores]. In this year also an Internet network of all-out got beat by an artificial worm Robert Morris, Jr., a student of Computer Science Cornell. In 1989 there prankster who spread the file "AIDS information program" and unfortunately, so this file is opened, which is obtained instead of info about AIDS, but the virus that encrypts the hard drive and require payment for the opening code. In 1990 Bulgarian virus factory exchange (VX) BBS was established. Tips-tricks-making computer virus transmitted through this BBS. Mark Ludwig wrote a book called "The Little Black Book of Computer Viruses". In the book discussed the steps to create a computer virus. In 1991, the first polymorphic virus is born. The virus, named Tequila comes from Switzerland. In 1992, there was a deadly virus caused panic in the user's computer. The virus was named Michelangelo. But the spread of the virus is not so widespread (only eat a little victim.) In 1995 came a massive attack. Large companies paralyzed, including Griffith Air Force Base, Korean Atomic Research Institute, NASA, IBM and many other GIANT COMPANY persecuted by the virus "THE INETRNET Liberation Front" on Thanksgiving day ~ ~. Because of the courage and the magnitude of the attack, dubbed as the year 1995, the Hacker and Cracker. In this year also born Concept, the first macro virus that attacks Microsoft Word document. 1996, Boza, the first virus that are specific to Windows 95 was born. Appears also Laroux, the first virus that infects MS Excel. This year is also the Staog, the first virus that infects Linux. 1998, Born Strange Brew, is the first Java virus. Born also Back Orifice, the first Trojan to spread, allowing unauthorized users to control other computers via the internet. 1999, the combination of viruses & worms with a very sweet name was born: Melissa. Melissa is a mix of macro viruses and worms to spread via email using Outlook weakness. Appears also Corner, the first virus that infects MS Project files. Of 2000, Appears Denial of Service (DoS) attacks that crippled Yahoo, Amazon and other giants sites caused by the worm. Love Letter worm called paralyzed e-mail systems around the world. Worm Timofonica disrupt Spanish telephone network. Liberty, the first worm that attacks the PDA was born. Turquoise, from the family of concept virus infects the files HTML and PHP. In 2001, returned the world must face a series of worm attacks. Gnuman (Mandragore) was born. This worm disguised as MP3 files. Winux, worms that attack Windows and Linux machines, comes from the Czechs Republic. In 2002, the LFM-926, was born the first virus that infects Shockwave Flash file (. SWF). Displays a message when the file is run: "Loading.Flash.Movie .." In 2003, the Blaster worm exploit weaknesses in the Windows RPC DCOM. Return the world faces a massive attack. Sobig-F was recorded as the most successful virus spread. May 2004, the world's Internet networks disrupted by the Sasser worm. In 2005-2007 of new Bagle variants widespread, but then faded as the author caught. The spread of Netsky also increased slightly for a moment and just birth of new variants. In the years is not so much new Virus & Worm quite appalling in the world like their predecessors except local virus attacks. In 2005 it seems the Underground Programmer world focusing on SPYWARE. Types of Computer Viruses: Based on the techniques of manufacture, viruses are grouped into 3: 1. Viruses are written by CompilerJenis this virus first appears and until now continues to grow. This virus is the virus executable that can be directly implemented because the experience kompilasi.2 process. Makrovirus Macro Virus is a virus that utilizes modular programming facilities in a particular application program. The goal of modular programming facilities is to provide convenience and create a shortcut for the application. For example, included in Microsoft Word, Excel, Power Point and other sebagainya.3. Virus ScriptAwalnya better known because the first batch viruses contained in the existing batch files in DOS. But now this has changed the script because the language used began to vary. This type of virus usually stay in the HTML files and scripts created by using facilities such as JavaScript and VBScript. There also are encoded by using PHP.Sedangkan based on its behavior, in general viruses were regrouped into: 1. Boot Virus SectorVirus this kind would move or replace the original boot sector with boot virus program so that when there is booting the virus will be loaded kememori and then the virus will have the ability to control the standard hardware such as monitors, prontaer and so forth. From this memory is also the virus will spread throughout the existing drive and connect kekomputer (ex: floppy, drive other than c:) .2. Stealth VirusVirus will be master table in DOS interrupt table that often we are familiar with "Interrupt interceptor" .3. Polymorphic this VirusVirus Designed for misleading antivirus program, meaning the virus is always trying to avoid being recognized by antivirus in a way always changing after every change its structure infected files / programs lain.4.Virus FileVirus infects an executable file directly from the operating system, whether the application configuration file (*. EXE), or *. COM usually also result from infection with this virus can be identified by changing the file size Partition diserangnya.5.Multi Virus (Hybrid Virus) This virus is a combination of boot sector viruses and file viruses: it means the work performed resulted in two, that he can infect files *. EXE file and also infects the boot Sector.Syarat Ability Yang-requisites Must be Held Computer Virus: A virus is said to be a computer application when it has 5 basic capabilities: 1. The ability to get informasi2. The ability to check a program3. The ability to reproduce and infect files lain4. The ability to do manipulasi5. The ability to hide the usual diriAdapun additional capabilities possessed by viruses and worms are: 6. The ability to exploit a weakness in system7. The ability to defend itself from the applications exterminator viruses & worms. Target virus attack: Registry System configuration utility Autoexec.bat and win.ini Task manager Special directory Cloning and icon Media distribution System restore AntivirusRegistry5 key on registryHKEY_CLASSES_ROOTHKEY_CURRENT_USERHKEY_LOCAL_MACHINEHKEY_USERHKEY_CURRENT_CONFIGSystem Configuration MSCONFIG UtilityDari regular user checks the files / applications are run automatically when windows startup.Dari MSCONFIG users can delete the list of applications that are not here well diinginkan.Dari users can freely edit the contents of win.ini files, autoexec. bat, system.ini and autoexec.bat and win.inidengan config.sys.File slightly manipulate the contents of two files, viruses can be automatically run when Windows boots. The two files above will be processed when startup.File Win.ini is located in the directory Windowsberisi several configurations that set the OS, can run certain files automatically by modifying the contents of the file win.ini.Task ManagerTask Manager displays any application that is running either tidak.Melalui the background or we can stop the Task Manager "by force" program that is not our own inginkan.Metodanya manifold. There is an automatic turn off the mouse when the Task Manager function tebuka, there is also a direct shutdown or restart.Special DirectoryAda two special directory that has become a "subscription" worms and viruses are the windows directory and the directory system.Kedua this directory is unique because of ease of setting variables when we write code and IconSebelum program.Kloning you open any document, be sure to correct that with a bunch of icons used COMPATIBLE file extension should be. Many users are lax about ini.Biasakan to view the properties file first before membukanya.Media Spread of Virus: Floppy and flash Email Irc WebsiteAntivirus: Viruses are usually programmed to be able to detect the Application Title of the program is running. Usually when you find the Application such unwanted title contains the word "Kill", "Antivirus," "Removal," "Anti", "Regsitry Editor", "Untility", "Exterminate", "Prompt" then the virus will stop the program . Top 10 Big Virus (March 2008): 10. starGate9. Tati8. SlowButSure7. TQ.vbs6. SangPerawan5. Discusx.vbs4. Pray3.

20 Most Important Chips (Article from 1995)

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Thu, 10 Mar 2011 13:06:00 +0000

All the chips on this list, Some Obscure as acres, Had a significant influence on the evolution of personal computing. All the chips on this list, it is unclear as there are, have a significant influence on the evolution of personal computing. So what does it take to make a computer today? So, what is needed to make the computer today? Mostly, it Seems, acronyms: a CPU, Some of RAM, a handful of EPROMs, a DSP, and a PCI bus. Most, apparently, an acronym: the CPU, some RAM, a handful of EPROMs, a DSP, and PCI bus.

Intel 1103 Intel 1103
In 1970, Intel created the 1103 - the first-Generally available DRAM chips. In 1970, Intel created the 1103 - the first generally available DRAM chip. By 1972, it was the best-selling semiconductor memory chip in the world. In 1972, it was the best-selling semiconductor memory chip in the world. Today, Would you need More Than 65.000 of Them to put 8 MB of memory into a PC. Today, you will need more than 65,000 of them to put the 8 MB of memory to a PC.

Intel 1702 Intel 1702
In another brilliant stroke of naming, Intel created this, the first EPROM, in 1971. In another brilliant stroke of naming, Intel created this, the first EPROM, in 1971. When you say "firmware," smile and think of the 1702. When you say "firmware," smiling and thinking about 1702.
Intel 4004 Intel 4004
In 1971, Busicom, a Japanese company, wanted a chip for a new calculator. With incredible o verkill, Intel built the world's first general-purpose microprocessor. In 1971, Busicom, a Japanese company, wanted a new calculator chip. With verkill o extraordinary, Intel built the world's first general-purpose microprocessors. Then it back Bought the rights for $ 60,000. So the right to buy back for $ 60,000. The 4-bit 4004 ran at 108 kHz and contained 2300 transistors. The 4-bit 4004 ran at 108 kHz and contained 2300 transistors. Its speed is estimated at 0:06 MIPS. Its speed is estimated at 0.06 MIPS. By comparison, Intel's latest microprocessor, the P6, runs at 133 MHz, contains 5.5 million transistors, and executes 300 MIPS. In comparison, Intel's latest microprocessor, the P6, running at 133 MHz, contains 5.5 million transistors, and run 300 MIPS.

Intel 8080 Intel 8080 If you drive, your life probably Depends on this chip. If you drive, your life may depend on these chips. Introduced in April 1974, the 8080 was first widely Used as a traffic-light controller. It found its way a year later into the world's first personal computer: the MITS Altair. Introduced in April 1974, 8080 first used extensively as a controller of traffic lights. It found its way a year later to the world's first personal computer: the MITS Altair.

MOS Technology 6502 MOS Technology 6502 What do a Nintendo set and a BMW have in common? What do the Nintendo set and a BMW have in common? The 6502. The 6502. At $ 25 (compared with $ 375 for a comparable Motorola part), the 6502 was Such a steal That a talented but cash-poor whiz kid from Silicon Valley, Steve Wozniak, chose it for his new personal computer, the Apple I. At $ 25 (compared with U.S. $ 375 for a comparable Motorola section), the 6502 is like stealing money that talented but poor boy genius from Silicon Valley, Steve Wozniak, select it for a new personal computer, the Apple I. Zilog Z80 Zilog Z80 Remember Tandy's TRS-80 Model I? Remember Tandy's TRS-80 Model I? Remember CP / M? Remember CP / M? They were the resource persons both built on the Z80. They are both built on the Z80.

Intel 8088 Intel 8086 and 8086 and 8088
Enter the King. Enter King. In June 1978, the 8086 debuted. In June 1978, debut 8086. Today it stands for the world's most popular microprocessor standard: the x86 architecture. A year later, Intel introduced a slight variation, the 8088, That Could use 8-bit components, enabling the manufacture of Inexpensive systems. For that reason, IBM chose the 8088 over the 8086 for the original IBM PC, even though the 8088 was slower. Today is the world's most popular microprocessor standard: x86 architecture. A year later, Intel introduced a slight variation, in 8088, which can use 8-bit components, enabling the manufacture of low-cost system. Therefore, IBM chose 8088 over 8086 for the original IBM PC, despite a slower 8088.

Intel 386DX Intel 386DX
The 386 heralded the beginning of a new age - the age of multitasking. Introduced in October 1985, the 386th was the first "modern" That was the x86 processor capable of running today's multitasking OSes, GUIs, and 32-bit software. 386 marks the beginning of a new era - the age of multitasking. Introduced in October 1985, the 386th was the first "modern" x86 processor capable of running current OS multitasking, GUI, and 32-bit software. The 386 introduced an enhanced microarchitecture while maintaining full backward compatibility with x86 processors Earlier. 386 introduced an enhanced microarchitecture while maintaining full compatibility with earlier x86 processors. This was accomplished with two memory-addressing modes: real mode, the which mi rrored the way memory is addressed by the older x86s, and a new protected mode That shop full advantage of the 386's 32-bit enhancements. This is done with two memory-addressing modes: real mode, which mi rrored way memory is addressed by older x86s, and the new protected mode that take full advantage of 386's 32-bit extra.

Intel Pentium Intel Pentium
The Pentium swept through the PC industry faster Than any of Intel's previous chips. Pentium PC industry sweep faster than previous Intel chips. Although Intel's 486DX (April 1989) an integrated FPU and was much faster Than the 386, it was the Pentium That introduced the next leap forward in the x86 microarchitecture: superscalar pipelines. Skeptics said a CISC architecture couldn't do it. Although Intel 486DX (April 1989) that integrates an FPU and a lot faster than the 386, it is a Pentium that introduces the next leap in x86 micro-architectures: superscalar pipeline. Skeptics "said a CISC architecture can not do it. The Pentium proved Otherwise. Pentium prove otherwise.

AMD AMD 386DX 386DX
Let the price wars begin. Let the price wars begin. When Intel's original 16-MHz 386 was introduced in 1985, it cost $ 299; More Than Five years later, it was still Commanding the Relatively high price of $ 171, and the 33-MHz version Fetched $ 214. AMD's 386DX/40 appeared in March 1991 at $ 281, but Within a year its price plunged 50 percent to $ 140. When the original Intel 386 MHz 16-introduced in 1985, cost $ 299, more than five years later, still relatively high commander of the price of $ 171, and 33-MHz versions fetch $ 214. AMD 386DX/40 appeared in March 1991 at $ 281, but within one year price fell 50 percent to $ 140. Street prices of PCs, the which follow-chip prices, fell by as much as $ 1000. Street price of a PC, who follow the price of chips, fell as much as $ 1000. The market for Windows-capable PCs expand ed by 33 percent. The market for Windows-capable PC ed expand by 33 percent.

Motorola 68000 Motorola 68000
More than any other, this is the microprocessor That helped establish the GUI. More than the others, this is the microprocessor that helps build the GUI. In 1983, four years after its introduction, it appeared in Apple's Lisa, a unique computer but a commercial flop Nevertheless That paved the way for the Macintosh in 1984. In 1983, four years after the introduction, it appears in the Apple Lisa, a unique computer but a commercial failure remains open the way for the Macintosh in 1984.

Mips mips R2000 R2000 The R2000, introduced in 1986, was a 32-bit CPU with 110 000 transistors. It powered the first generation of RISC workstations and servers. The R2000, introduced in 1986, is a 32-bit CPU with 110 000 transistors. It powered the first generation of RISC workstations and servers. The original version, clocked at 8 MHz, Executed about 5 MIPS and Had a separate FPU. The original version, clocked at 8 MHz, was executed about 5 MIPS and has a separate FPU.

Sun Microsystems Sun Microsystems SPARC SPARC In July 1987, Sun Announced an open-RISC architecture. In July 1987, Sun announced an open-RISC architecture. The idea was to encourage multiple sourcing and Lively Competition That Would spur performance, the SPARC standard and spread far and wide. The idea is to encourage a variety of sources and live performance that will spur competition and the standard SPARC spread far and wide. Eight years later, SPARC workstations and servers dominate Their markets. Eight years later, SPARC workstations and servers dominate their markets.

IBM / Motorola PowerPC 601 IBM / Motorola PowerPC 601 Although Few doubted the power of the Po werPC architecture, many thought the politics of the IBM / Motorola / Apple relationship was going to be unmanageable. Although few doubt the power of architecture werPC Po, a lot of political thought IBM / Motorola / Apple relationship will be arranged.
In Less than two years, it has spawned the world's most popular RISC platforms: the Power Macintosh. In less than two years, she has given birth to the world's most popular RISC platforms: Power Macintosh.
Chips & Technologies AT Chip Set Chips & Technologies AT Chip Set
IBM is not known for its approach to open systems. IBM is not known for its open systems approach. So, while it was actively Resisting the cloning of its PC architecture, C & T was introducing its AT Chip Set. So, while it is actively opposed the cloning of PC architecture, C & T introduced the AT Chip Set. With only five chips, C & T duplicated the core logic of about 100 chips in IBM's systems. With only five chips, C & T doubled from about 100 core logic chip in the IBM system. All a clone maker Had to do was add a 286, a Phoenix BIOS ROM, and Some memory to create a PC. All clone makers just need to add 286, Phoenix BIOS ROM, and some memory to create a PC. Take that, Big Blue. Take that, Big Blue.
Amiga Agnes / Denise / Paula Amiga Agnes / Denise / Paula
It's not a rock group: This was the advanced chip set That powered the world's first multimedia computer: The Commodore Amiga 1000. This is not a rock group: This is an advanced chip set which powered the world's first multimedia computer: Commodore Amiga 1000. In 1985, these three chips do tricks That Could today's PCs and Macs still can not do - Such as display multiple screens with independent pixels Resolutions and bit depths on a single monitor. In 1985, the three chip can perform tricks that today's PCs and Macs still can not do - such as displaying some of the independent pixel screen resolution and bit depth on a single monitor.

Commodore Commodore SID SID You can get remarkable results you Pls tell an engineer to do what he thinks is right. You can get incredible results when you tell an engineer to do what he thought was right. Take SID (Sound Interface Device), for example. Take the SID (Sound Interface Device), for example. In 1981, Bob Jannes toll was to design a low-cost sound chip for the upcoming Commodore 64. In 1981, Bob Jannes instructed to design a low-cost sound chip for the upcoming Commodore 64. Would he end up creating an analog synthesizer chip That redefined the concept of sound in personal computers. He eventually will create analog synthesizer chip that redefined the concept of sound in personal computers.

Yamaha OPL-2 Yamaha OPL-2 Tweet. Twitter. Beep, beep. Beep, beep. Name That Tune! Name that tune! The original IBM PC's sound capabilities were the resource persons Practically nonexistent - a simple beeper That Could Produce a limited range of square-wave tones. The original IBM PC practically no sound capability - simple pager that can produce an unlimited range of square wave tones. Yamaha's OPL-2 enabled vendors Such as Ad Lib and Creative Labs to Introduce a plug-in sound boards with reasonable (but not great) sound. Yamaha OPL-2 enabled vendors such as Ad Lib and Creative Labs to introduce a plug-in sound boards with a reasonable (but not great) sound. Today, Nearly all PCs come with a sound board. Today, nearly all PCs come with sound board.

S3 911 911 S3 Because PCs Had Originally character-oriented displays, screen performance drastically bogged down Pls running Microsoft Windows and graphical applications. Because the first PC-oriented display the characters, the performance drastically screen freezes when running Microsoft Windows and graphical applications.
IBM's 8514 chip and its spin-off s provided Some improvement, but the market broke wide open in 1991 Pls S3 introduced the 911, the which integrated GUI acceleration and VGA compatibility on a single chip. IBM 8514 chip and spin-off s provide some improvement, but the market broke wide open in 1991 when S3 introduced the 911, an integrated GUI compatibility and VGA acceleration on a single chip.

Intel Intel Mercury Mercury The PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus is the most Important enhancements to the PC architecture since the ISA bus, and the Mercury was the first implementation. PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) bus of the most important addition to the PC architecture since the ISA bus, and Mercury is the first implementation. Today even Apple has adopted to replace the NuBus PCI. Even today, Apple has adopted to replace the NuBus PCI.

Top of Page Microprocessor Architecture Glossary of Terms Glossary of Microprocessor Architecture Requirements Bus Unit: Bus Unit: The Bus Unit is the place Nowhere instructions flow in and out of the microprocessor from the computer's main memory. Bus Unit is the place where the instruction flow in and out of the microprocessor of the computer's main memory. Instruction Cache: The Instruction Cache is a warehouse of instructions right on the chip, so That the microprocessor does not have to stop and look in the computer's main memory for instructions. Instruction Cache is a repository of instructions right on the chip, the microprocessor so it does not need to stop and look into the computer's main memory for instructions. This quick access makes processing fast as instructions are 'Fetched' to the Prefetch Unit Nowhere They are put in the proper order for processing. This quick access makes processing faster as the instructions that 'take' to the Prefetch Unit where they are placed in the proper sequence for processing. Prefetch Unit: The Prefetch Unit Pls decides to order the data and instructions from the Instruction Cache or the computer's main memory based on commands or the task at hand. A unit for deciding when to prefetch data and instructions from the instruction cache or main memory based computer commands or task at hand. When the instructions come in the most Important task for the Prefetch Unit is to be sure all the instructions are lined up Correctly to send off to the Decode Unit. When the instructions come in the most important task for Prefetch Unit to ensure all instructions are limited to the right to send off to Decode Unit. Decode Unit: The Decode Unit That just does - it decodes or translates complex machine language instructions into a simple format understood by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Registers. The Decode Unit not only that - it decodes or translates complicated machine language instructions into a format easily understood by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers. This makes processing more efficient. This makes processing more efficient.

Control Unit:The Control Unit is one of the most Important parts of the microprocessor Because it is in charge of the entire process. Based on instructions from the Decode Unit, That it creates control signals tell the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and the Registers how to operate, what to operate on, and what to do with the result. Control Unit is one of the most important part of the microprocessor as responsible for the overall process. Based on instructions from the Decode Unit, create control signals that tell the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Registers how to operate, what to operate on, and what to do with the outcome. The Control Unit makes sure everything Happens in the right place at the right time. Control Unit to keep things going in the right place at the right time.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):
The ALU is the last stage of processing in the chip. The ALU is the smart part of the chip That performs commands like adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing. The ALU is the final stage of processing within the chip. Intelligent ALU is part of the chip that perform commands like add, subtract, multiply and divide. Also it knows how to read logic commands like OR, AND, or NOT. It also knows how to read logic commands like OR, AND, or NOT. Messages from the Control Unit of the ALU tell what it Should do and then it takes the data from its close companion, the Registers, to complete the task. Messages from the Control Unit ALU told what to do and then retrieve data from a close friend, the Registers, to complete the task. This is really Nowhere 2 finally gets added to 3 in our example. This is really where the two finally will be added to the 3 in our example. Registers: Register: The Registers are a mini-storage area for data Used by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) to complete the tasks the Control Unit has requested. The Registers are the mini-site data storage used by the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) to complete the tasks of the Control Unit has requested. The data cans come from the data cache, main memory or the control unit and are all stored at special locations Within the Registers. This makes retrieval for the ALU quick and efficient. Data can be derived from the data cache, main memory or the control unit and everything is stored in a special location in the Registers. This makes the search for fast and efficient ALU.
Data Cache:
The Data Cache works very closely with the "processing partners," the ALU & Registers, and the Decode Unit. Data Cache to work very closely with the "processing partners," said ALU & Registers, and Decode Unit. This Is Nowhere specially labeled data from the Decode Unit are stored for later use by the ALU and Nowhere final results are Prepared for distribution to different parts of the computer. This is a special place labeled data from the Decode Unit stored for later use by the ALU and where the final result is ready to be distributed to various parts of the computer.
Main Memory:
This is the big store house of data Within the main computer located outside of the microprocessor. This is a huge store house of data which lies on the main computer outside the microprocessor. At times the Main Memory May send in data or instructions for the Prefetch Unit, Often the which get stored at an address in the Instruction Cache to be Used later. At times the Main Memory to send data or instructions to prefetch unit, which is often stored in an address in the Cache Instructions for use later.
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WHAT EVER happened to ... WHAT EVER HAPPENED TO ... The TI 9900 CPU? The TI 9900 CPU?

by Stan Veit by Stan Veit
Originally published in the September 1996 issue Originally published in the September 1996 edition
Now That super chips are being produced by companies other super Than Intel chips now being produced by companies other than Intel and Motorola, I am reminded That the success of new cans and Motorola processors, I was reminded that the success of the new processors can Rely on More Than technological innovation. rely on more than technological innovation. The silicon graveyards acre cemetery is the Silicon Filled with technically superior CPUs That Because of the poor lost out filled with technically superior CPU lost because of poor
Because the manufacturer marketing or misread the buying habits of the marketing or because manufacturers misread the buying habits of public. public.

In the early days of the PC industry, the Intel 8080 family received a In the early days of the PC industry, Intel receives 8080 family
Because of the huge boost the public's early adoption of the Altair/S-100 huge boost because of the public early adoption Altair/S-100 series; Zilog's Z-80, the which was compatible with the 8080 CPU, serial; Zilog's Z-80, which is compatible with the CPU 8080, That continued success. continue that success. Similarly, Motorola's 6800 chips were the resource persons Used in. Similarly, the Motorola 6800 chip used in
The widely popular South West Technical Products PC and many others. a very popular South West Technical Products PC and many others.

A Different View A Different View
Texas Instruments (TI), the World's Largest semiconductor Texas Instruments (TI), the world's largest semiconductor manufacturer, developed the TMS9900, a true 16-bit CPU That was Quite a manufacturer, developed the TMS9900, the true 16-bit CPU is enough advanced for its time, having capabilities That the Intel and Motorola advanced for its time, has the ability of Intel and Motorola
8-bit CPUs lacked. 8-bit CPU shortage. Unlike TI, the chip makers Intel, Zilog, and Motorola Unlike IT, chip maker Intel, Zilog, and Motorola were the resource persons eager not changed from computer manufacturers. not eager to become a computer manufacturer. They made development They make development
systems, but these were the resource persons not Designed or price approach for public use. system, but is not designed or prices for public use. Most Most They did all the chip manufacturers to help computer makers Could improv chipmakers do all they can to help computer makers increase That the systems utilized Their chips, but TI Gave little help to the system that take advantage of their chips, but the IT provide little assistance to
outsiders. outside.
TI did develop the TI 990 / 4 and 990 / 5 minicomputers, the which Used the TI did not develop the TI 990 / 4 and 990 / 5 minicomputers, which uses
TMS9900 processor, but They were the resource persons too expensive to attract developers TMS9900 processors, but they are too expensive to attract developers WHO Would write software for the processor. who will write software for the processor. Although TI did little to Though not many IT encourage second sources for the TMS9900, TI Itself was a second push both sources for the TMS9900, TI itself is the second source for Intel, producing the TMS8080A, a version of the Intel 8080. Intel source, producing TMS8080A, a version of the Intel 8080. In fact, much of TI's PC competition it was powered by chips Had In fact, many IT competition from the PC is powered by chips that have been manufactured. produced.

As a corporation, TI Had a different view of the PC market. As a company, IT has a different view of the PC market. It is
envisioned a product That would be Used in the home, at school, and on to imagine a product that will be used at home, at school, and on
the job, just as its Calculators were the resource persons. work, just as a calculator that. This machine would be filled this machine will be met with TI chips, run IT software, and earn Millions for the company. with TI chips, run the IT software, and earn millions for the company. Since Such a machine did not yet exist, TI Had to design one - the kind of machine because it does not exist, TI has designed one - which Texas Instruments 99 / 4. Texas Instruments 99 / 4.
In the spring of 1979, I Went to Boston to see the 99/4--I was hoping In the spring of 1979, I went to Boston to see 99/4--I hope to sell it at my Computer Mart stores in New York. to sell it in my Computer Mart in New York. I Also Had thoughts I also have thoughts of Becoming a software developer for graphics-based games. become a software developer for graphics based games. Priced at Price $ 1.200, the 99 / 4 Had highly polished metal parts, 16K of RAM, TI BASIC $ 1,200, a 99 / 4 has been highly polished metal parts, 16K RAM, BASIC IT in ROM, a 13-inch color monitor, and a thin keyboard. in ROM, a 13-inch color monitor, keyboard and thin. The 40 keys on the keypad 40
this prototype were the resource persons of a style That Came to be called "Chiclets," and this prototype is a style that came to be called "Chiclets," and The monitor displayed 24 lines of 32 characters. monitor display 24 lines of 32 characters. The System Also Had a systems also have built-in slots for plug-ins, solid-state software modules, the which did not built-in slots for plug-ins, solid-state software module, which is not yet exist. yet exist. The plug-in program modules were the resource persons to hold the extra RAM to run the Plug-in module program to continue running the extra RAM the software. software.
Interestingly, the TI engineers Had crippled its 16-bit CPU by running Interestingly, the IT engineer has paralyzed the 16-bit CPU to run it in a 8-bit bus. in an 8-bit bus. This Permitted Them to use fewer memory chips and This allows them to use fewer memory chips and reduce costs. reduce costs. Later, IBM followed the path Same with the IBM PC, using Then, IBM followed the same path with the IBM PC, using
The 8088 microprocessor rather Than Intel's 16-bit 8086. 8088 microprocessor than 16-bit Intel 8086.
Back to the Drawing Board Back to the Drawing Board

I liked the TI 99 / 4, but thought the price was a little STEEP. I liked the TI 99 / 4, but thought the price a bit steep. So did soon The rest of the world. around the world. Shortly after it was released, recalled the IT Shortly after it was released, IT recalled
99 / 4 and Went back to the drawing board to bring down the costs. 99 / 4 and go back to the drawing board to reduce costs. The It
TI 99/4A required fewer new chips, due to large-scale integration, and new IT 99/4A fewer chips required, because large-scale integration, and
it Came with a real keyboard. It comes with a real keyboard. IT price approach it without the monitor and the monitor and the price of IT without provided plug-ins for expansion. provides plug-ins for expansion. By the time of the 99/4A 's release, At the time of the 99/4A' s release, Some software for Had it appeared, and TI encouraged third-party software for some it has appeared, and encourage third-party IT
software developers to write for the new system. developers to write software for the new system. However, the However,
IT royalties demanded discouraging were the resource persons; ultimately demand IT software royalties discouraging; end software developers lost interest in the 99/4A. developers lost interest in the 99/4A.

In late 1982, the IT re-engineered the motherboard to put most of the In late 1982, the IT re-engineering the motherboard to put most
"Glue" chips into a single package. "Glue" chips into one package. The new machine was Called the QI, a new machine called QI, for "Improved Quality." for "Improving Quality." With a new and improved systems, IT Had a With a new and better system, TI has
System That Could Compete with the Apple, Atari, and Commodore systems are systems that can compete with Apple, Atari, and Commodore systems of the day. days. It Also Had a better product for a small but growing group It also has a better product for the small but growing group of Devoted users. of loyal users. The 99 / 4 series were the resource users Among the most Devoted The 99 / 4 of the series users, including the most loyal Could you imagine fans. fan you can imagine. But the company did little to support users, but the company did little to support the user, and except for Computer Shopper magazine and a small Called 99er, tea and except for Computer Shopper and a small magazine called the 99er, which press ignored the computer systems. computer press ignored the system.

When all other manufacturers turned to the floppy disks to Expand Their When all other producers turned to a floppy disk to develop
machines 'usefulness, TI Came out with the expensive Expansion Box as machines' usefulness, TI came out with expensive Expansion Box as
a way to add a floppy drive to the 99 / 4. how to add a floppy drive, 99 / 4. It was Designed like a piece is designed like a piece of
of equipment meant to meet military specifications, the box was made military equipment intended to meet specifications; box was made
of a thick aluminum plate, a heavy-duty design That was obviously from a thick aluminum plate, heavy-duty clear design unnecessary for home computers. no need for a home computer. Compare this with the Apple II, the which compare with the Apple II, which needed only a small plug-in interface board connects to a floppy disk. only need a small plug-in interface board to connect the floppy disk.
Once again, IT Had to Provide a fix to the system Because it did not once again, IT must provide to fix the system because no
understand the market and Had to learn the hard way. understand the market and must learn the hard way.
In January 1982, TI was poised to throw all its Marketing Efforts In January 1982, TI was ready to throw all marketing efforts behind-the-IT 994 / A. IT rear 994 / A. At the time, the success of TI's home computer at that time, the success of TI home computer
meant more to the company Than just another item in its huge line of more means the company is not just another item in the outline electronic equipment. electronic equipment. It was counting on the TI 99/4A, and its It relies on TI 99/4A, and successors to be the major consumer of the company's own chips. successor to be the main consumers of the company's own chips. This is was TI's core business, and the strategy Would have succeeded if IT is IT's core business, and strategy will be successful if the IT
hadn't run into a stone wall - Jack Tramiel, the president of not running into a stone wall - Jack Tramiel, president Commodore. Commodore.
The troubles started with the introduction of the $ 300 Commodore The difficulty begins with the introduction of $ 300 Commodore VIC-20. VIC-20. Although the VIC's capabilities were the resource persons below those of the IT Despite the ability of VIC is below those of the IT
99/4A, cut its introduction into the IT system's market share. 99/4A, the introduction of IT systems cut into market share.

What is the algorithm?

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Thu, 10 Mar 2011 03:03:00 +0000

Judging from the origin of the word he said algorithm itself has a strange history. People just find a word that means the process of calculating Algorism with arabic numbers. You say if you calculate Algorist use Arabic figures. Linguists attempt to discover the origin of this word but the results are less satisfactory. Finally, historians of mathematics found the origin of the word is derived from the Arabic name of the famous author, Abu Ja'far Muhammad Ibn Musa Al-Khuwarizmi. Al-Khuwarizmi read people west into Algorism. Al-Khuwarizmi write a book called The Book of Al Jabar Wal-Muqabala which means "The book of restoration and reduction" (The book of restoration and reduction). From the title of the book we also get the root word "Algebra" (Algebra). Change the word of the Algorithm Algorism Algorism arises because the word is often confused with Arithmetic, so the suffix became-sm-THM. Because the calculation with Arabic numerals have become commonplace. Then gradually the word algorithm gradually used as a method of calculation (computing) in general, thus losing its original meaning of the word. In Indonesian, the word Algorithm is absorbed into algorithm. Algorithm Definition "The algorithm is a sequence of logical steps solving problems systematically and logically arranged." Logical word is the key word in the algorithm. The steps in the algorithm must be logical and must be determined is false or true. The algorithm is the heart of Informatics The algorithm is the heart of computer science or informatics. Many branches of computer science terminology referenced in the algorithm. However, do not assume the algorithm is always synonymous with computer science course. In real life there are many processes haripun expressed in an algorithm. Ways to make a cake or a dish that is expressed in a recipe can also be referred to as algorithms. In every recipe there is always a sequence of step-lankah made cuisine. If the steps are not logical, can not produce the desired cuisine. Mothers who try a recipe will read one by one the steps and then he did the process of making appropriate that he read. In general, the (object) who worked on the process called the processor (processor). Processing may take the form of human, computer, robot or other electronic equipment. Processors perform a process to carry out or "execute" an algorithm that outlines the process. Implement the algorithm means doing the steps in the algorithm. Processors working on the process in accordance with the algorithm given to him. The cook makes a cake based on a recipe given to him, the pianist played a song by musical notes board. Therefore, an algorithm must be expressed in a form that can be understood by the processor. So the processor must: 1. Understand each step in Algorithm 2. Doing operations corresponding to these steps. Writing Algorithms The algorithm can be written in several ways, namely: • In a natural language (Indonesian, English, and other human language)

Example: Algorithm sending short messages (sms)

1. Take Mobile

2. Incoming SMS menu

3. Select Sub-Menu Compose SMS

4. Write the contents of SMS

5. Press menu

6. Enter the destination number

7. Press ok

8. Wait for the report

9. When an SMS is sent, Done

10. If SMS is not sent, skip to step 5

• Use flow charts For example: Alarm Clock Algorithm
• Using the pseudo-code For example: Algotima Finding Largest Numbers max ← first ilangan if (max <the second number) ← max number two if (max <third numbers) ← max number of third Important Aspects of the Algorithm 1. Finiteness The algorithm must be stopped (after a finite number of steps) 2. Definiteness Each step must be precisely defined, should not confuse the (ambiguous) 3. Input An algorithm has zero or more input given to the algorithm before it runs 4. Output An algorithm has one or more outputs, which typically rely on input 5. Effectiveness Each algorithm is expected to have effective properties Programming Language From the past until now, of course we know that in the computer world there is a wide range of programming languages. Because so many types of programming languages, the languages are also grouped based on certain criteria. There are breaks it down into 3 levels of language, namely: high level (like Pascal and Basic), middle level (like C), and low level (like Assembly Language). There are also breaks it down into procedural / functional programming, object oriented programming, and so forth. Programming can be classified as follows [Rechenberg]: 1. Procedure-oriented (procedural oriented) 2. Oriented functions (functional oriented) 3. Oriented logic (logic oriented) 4. Object oriented (object oriented) Each has its own advantages. Sometimes in building an application programming method is required combination. For example in C + + and Java (object oriented programming language), we can still find the techniques-oriented programming procedures in each method / function in the member objects.
A programming language originally only be used in a method. Pascal originally for procedural-oriented, Lisp for the functional-oriented, Smaltalk for object-oriented and others. Along with the development of information and computer technology, tens and even hundreds of new programming language was born. Each has unique and specific advantages. There are specific to a particular type of computer, some are specific to a particular programming paradigm.
Selection of the first programming language is a complicated issue. For the first programming language affects the way programmers think in the future. Pascal programmers with a first language will be easier to switch to a programming language that has the same paradigm, which is oriented procedures such as C, Modula, Oberon. But the programmers are difficult to move into programming language with the other paradigms such as CLOS and Scheme, namely Lisp programming language family. In addition, after determining the paradigm, the next problem that arises is selecting the most dominant programming languages in this paradigm. For example, for function-oriented paradigm is most appropriate taught to beginners, whether or Scheme or EmacsLisp CLOS. The second problem is related to, the ease in learning, programming language dialects in the family, or even market trends.

Subnetting

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Wed, 09 Mar 2011 18:56:00 +0000

ALGORITHM IN THE FIELD OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Wed, 09 Mar 2011 08:20:00 +0000

INTRODUCTION
Today, computers are used in almost all areas of human life, ranging from education, business, up to the game. Speaking of the computer can not be separated from computer programming. This is because the computer is basically a machine that can not be anything. We must give a series of instructions to the computer for the machine to 'smart' is to solve a problem. The steps that need to be done in giving instructions to the computer to solve this problem called computer programming. The computer programming steps are as follows: define the problem, determine a solution, choose the algorithm, write programs, test programs, write documentation, and care programs. Before creating the program, should we make the Flow Chart or Pseudocode, making it easier for us to understand the algorithm and enable us in making the program. The program should also be clearly written, real, and complete. B. Problem Formulation 1. What is an algorithm? 2. What is the function of the algorithm? 3. How criteria algorithm in the computer field? C. The purpose of Writing Papers 1. To find understanding algorithms. 2. Knowing the benefits of the algorithm. 3. Knowing the criteria in the field of computer algorithms.
DISCUSSION A. Understanding Algorithm The algorithm is a proper procedure to solve the problem using computer assistance and the use of a particular programming language such as Pascal, Visual Basic, Java, and many more languages lain.Pranata (2002:8) in everyday life, we actually also uses algorithms to implement something. For example, when we write a letter, then we need to perform several steps as follows: 1. Prepare paper and envelopes. 2. Prepare stationery, such as a pen or pencil. 3. Start writing. 4. Insert the paper into the envelope. 5. Go to the post office to post the letter. B. Function Algorithm With the algorithm, we can solve problems from simple to complex ones. However, a user must be able to create a program using a language understood by computers. Before serving in the form of programming language, we should make a flow chart (Flow Chart) and Pseudocode. This is intended to facilitate the employment or facilitate in making the program. In addition, the algorithm can overcome the problem of logic and math problems with sequential manner, but sometimes not always sequential algorithm, this is known as the branching process. C. Criteria Algorithm Program in Computer Field In essence, computers are digital machines, meaning that computers can only recognize the condition of electrical currents (usually denoted by 1) and no electric current (usually denoted by 0). In other words, we must use password-0 and 1 for computer programming. The programming language that uses a password 0 and 1 are called machine language. Because machine language is very difficult, the idea appears to represent a string of code 0 and 1 with the abbreviation word that is more easily understood by ordinary people called mnemonic code. The programming language that uses the word acronym is called assembly language. Algorithm program must complete, real, and obvious. Although the assignment algorithm does not produce a solution, but the process must end this thing called a semi-algorithm (the procedure will go on or commonly referred to as looping). The point is we should not add to the problem, but we must be able to resolve the problem to get the right result. As examples of such algorithms in the area of a circle from the input of the radius of the circle. The formula for the circle is L =? * R * R The following are examples of algorithms to calculate the area of a circle: 1. Enter R 2. Pi? 3,14 3. L? Pi * R * R 4. Write L Notice the sign? on the second row and third. This sign means that the value of the right given to the operand on the left. For example, for the second row, the value of 3.14 given in the variable Pi. Next, the value of Pi * R * R given to the variable L. The last line writes the wide circle. As stated above, that there are algorithms that are not sequential and commonly called by repetition. The example is in calculating the average of a set of data entered by the user. Here is the algorithm to calculate the average data entered by the user: 1. Enter N 2. i? 1 3. j? 0 4. As long as (i <= N) do row 4 to 7 5. Enter dt 6. i? i +1 7. j? j + dt 8. Average? J / N 9. Write average The first line asks the user to enter N, the amount of data. On the second line, the variable I, which is useful as a counter the number of data already entered pegguna, worth 1. On the third line, the variable j, which is used to store the sum of the data, given the value 0. The fourth line gives the command to repeat the fourth line until the seventh row during the first less than equal to N. In other words, setelahi larger than N, the line kedelapanyang executed. Fifth row of data entered into the request-i. Sixth row to add the variable I by 1. Consider the meaning of the command i? I +1 is the value of i plus 1, then the results are stored in the variable i again. Seventh row j by adding variable data entered by the user. As explained above, the variable j is used to store the sum of all data, so for each input data, the value of variable j must be added to the second. Eighth row to calculate the average by dividing the sum by the number of data. The last line writes the average. But many experienced programmers who have never written the algorithm in the paper again .. It means he wrote the algorithm in daalam head.
CLOSING A. Knot Based on the above description, it can be concluded: 1. The algorithm is a proper procedure to solve the problem using computer assistance and the use of a programming language. 2. The function of the algorithm is to facilitate the work or help us in making the program or commonly called as Problem Solving. In addition, the algorithm can overcome the problem of logic and math problems 3. Criteria for the program must complete algorithm, real, and obvious. Although the assignment algorithm does not produce a solution, but the process must end this thing called a semi-algorithm (the procedure will go on or commonly referred to as looping). The point is we should not add to the problem, but we must be able to resolve the problem to get the right result. B. Suggestion Based on the conclusions above, it is recommended to: 1. The programmer can use the algorithms to solve the problem using computer assistance. 2. The programmer can use the algorithm as Problem Solving in a matter of logic and math problems. 3. The programmer must write a program algorithm with a clear, tangible, and complete.

Privacy Policy

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Sat, 12 Feb 2011 13:04:00 +0000

Privacy Policy for http://allaboutproblem.blogspot.com/

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HOW TO UPGRADE YOUR VGA CARD ?

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Tue, 08 Feb 2011 18:50:00 +0000

Our current crop of popular PC games has shown us that the video card has now become the most important component in a gaming system. The CPU and the video card used to be of equal importance in the past, but games have become increasingly dependent on video cards as developers have been cranking up the graphics levels.

In recent games like Call of Duty 2, F.E.A.R., and Quake 4, a strong video card improves game performance and image quality much more than a strong CPU does. Newer games also default down to uglier graphics if the game detects an older card. And some games remove support for older cards altogether. When a highly anticipated game like Battlefield 2 no longer supports GeForce 4 level or older cards, it's time to consider starting on that long-overdue upgrade.

Do I have PCI Express or AGP?

Before you run off to buy that graphics upgrade, you have to find out if your current system will be able to handle a new video card. Video card requirements have changed over the years, and older PC systems might not have the necessary hardware to be compatible with the latest video cards.

Take a look at your system motherboard to see if it has an AGP or PCI Express card slot (it will be the topmost expansion slot on the motherboard--your monitor should be connected to the card currently sitting there). Older systems have AGP card slots, but more recent systems (made in the past two years) have PCI Express card slots.

If your system has a PCI Express slot, you're in luck. All the latest video cards use the PCI Express form factor. Your upgrade options will be much more limited if you find an AGP slot staring back at you. All the best cards come out in PCI Express first, followed months later by scaled-back AGP versions, if they're made at all. Consider upgrading to a PCI Express motherboard if you want to get the most powerful video card options. If your system is more than 5 years old, you might have an ancient PCI slot for graphics. In this case, the best thing to do would be to put that Pentium II out to pasture and upgrade to a completely new system.

Note that newer systems might also have two PCI Express slots for dual video card configurations. However, for the purpose of this guide we're going to assume that you have an older system that doesn't have two video card slots, since anyone with an Nvidia SLI or ATI CrossFire system should be playing F.E.A.R. at 1600x1200 with all the settings maxed out instead of reading this guide.

While you're looking at the video card slot, check to see how much space is available beneath the card slot, as some video cards have extra-large cooling units that double the height of the card. If you only have room for a normal-sized card, consider moving the card located directly beneath the video card to a lower slot if possible. However, if that isn't possible, or if you have a small form factor system that only has room for a single-slot video card, then you'll have to make sure your new video card is a single-slotter.

How much power do I have?

After determining what kind of card slot and how much space you have for it, you'll need to find out the power rating on your system power supply. Today's performance video cards require lots of power, and some power supplies might not have the wattage to support a system loaded with extra drives, a fast processor, and a new power-hungry video card. If you're lucky, the power supply will have its maximum wattage listed on the back, visible from outside the case.

Otherwise you'll have to crack open the case and look for the rating sticker on the power supply. The bare-minimum wattage you're looking for is 350W, but you'll be able to get a more powerful card with a 400W or 450W power supply, and you'll need 500W or more for a dual-card setup. Check the power supply requirements printed on the outside of the video card box to make sure your system can support the card.

The hardest part about upgrading your video card is actually just figuring out what kind of card your system can handle. Check out our recent Call of Duty 2 and F.E.A.R. hardware performance guides to see how the current graphics cards compare.

Assuming you did your homework and picked a card that's compatible with your system, installing the card is very easy. First, switch off the system and unplug the computer. Use a Phillips-head screwdriver to open up your case and unscrew the video card. The video card might have a retention mechanism located at the base of the slot, and you should be able to jiggle it open and slide out the card without a problem. Next, plug in your new video card and replace the screw to secure the card in place.

If you have a power-hungry card, you'll need to plug an auxiliary power source into the board, usually one or two 4-pin hard drive power connectors or a 6-pin PCI Express power connector. Video card manufacturers will often package a power splitter or a dual 4-pin to 6-pin adapter with the card in case your system doesn't have enough free power connectors, but you can order the cables online for less than $5 in case you get a bare-bones card bundle.

Replace the case cover, attach the monitor, plug in the power cable, and fire the system up.

Subnetting

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Sun, 06 Feb 2011 18:50:00 +0000

If an owner of a class B IP address such as requiring more than one network ID then it must apply with Internic to get a new IP address. However, very limited supply of IP addresses because a lot of proliferation of sites on the Internet. To overcome this timbulah a technique to reproduce the network ID of an existing network. This is called subnetting, where most of the host ID sacrificed for use in making additional network ID. For instance, for example in the class B network ID 130.200.0.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.224.0 where the third octet diselubung with 224. then can be calculated with the formula 256-224 = 32. then the group of subnets that can be used is a multiple of 32, 64, 128, 160, and 192. Thus groups of IP addresses that can be used are: 130.200.32.1 through 130.200.63.254 130.200.64.1 through 130.200.95.254 130.200.96.1 up to 130 200 127 254 130.200.128.1 through 130 200 159 254 130.200.160.1 through 130 200 191 254 130.200.192.1 through 130 200 223 254 Or would be easier with a good formula to determine subnet and host number persubnet.Jumlah subnet = 2n-2, n = number of bits hidden The number of hosts persubnet = 2N-2, N = number of bits is not veiled For example, such a subnet has a network address with a subnet mask of 193.20.32.0 255 255 255 224. Then: The number of subnets is 6, because of network address 193.20.32.0 by considering the number of the first octet is 193, then it can be in the know are in class C. with regard Subnet 255 255 255 224 or 11111111.11111111.11111111. 11100000 can be seen that three-bit host ID diselubung, in order to get n = 3 and obtained: the number of subnets = 23-2 = 6. As for the number of hosts persubnet is 30, is obtainable from 5 bits that are not hidden, then N = 5 and will be obtained: the number of hosts per subnet = 25-2 = 30. Bit is a bit shrouded in represented by number 1, while bits are the bits that are not shrouded in representing the number 0.

APIPA 169 254 and Reset Router

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Wed, 19 Jan 2011 23:08:00 +0000

Windows XP again! Due to network problems on a desktop and two notebook computers, I enjoy the weekend with Windows XP. Not a question easily: no / etc / init.d / networking or / etc / network / interfaces there. I get a bonus: each finished changing a configuration and save it, I had time to chat, because the computer must be restarted. On desktop computers, network module failed to call DHCP and IP address set to 169.254.xy (the last two sections can vary.) Because it is connected to the router and the router is running DHCP request is successful, I suspect the DHCP client module problematic. Coupled with an active Internet Explorer itself every user login, I suspect leads to spyware. By comparing the practicality of repair desktop computers, I decided to do reinstall Windows XP. It's up to what the cause, the important computer owners can immediately use the machine to access the Internet. Opportunity also to immediately pair Mozilla Firefox and give an explanation to them for moving tools. It turns out the more troublesome issue come the next day. DHCP client on the two notebooks failed to get an IP address, and only have an allotted number of legendary 169 254! I run the free utility Ad-Aware and it appeared a few tens of files that are positively marked troubled by the Ad-Aware. This reminds me of a similar activity in the month of October and I was intrigued to actually fix a crippled network module only. As far as possible not to reinstall! My search results through Google about 169,254 IP addresses generate an explanation that the number is given if the computer is connected to a hub and there is no Internet connection, The computers are connected to a hub, and there is no Internet connection. In this configuration, the computers are assigned IP addresses Generally in the range of 169.254.xy, WHERE x and y are numbers between 1 and 254. - How to troubleshoot home networking in Windows XP, Microsoft Help and Support 169.254.xy IP address is provided by the IANA for Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). Thereby avoiding possible conflicts of IP addresses. The problem: the Internet connection is clearly there and the existing DHCP server on the router worked fine. I check the table in the router's DHCP service request, even empty. Means the server does not accept requests from clients. Because I am sure that the DHCP server is working fine, I strongly suspected the problem of failure to get an IP address automatically is in notebooks - more precisely in Windows XP that run there. With the simple assumption that there are problems with the network module in Windows XP, I tried to fix with WinSockFix, let alone discussed the possibility of Internet connection failed because of wrong or deleted entries in the registry. There are no results as well. While looking for another solution, I set both the notebook with a static IP address, so the wearer can still work with an Internet connection. Indeed become less flexible, because it must be changed according to the rules used in the local network. While the wisdom for me: because the need to address DNS that is memorable for the purposes of this notebook repair, I finally put in the computer's DNS server GNU / Linux. I select from DJ Bernstein's djbdns. In the early days of using GNU / Linux I chose qmail instead of sendmail, so not too familiar with "style" Bernstein. Dnsmasq which has been my life - and only forward DNS requests to the ISP's DNS server - removed. I accidentally found an article written in the Help with Windows, because the exact same title used by the message that appears in one notebook, "Limited or no connectivity" Network Error. The solution is simple: you should reset the router! It's really ridiculous to me that you are sure there is no problem with the router. But the absurdity of it seems to still be forgiven: the author of the article is not to explain that this issue only appears in the notebook and there's no any disturbances on the computer desktop. Just like what I experienced: the computer desktop that is requesting service from the routers DHCP fine.

Some variants of Linux

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Sun, 09 Jan 2011 18:52:00 +0000

Red Hat Is a distribution that is very popular both in Indonesia and the world. Established since 1994, Red Hat distributions are widely used throughout the world. For business users, Red Hat is known with its services mainly RedHat Network. RedHat itself currently in the business has started to show profit prospects, especially from business services and not from the sale of its distribution. With the convenience features that have made Red Hat could replace the windows. On the other hand, many computer users are reluctant to leave the windows one hundred percent. Smart solution for this case is to use two operating systems at once, windows and linux. But not easy (at least it's a natural writer some time ago) to install linux as well with the sweetness of windows that have been occupying space on your hard drive. The most common problem occurs in the distribution of the partition. While many software divider partition Partition Magic-say-that popular, but the author felt the need to write this tutorial, as a guide for those who want to switch to linux.
Mandrake Mandrake is a new company launched its first distribution in July 1998. Mandrake package was developed based on Red Hat distributions but with a brilliant improvement especially in terms of ease of installation in graphical form.
SuSE SuSE is a distro that comes from Germany which is also popular because of the ease and completeness of the facility and its application primarily for the desktop. Distributions which is the best selling distros in Germany and Europe is known by ulitity Yast is very easy to configure Linux.SuSE LINUX 9.2 Live CD is a single evaluation version of SuSE Linux 9.2 is substituted using the GNOME graphical user interface. This is a live cd distro and berkalan booting from the CDROM drive that does not require installation to the hard drive to use it. if we want to save the files we work we can save a floppy or USB to save the file version of the live cd is perfect for mobile users that can be brought anywhere and can be used for browsing our working documents, dilkengkapi well with graphical applications, multimedia, home network and develop the user application. that its inside there are: Internet Browser / File Manager Personal Information Manager (PIM) Chat programs for use with MSN, AIM, IRC, ICQ, Yahoo Music and Video player, Burning tools for CD and DVD Plug-and-Play connectivity for Digital Cameras Photo Management and Image Processing Integrated Firewall Secure Fast and easy Internet connectivity VNC Desktop Sharing, Network Configurator (IP config from the X-desktop), Audacity (Sound Editor), K3b (burning Applications CD / DVD), XChm 1.0 (CHM Viewer Debian GNU / Linux Debian GNU / Linux is a distro that is really non-commercial and is an ideal illustration of the spirit of free-software movement. Developed by hundreds of volunteers from around the world in the form of a well-managed projects and produce distribution known as Debian. One of the other strengths of the Debian package management system is unique and neat software which is supported by the collection complete package. Management system software packages are available already allows users in terms of software installation. Because of this strength, has made many people who develop Debian derivative distributions that may be better known and easier to use, such as Knoppix, Ubuntu, Simply Mepis, and Xandros, Debian this is one distro that still adhere to the commitment not to confuse open source commercial aspects in its distribution by road to sell his for a price.

Slackware Linux Slackwhare is one of the oldest distro linux environment that still exist and are popular till now .. Slack known kesederhanannya and security, the package only comes with the features and applications that needed it. Do not expect any graphical interface here, all the text so it is not suitable for beginners. Version 10 is considered complete include Linux kernel 2.4.26, GCC 3.3.4, Mozilla 1.7, X11R6.7.0 from X. Org, GNOME 2.6.1, and KDE 3.2.3. Since the beginning, distributions made by Patrick J. Volkerding is famous for its users a stable and secure, both for UNIX veterans as well as beginners Slackware uses the 2.4.31 kernel `kernel with advanced performance features such as the ReiserFS journaling filesystem, SCSI and ATA RAID volume support, SATA support, and kernel support for X DRI ( the Direct Rendering Interface) that provides high-speed hardware accelerated 3D graphics to Linux. Unless it included additional kernels to be able to install Slackware using any type of `` journaling filesystems available for Linux, including ext3, ReiserFS, IBM `s JFS, and SGI XFS` s.
Caldera OpenLinux Caldera OpenLinux known distro ever quite popular, especially for desktop use. KNOPPIX One of the popular distro now is KNOPPIX. Privileges Knoppix is a distro that uses the CDROM as a live CD, that is, we do not need to install the software into your Hard Disk. Insert the CD into the drive Intel PC, then boot and run an active system featuring KDE as window manager. Knoppix can detect the hardware is excellent, both USB, Graphic Device, or other equipment that is usually difficult to detect by other Linux distributions. When using the CDROM, then the question that arises is: "What about file system? Is Read Only? Knoppix uses a filesystem called UnionFS, this file system intelligently and transparently write files on the ramdisk. Number of requests lately to Inixindo, in the near future workshops will be held 1 day use of Knoppix, tips & tricks, and things to consider in using the Knoppix. For more information contact the sales team Inixindo. Kate OS Live CD (kate-lv) Kate OS is a live cd distro that shaped light but have features that can be used for daily needs and offices, schools, multimedia and desktop display features an attractive add tesendiri. Please click here to see further documentation.
Clark Connect (cl-con) ClarkConnect core packages are now built using the source code (SRPMS) from # A43AD2 Hat Enterprise Linux 4 (RHEL 4) with a few exceptions such as: * Inplementasi udev (see: RHEL 4 Release Notes) is a beautiful feature for the desktop but is not considered important for a server system. * MySQL package was split into two groups of RPMS is: mysql and mysql-client. * Features of the Apache web server distcache off (disabled). * Various patches for PPTP, firewall and peer-to-peer added in the kernel. * Added support for kernel Legacy Megaraid temporarily removed some older drivers.
Xnuxer live CD (xnux-lv) Xnuxer is a distribution developed by Daniel Firman Syah. Xnuxer live version 1.0 build berbasisikan Linux distro knoppix. Distro compact in 1 CD package is a general application package needed to offices and entertainment including: - OpenOffice 1.9.113 (2.0 beta), - Firefox 1.0.6 + flash player, - Acrobat Reader 7.0. - Real Player 10, - Gaim 1.3.1 (Internet Messenger) - Gimp 2.2 (Programs like Adobe Photoshop).
Ubuntu Ubuntu is a Linux desktop operating system from Canonical Ltd.. a fairly complete and available for free. One of the Ubuntu manifesto is a software should be available free of charge, can be used by people with local language support, as well as of course easy dicustomised wants and needs of the user. Ubuntu name is taken from an ancient African language (from the Nguni language group) which means "Humanity for others, caring and harmony" (humanity to others, caring and harmony. Ubuntu offspring born to the family as if Debian will be present to answer the challenge and eliminate the impression Debian Linux distribution that is most difficult for new users of Linux, especially at this stage of the installation and initial configuration. Installing Ubuntu Linux is still maintaining a text-based installation is not a command line and not as good as when we install other distributions like SuSE, Xandros or Fedora Core. To learn more about Ubuntu Linux installation process, visit the site www.linuxbeta.com. A unique feature of Debian is the use of APT (Advanced Packaging Tool) is useful to update the operating system, both security as well as versions of its programs. Use of APT is further facilitated in the Ubuntu distribution through its application Synaptic quite easy to understand. Synaptic can be easily accessed via the menu "Computer" at the top, then select "System Configuration". Software and applications available by default on Ubuntu Linux include: Evolution, Firefox, Gaim, GnomeMeeting, Xchat, gFTP as Internet applications, software games, software for image manipulation such as Gimp, Image Viewer and XSane Image Scanning and supported by multimedia software such as CD Player, Music Player, Sound Juicer CD Ripper, Sound Recorder and Totem Movie Player, which will pamper you, and OpenOffice for your application documents. Especially for administration that requires superuser level, preferring Ubuntu use sudo, as we often encounter in the operating system OS X. Unlike Linux distributions in general are more feature KDE as desktop manager of his choice, Ubuntu chose Gnome use the latest Gnome 2.8 with a new look at the feature better battery monitoring, network monitoring systems, themes and file manager that is more refined. Disadvantages of the most widely expressed Ubuntu is the distribution and determination of the partition during the install process, not an opportunity to choose which program packages will be installed at initial installation process, and the unavailability of a VPN wizard (a guide to configure the VPN to the Gnome desktop).

Wi-Fi

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Sat, 08 Jan 2011 18:45:00 +0000

Wi-Fi (or Wi-fi, WiFi, Wifi, wifi) is short for "Wireless Fidelity", a notion which is a set standard used for Wireless Local Networks (Wireless Local Area Networks - WLANs) based on IEEE 802.11 specification. The latest standards of specifications 802.11a or b, such as 802.16 g, is currently in preparation, the latest specification will offer many improvements ranging from more extensive coverage to the transfer speed. Wi-Fi originally intended for the use of wireless devices and the Local Network (LAN), but now more widely used to access the Internet. This allows anyone with a computer with a wireless card (wireless card) or personal digital assistant (PDA) to connect to the Internet by using an access point (or known as hotspots) nearby. Specification Wi-Fi was designed based on the IEEE 802.11 specification. Today there are four variations of 802.11, as follows: 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n. Specifications b is the first Wi-Fi products. The variation of g and n is one product that has the most sales in 2005. Specifications Wi-Fi Specifications Speed Frequency Band Match with 802.11b 11 Mb / s 2.4 GHz b 802.11a 54 Mb / s 5 GHz a 802.11g 54 Mb / s 2.4 GHz b, g 802.11n 100 Mb / s 2.4 GHz b, g, n
In many parts of the world, the frequencies used by Wi-Fi, users are not required to obtain permission from local regulators (eg, Federal Communications Commission in the U.S.). 802.11a uses a higher frequency and therefore narrower jangkaunya power, others the same. Wi-Fi version of the most extensive in the U.S. market today (based in IEEE 802.11b / g) operates at 2400 MHz to 2483.50 MHz. With so allows operation in 11 channels (each 5 MHz), centered on the following frequencies:
• Channel 1 to 2.412 MHz; • Channel 2 to 2.417 MHz; • Channel 3 to 2.422 MHz; • Channel 4 to 2.427 MHz; • Channel 5 to 2.432 MHz; • Channel 6 to 2.437 MHz; • Channel 7 to 2.442 MHz; • Channel 8 to 2.447 MHz; • Channel 9 to 2.452 MHz; • Channel 10 to 2.457 MHz; • Channel 11 to 2.462 MHz Operational Technically, Wi-Fi is one variant of communications and information technology that works on the network and device WLANs (wireless local area network). In other words, the Wi-Fi is the trade name (certification) provided to manufacturers of telecommunications equipment (Internet) working in WLANs and network interoperability already meet the required quality. Technology-based Wi-Fi Internet created and developed a group of U.S. engineers who worked at the Institute of Electrical and Electronis Engineers (IEEE) technical standards-based numbered devices 802.11b, 802.11a and 802.16. Wi-Fi devices are not only able to work on WLAN networks, but also on network Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN). Because the device with the technical standard 802.11b WLAN devices intended for use in the 2.4 GHz frequency or frequencies, commonly called ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical). As for the technical standards 802.11a and 802.16 WMAN or destined for the device is also called Wi-Max, who works in the vicinity of 5 GHz frequency band. High public interest - particularly among the Internet community - using Wi-Fi technology because at least two factors. First, the ease of access. This means that users in one area can access the Internet simultaneously without having to be bothered with cables. Consequently, users who want to do surfing or browsing news and information on the Internet, simply bring the PDA (pocket digital assistance) or Wi-Fi enabled laptop into a place where there is access point or hotspot. The proliferation of hotspots in places such - which was built by the telecom operators, Internet service providers and even individual people - triggered the second factor, namely because construction costs are relatively cheap or only around 300 dollars U.S.. Increasing the quantity of Internet users based Wi-Fi technology is increasingly implicated in various parts of the world, has encouraged Internet service providers (ISPs) to build hotspots in major cities of the world. Some observers have even predicted in 2006, there will be 800,000 hotspots in the countries of Europe, 530,000 in the United States and one million in countries in Asia. The overall amount of income derived by the United States and European countries of technology-based Internet business Wi-Fi until the end of 2003 was estimated at 5.4 trillion U.S. dollars, an increase of 33 billion U.S. dollars from the year 2002 (www.analysys.com). Plague In Indonesia alone, the use of Internet-based Wi-Fi already implicated in several major cities. In Jakarta, for example, the maniacs who are surfing the Internet while waiting for the plane took off at the airport waiting room, was not an alien. The same phenomenon seen in many cafes - like Starbuck's Café and La Moda Cafe in Plaza Indonesia, the Coffee Club Senayan, and Mister Bean Coffee Cafe at Cilandak Town Square - where the visitor can open the Internet to look at political news or the latest gossip while sipping a cappuccino artist heat. Today, business telephone-based VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) has also been using Wi-Fi technology, where calls are forwarded through the WLAN network. The application is named VoWi-FI (Voice over Wi-Fi). Some time ago, the latest technical standards created by the IEEE has been able to support the operation of a streaming video service. Even the predictable, the future can be made cards (card)-based Wi-Fi technology that can be inserted into electronic equipment, ranging from digital cameras to video game consoles (ITU News 8 / 2003). Based on the above explanation, it can be concluded that the quantity of business and technology, Wi-Fi users tend to increase, and economically it has a positive impact on the national economy of a country, including Indonesia. Nevertheless, the government should address the phenomenon wisely and carefully. The reason is, technologically frequency bands - both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz - which became operational container technology, Wi-Fi is not free of limitations (Kompas, 2/5/2004). Because the users in a new area can take advantage of wireless Internet system is optimally, when all the devices used in the area using a uniform transmit power and limited. If the preconditions are not honored, you can bet will happen is not only harmful interference between devices of Internet users, but also with other telecommunications systems devices. If interference continues - because users want more superior than other users, and therefore lack of understanding of the limitations of the technology - in the end will make the path a frequency of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz could not be used optimally. Another limitation of this second wireless frequency bands (particularly 2.4 GHz) is due also used for ISM (industrial, science and medical). Consequently, the use of radio communications or other telecommunication device that works in the frequency band it should be ready to accept interference from ISM devices, as stated in S5.150 of the Radio Regulations. In the recommendation ITU-R SM.1056, also informed the device characteristics of the ISM which basically aims to prevent occurrence of interference, both between devices with the ISM as well as telecommunications equipment sharing. The same recommendation affirms that every member of the ITU-free establish administrative requirements and rules of law relating to mandatory power restrictions. Recognizing the limitations and the impact that may arise from the use of both of the wireless frequency bands, various countries and impose regulations that limit the transmission power of the devices used. More to know about Wi-Fi Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a wireless connection such as mobile phones using radio technology so that users can transfer data quickly and securely. Wi-Fi not only allows you to access the Internet, Wi-Fi can also be used to create wireless networks in the enterprise. Because of that many people associate with Wi-Fi "Freedom" because Wi-Fi technology gives freedom to users to access the Internet or transferring data from the meeting room, hotel rooms, campus, and cafes are marked "Wi-Fi Hot Spot." Also one of the advantages of Wi-Fi is a speed several times faster than the fastest cable modem. So Wi-Fi users no longer have to be in office space to work. But Wi-Fi can only be accessed by computer, laptop, PDA or Cellphone that has been configured with Wi-Fi certified radio. For laptops, the user can install a Wi-Fi PC Cards in PCMCIA card-shaped slot that has been available. For PDA, the user can install the Compact Flash format Wi-Fi radio in the slots you have available. For users who are computer or PDA - it uses Windows XP, simply by putting the card into an available slot, Windows XP will automatically detect the area around you and look for Wi-Fi network that is closest to you. It is very easy to find signs of whether the device has a Wi-Fi facility, that is by looking at Wi-Fi CERTIFIED logo on the packaging. Although Wi-Fi can be accessed only place marked with "Wi-Fi hotspot", the number of public places that offer "Wi Fi Hotspot" increased dramatically. This is due to maketh their place as "Wi-Fi Hotspot" means their customers can access the Internet, which means giving added value to our customers. Wi-Fi service offered by each of the "Hots Spot" also varied, some offering free access as well as in airport executive lounges, some require users to become subscribers of an ISP that offers free Wi-Fi and there is also a offer pre-paid card. Whatever your choice for how to access Wi-Fi, the most important is the presence of Wi-Fi, you can work anywhere and at anytime until you do not need to be always locked in your workspace to complete each task.

Wireless Technology
Pioneered the development of wireless Internet access in Bogor, PT Bonet Utama provide its Internet connection via VSAT (Very Small Apateur Terminal) to the World Wide Web. This is to provide options for users of the Internet to send emails and download data that does not depend on dial-up telecommunications infrastructure. Wireless computer networking technology to access the Internet may be regarded as starting from ITB campus in Bandung, which at that time led by Dr. Onno W. Purbo CNRG with his team, where they assemble a simple PC computer equipped with an additional FreeBSD WaveLAN PCMCIA cards and ethernet cards, assisted with an outdoor antenna so it can reach far enough distance connections.
Subterfuge which is the result of pure creativity is to this day still used by many cafes and medium enterprises, although the name WaveLAN PCMCIA card that was already deceased, his company was bought by Lucent, for then changed the name of its product into the Orinoco from Avaya, its subsidiary Lucent. So, are encouraged to not mention the wireless technology known as WaveLAN, because of its connotation is wrong and can laugh at people who study this technology, simply called WLAN or Wireless-LAN. The technology used by his group CNRG at that time actually using one of the IEEE standard, which is a collection of engineers from around the world (rather than American), which spawned the 802.11 standard that is standard with network communication without using a cable and use the 2.4 GHz frequency. At that time, experiments conducted using WaveLAN cards can only move data at 2Mbps, being present, the standard that is widely used is 802.11b that can move data up to 11Mbps, and next year will likely be replaced or shifted to the 802.11g standard that can be move data up to 50Mbps!.
Use 802.11 or 802.11b standard, designed for use indoors (indoor) is actually very inefficient and can mutually interfere with each other, as most 802.11 systems are always looking for his colleagues who are also 'on water', thus slowing the performance of access what we want. Imposition of this technology is based on cheap and affordable price factor, because the standard 802.11 and 802.11b is the common standard for communication in the room, so many companies in Taiwan that make it, make it affordable, around USD 75 to USD 125 per unit basis.
Problems that often occur in the field, namely the pemasangnya limited knowledge, so that the device is really only used indoors, and if enforced could only work at a distance of about 6 km of this, forced again to be able to communicate up to tens of kilometers with the help of the amplifier. This causes kisruhnya use 2.4 GHz which is in the United States is a frequency that is free to use without needing to register or notify the authorities.

To use 2.4 GHz in the outdoors, we must use the device that follow the 802.16 standard, namely IEEE standard for Wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), so it is not imposing 802.11 and 802.11b.

This problem is actually very dependent on the budget and the purchasing power of the user community, where economic crisis and stagnation in the business world, leading IT players really have to tighten the belt plate, using a device that seirit-efficient as possible.
Unfortunately, the 802.16 standard, has not been 'cooked', so not many companies that follow these standards, and most importantly, its economic scale is still high and the price is certainly still beyond the company's lower-middle.
2.4 GHz technology development is very fast at all, let alone supported by the industry in Taiwan who are ready to make this product as a mass product with a selling price that every day more and more cheap and more powerful.
In the early 2000s ago, there are several Taiwanese and Japanese companies that make a breakthrough, namely by making what is often referred to as Wireless in The Box, which is the 'creation' Onno and his friends are packed in a smaller form , without using a computer.
Wireless In The Box (WITB) contains a PCMCIA card installed in an electronic board that is designed in such a way that can move data from the radio is on a PCMCIA to ethernet channel. So, there are two connections on the WITB, a connection to an external antenna, a connection standard RJ-45 Ethernet, and two other standard serial connection for initial setup, and power connections to the 9 volt adapter. WITB connected to a switch or hub in a local network, and then by using the software that comes on these units, we can set various parameters, such as setting the IP address, the client and access point, and other settings is the completeness of the use WITB. The technology used by his group CNRG at that time actually using one of the IEEE standard, which is a collection of engineers from around the world (rather than American), which spawned the 802.11 standard that is standard with network communication without using a cable and use the 2.4 GHz frequency. At that time, experiments conducted using WaveLAN cards can only move data at 2Mbps, being present, the standard that is widely used is 802.11b that can move data up to 11Mbps, and next year will likely be replaced or shifted to the 802.11g standard that can be move data up to 50Mbps!.
Use 802.11 or 802.11b standard, designed for use indoors (indoor) is actually very inefficient and can mutually interfere with each other, as most 802.11 systems are always looking for his colleagues who are also 'on water', thus slowing the performance of access what we want. Imposition of this technology is based on cheap and affordable price factor, because the standard 802.11 and 802.11b is the common standard for communication in the room, so many companies in Taiwan that make it, make it affordable, around USD 75 to USD 125 per unit basis.

Problems that often occur in the field, namely the pemasangnya limited knowledge, so that the device is really only used indoors, and if enforced could only work at a distance of about 6 km of this, forced again to be able to communicate up to tens of kilometers with the help of the amplifier. This causes kisruhnya use 2.4 GHz which is in the United States is a frequency that is free to use without needing to register or notify the authorities.
To use 2.4 GHz in the outdoors, we must use the device that follow the 802.16 standard, namely IEEE standard for Wireless MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), so it is not imposing 802.11 and 802.11b.
This problem is actually very dependent on the budget and the purchasing power of the user community, where economic crisis and stagnation in the business world, leading IT players really have to tighten the belt plate, using a device that seirit-efficient as possible.
Unfortunately, the 802.16 standard, has not been 'cooked', so not many companies that follow these standards, and most importantly, its economic scale is still high and the price is certainly still beyond the company's lower-middle.
2.4 GHz technology development is very fast at all, let alone supported by the industry in Taiwan who are ready to make this product as a mass product with a selling price that every day more and more cheap and more powerful.
In the early 2000s ago, there are several Taiwanese and Japanese companies that make a breakthrough, namely by making what is often referred to as Wireless in The Box, which is the 'creation' Onno and his friends are packed in a smaller form , without using a computer.
Wireless In The Box (WITB) contains a PCMCIA card installed in an electronic board that is designed in such a way that can move data from the radio is on a PCMCIA to ethernet channel. So, there are two connections on the WITB, a connection to an external antenna, a connection standard RJ-45 Ethernet, and two other standard serial connection for initial setup, and power connections to the 9 volt adapter. WITB connected to a switch or hub in a local network, and then by using the software that comes on these units, we can set various parameters, such as setting the IP address, the client and access point, and other settings is the completeness of the use WITB. If it takes a long distance to connect two points, preferably using a device that is specifically for long distance and use the 2.4 GHz frequency instead.

Noise and interference
Noise that occurs, is caused by other devices that work at around 2.4 GHz, such as micro-wave oven, blue tooth devices, and others, because we know that the frequency of 2.4 GHz was originally used for industrial, scientific, and medical ( ISM band).
Interference caused by other 2.4GHz device users, who worked on the same line.
Regulations that will apply
Until now, the government through Postel has not made definite rules about the frequency of 2.4 GHz frequency which in America is free for use by various circles. The formulation of this rule is still thrown-throwing between the post and telecommunications and wireless user community, often called IndoWLI and gather all the mailing lists IndoWLI@yahoogroups.com
In the near future there will be rules that require wireless device users to pay taxes or registration fee based on the number of its base station.
All the constraints and issues surrounding the use and utilization of warm This wireless technology is still a problem that cross each other and there are some that can not be solved quickly, even if the users or potential users, is hoping very big on this technology.

IPv6: Internet Protocol Next Generation

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Mon, 09 Jun 2008 23:30:00 +0000

Internet and network development lately has been making the Internet Protocol (IP)-based networking is the backbone of TCP / IP is quickly becoming obsolete. If two decades ago, the IP is connecting millions of computers, then the current IP should be able to connect billions of computers. So far, Internet and network TCP / IP the other designed to support the use of such simple-distributed file transfer (ftp), electronic mail (e-mail), remote access (remote access) by using TELNET. But today, due to the explosion of popularity of the World Wide Web in recent years, the Internet has grown into multimedia. At the same time in the company's network has shifted from e-mail and use simple file transfers to the environment client / server complex. These developments have made exceeding the capacity of IP-based network to supply the necessary services and functions. An environment like the Internet requires support for data traffic in real-time and security functions. This need is very difficult to be fulfilled by the IP version 4, or often called IPv4. Development of IPv6, IP next generation, or IPng (IP next generation) - recommended in the IETF meeting in Toronto on July 25, 1994 - backed by a shortage of IP addresses that currently has a length of 32 bits, due to tissue growth explosion. IPv6 is a new version of IP which is the development of IPv4. IP address shortage IP address is a row along the 32-bit binary numbers, which are used to identify hosts on the network. IP addresses are given uniquely to each computer / host which is connected to the internet. Packet that carries data, loaded the IP address of the sender's computer data, and IP address of the destination computer, then the data is sent to the network. Packet is then sent from router to router based on the IP address, go to the computer. All host / computer that is connected to the Internet, differentiated only by IP addresses, so it is clear that there can be duplication. So IP addresses are distributed by several organizations that have authority over the distribution of IP addresses, such as the Inter-NIC (Network Information Center). At first, with 32-bit address is deemed sufficient to be shared on the host. But with the tremendous growth of the Internet in recent years, there are fears this will end IP address, due to exceptional demand. During this inter-NIC provides the IP address by using the concept of class. That is, throughout the 32-bit IP address is divided into 2, namely the network and the host, the Inter-NIC only manage the network only. In other words, when given an IP address in an organization, the Inter-NIC only give part of its network only, while the rest, giving the IP address on each host submitted on the organization. In IPv4 there are 3 types of classes, depending on the size of the host, namely class A (all 24-bit host part, the IP address can be given to host 16.7 million), class B (all 16-bit host part host = 65 534) and class C (host part all 8 bits = 254 hosts). Network administrator to apply for the class type scale based on a network that dikelolanya.Konsep this class have the advantage of: the management of information routes do not require all 32 bits, but quite simply the network only, so large that the route information stored in the router, becomes small. Concept Classes Once the network address is obtained, then the organization can freely give the address of the host on each host. But surely not all addresses obtained can be used. In fact many unused. For example, organizations that are connected to the internet with a number of hosts as many as 1,000 pieces, because the number of that host more than 256, then selects the class B. Consequently only a small proportion than 65536 addresses acquired is used. Meanwhile, the remaining addresses can not be used by other organizations. As a result, the current shortage of IP addresses, particularly the class B. To overcome this, taken way, instead of giving a class, then given some smaller classes. For example in 1000 hosted the above case, instead of class B, class C is given by 4 units. Order to get the IP in a more efficient distribution. But instead, this has led to the emergence of another problem, namely swelling of routing information. Routing information Swelling Routers on the internet, serves to choose the appropriate route to send the packet, by referring to the IP address contained in the packet. For routers that must manage the network address of the host and the relationship with the interface in a routing table (routing table). In this routing table, each network address, given a single item. If the router is on the LAN, the routing information that must be managed is not too much. But the main Internet routers routing information that must be managed to be very much. Since each added a network on the Internet, the amount of data in tables is greatly increased as well. As mentioned above, if an organization has multiple address class C, then the same number of routing data to be managed. If organisani the class B, then only need 1 routing data only, consider that the organization has 4 class C, then the routing of data that must be managed as many as 4 pieces. As a result of this data and then a very long memory of the router. To reduce the amount of data routing, then introduced the concept of CIDR (Classless Routing InterDomain). This technology eliminates the concept of class, aiming for the provision of address space in an organization can be more flexible. For example, the organization that received 4 fruit class C, given the lower 10 bits of 32-bit address as the host address. So the network address that must be managed to be one that is part of a 22 bit remainder. By using this method, routing information can be greatly reduced. However, one can use the CIDR is only a continuous address space only. In addition, CIDR can only be applied to the new address given, whereas if you want to apply to the old address so the address must be given back (given a new address.) With CIDR, the swelling problem of routing information can be overcome, but because the Internet continues to grow rapidly, CIDR does not solve the problem fundamentally.
(1) With a unified, addresses in the routing table only to 1 only, but need additional new field about the length of bit parts network. Automation of various settings IPv4 Address on essentially static on the host. Usually given sequentially on the host. For example when using a computer note, if connected to a network, the IP address used is the IP address on the network. If connected to another network, the IP address must be set back to the IP address on the network. On a dialup connection, since the IP addresses keep changing it must be set back. It is currently above this can be done automatically by using DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol). However, it is actually not included in the specification of IPv4, an optional additional functions besifat. In fact, DHCP is only limited to the new OS, so that DHCP must be loaded individually. Therefore, it remains necessary to address a flexible delivery mechanism at the IP layer. Equal one characteristic of the Internet is the use of shared networks, especially backbone. Although the bandwidth (bandwidth) provider of 1.5 Mbps, and so did the routing of them, but not necessarily that we can always use all the bandwidth. If at that time there are other users who use that line, then the bandwidth can we use was reduced as much as that used by the user. In other words there is no guarantee of bandwidth that can be used at any given time. Despite using a large enough line to the provider, when it will send or receive voice or image, but can not be certain to take place smoothly before accomplished. Or in the extreme, when we do a TV conference in the LAN, all of a sudden there are other users who send huge data, then the picture and sound received / sent will falter. Therefore needed a new system that can meet the new usage. Security In order to use the Internet to expand into areas of business and many other fields, the function of security is one of the key. Consequences of the Internet as a public network, can not be denied the possibility of data seen during the trip. Or have prevented access that could damage, such as hackers or crackers. Function security can be realized in various layers. Although there has been a lot of security at the application layer such as for electronic mail, or WWW, still required the function of security at the network layer. In IPv4 itself does not have these security functions. Changes to IPv6 Then what has changed with this IPv6? The main improvement is on: the expansion of address space (IP address), simplifying the header of the packet, Plug & Play, Security function. Each of these improvements are intended to be responding to the growth of the Internet, increasing reliability, and ease of use. Address Expansion As explained above, such a rapid Internet growth in recent years has resulted in scarcity of IP addresses. The biggest change in IPv6 is the extension of the IP address of 32 bits in IPv4 to 128 bits. This is a 128 bit address space by eliminating the concept of the continuous class. It also made changes in the way of writing IP addresses. If the IPv4 32 bits divided into 8 bits each separated it with "." and write with a decimal number, for example, 150.7.7.250. So on IPv6, 128 bits are separated into 16 bits each, where each section is separated by ":" and written by hexadesimal.Contohnya, "4FE5: 2F21: 3512:77 BB: AF23: 3201:55 AA: 2F33". In addition, not only enlarge the address space, but also introduced multilevel structure, for routing management made easy. In CIDR (Classless InterDomain Routing) routing tables is reduced by combining into one routing information from an organization. In IPv4, not at all concerned with the relations between organizations and countries. Meanwhile, on IPv6, some organizations with the same provider, or have geographic ties, linked and mirrored on the routing. In other words, if several organizations are in a one provider at the time of the IP address attempted to address these could be in the same address space. For example there are two organizations on a provider, the two organizations close the distance when viewed from the network. So in giving the address, aligned to the top of the address is not much different as far as possible. Thus, outside providers, routing information from both these organizations can put together. In this way, it's been done division of IP address space in IPv6. And that occupy much space is the address for providers and addresses for the region. each occupies one eighth of the available address space. Then when it was still about 70% that has not been defined, which is left as a reserve for granting a new address. Next, let's see-story structure in IPv6 addresses this by looking at examples in the address to the provider. First of all along the 128-bit address is divided into several fields which can change the length. If the first 3 bits of address are "010", then this is a space for providers. Meanwhile, the next n bits are registry ID is a field that indicates the place / institution that provides the IP address. For example, the IP addresses provided by the InterNIC, the field becomes "11,000". Furthermore, m the next bit is the provider ID, while the next bit o Subscriber ID to distinguish the organizations listed on these providers. Then p next bit is the Subnet ID, which marks a collection of hosts that are connected in the network topology of the organization. And the q = 125 - (n + m + o + p) is the last bit Interface ID, which is the IP address that marks the host contained in groups which have been marked by the Subnet ID. Subnet ID and Interface ID is freely given by the organization. Organizations are free to use the remaining p + q bits of the IP address in providing an IP address within the organization after receiving a 128 - (p + q) initial bits of an IP address. At that time, administrators of these organizations may divide into the sub-network and host bits in the appropriate length, if necessary can also be made more structured again. Because of the long bit on the provider ID and subscriber ID can be changed, then the address given on the provider and the number of IP addresses that can be given by the provider to the user can freely given according to need. In IPv6 routing control part is called prefix in the address field, which can be considered equivalent to a network address in IPv4.
3 Type the address provided IPv6 addresses can be divided into 3 types. The first, called a unicast address, used to communicate one on one, by appointing a single host. Then multicast is used to communicate an opponent a lot. This is to designate the host of the group. Then the last is a new function in the IPv6 anycast address, which refers to the host of the group, but the packet is sent only on one host only. On a host are not always given only one address of the third type above address, but could have given a few addresses. For example, having once Unicast addresses, link local address, and anycast addresses. Unicast Address In unicast addresses, addresses that are assigned glogal such as address to the provider, the geographical address. In addition, a link local address and the site local address. Each of the Link-local address and site-local address, included in the IPv6 address space that takes each about 1 / 1024 of the available address space. Link Local Address is the address used within one link only. What is meant here is a link local network connected to each other on one level. Address is automatically created by hosts who have not received the global address, consisting of 10 + n-bit prefix that starts with "fe80" and fields along the 118-n bits indicating the number of hosts. Link Local Address is used in the delivery of an IP address automatically.
Local Site Address being equivalent to the private address, limited use in the site only. This address can be given freely, provided unique within that site, but could not send the packet to the destination address is outside of the site. Multicast Address While Multicast Address first set the address to a host group. Then if any packet is sent to the address, the packet will be sent to all hosts in the group. Multicast Address is the IPv4 is defined as class D, while in the IPv6 space is 8 bits in his first start with "FF" is provided for multicast addresses. This space is then subdivided again to determine the range of validity. Then Blockcast address in the host IPv4 address is defined as "1", the IPv6 multicast is already included in this Address. Blockcast address for communication in the same segment are separated by a gateway, as well as the multicast address ranges are sorted based on destination. Anycast address In IPv6 was added a new address type that does not exist in IPv4, the anycast address. In this type of address, an address given on multiple hosts, to define a collection of nodes. If any packet sent to this address, the router will send the packet to the nearest host that has the same anycast address. In other words, the owner of the router packet handed goal of the most "suitable" for the delivery of packets. The use of anycast address this example of some of servers that provide services such as DNS (Domain Name Server). By providing the same anycast address on servers, if any packet sent by the client to this address, the router will choose the nearest server and send the packet to the server. Thus, the load on servers can be distributed merata.Bagi anycast address is not provided specific rooms. If for some hosts are given a same address, the address is regarded as an anycast address.

On IPv6 Packet Structure In line with the expansion of the address to 128 bits, then the IPv6 packet structure had been improved as well. In addition, the field is seldom used in IPV 4 was removed replaced with fields that support real time communications and others. In this packet header pendesignan, strived for header processing cost becomes small. For example, start and end address to be needed in each packet. While the IPv4 header when the packet is fragmented, there are fields to store the sequence between the packet. But the field is not used when the packet is not fragmented. IPv6 header consists of two types, the first, namely the fields required by each packet called a basic header, while the second is a field that is not always necessary in a packet called extension headers, and headers are defined separately from the basic header. There is always the basic header on every packet, while the additional headers inserted only as needed between the basic header to the data. Additional headers, is currently defined in addition to use when a packet is broken, also defined the functions of security and others. This additional header, placed after the basic header, if needed some header then this header will be connected a chain starting from the basic header and ends on the data. Routers only need to process the smallest header that needed it, so that processing time becomes faster. The result of this improvement, although the basic header size enlarged from 20 bytes to 40 bytes but the number of field is reduced from 12 to 8 pieces only.
Structure of the IPv6 basic header Setting address automatically When I first connect the host to the Internet, users need to be setting up an IP address, netmask, routing and others. However, the current number of Internet users continues to grow and even be able to connect from home, so it is not practical when it is necessary for setting up knowledge about the network as the gateway IP address and others. In IPv4 even in the presence of DHCP, the parameters needed for setting up has to be automated. In connection with using a PPP or LAN built with Windows-95/NT already commonly used. But DHCP is a function of option / option in IPv4, so not all systems, and OS support it. In certain systems still several parameters must be set manually. In IPv6 functions for setting up automatically provided by default. In other words in this whole machine IPv6 stay connected on the cable network and immediately be connected to the Internet. on these automatic settings, provided 2 ways depending on the usage of address, namely the automatic settings and statefull stateless. Both ways are selected based on the tendency of administrators. Stateless auto setting is a way that makes the process of managing at least. No need to provide a server for managing and sharing an IP address. Simply setting up the router only. Hosts that are connected in a network of routers that exist on the network, obtained from the address prefix of the network. Then add the host bits pattern obtained from the unique information to the host, then make the IP addresses along the 128-bit and make it as the IP address of the host. In the information unique to this host, used among other MAC addresses of network interfaces. In this stateless auto setting behind the ease of management, on an Ethernet or FDDI because of the need to provide at least 48 bits (by MAC address) on one network, has the disadvantage of poor efficiency in the use of addresses. The second way is automatic settings statefull's how the management of strictly in terms of range of IP addresses provided on the host by providing a server for managing state of the IP address. This method is similar to the way DHCP in IPv4, despite having to maintain servers and address, but since IP addresses can be used effectively, this method has the characteristics of administrators to manage in detail as to structuring the address in the organization and others. When do the settings automatically, the required information between routers, servers and hosts are ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol) which has been expanded. In the ICMP in IPv6, including IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol) is used to multicast in IPv4. Security Functions Currently in the transaction by using the internet has become a reality, security at the time of the communication is not negotiable. Currently, the method by using S-HTTP (Secure HTTP) for sending credit card numbers, or personal data to encrypt, or encrypt e-mail with PGP (Pretty Good Privacy) has been used in general. However, the above is securiti offered by the application. In other words if you want to use these functions we must use the application. If you need security on communications without depending on specific applications will require security functions at the TCP or IP layer. And IPv6 support encrypted communications and authentication at the IP layer. By having a security function on the IP itself, then it can do things like packet sent from a particular host entirely encrypted. In IPv6 for authentication and encrypted communication using an extended header called AH (Authentication Header) and the encrypted payload, called ESP (Encapsulating Security Payload). In the second communication requires encryption or one of the header is added. Security function that is used at the application layer, such as the S-HTTP use SSL as a method encripsi, while on PGP uses IDEA as a method encripsinya. While the use of key management in a certain way as well. Instead, the IPv6 is not defined in a certain way in encripsi and key management method. So be flexible to use any method. This is known as the SA (Security Association). Function Security in addition to the use of IPv6 on encrypted communication between a pair of hosts, can also perform encrypted communications between networks by encrypting the packet by the gateway from 2 networks that make such communication. Label Flow and Real Time Process The header of the packet in the IPv6 flow label field (flow-label). This label, used to ask for pakect certain treatment is given by the router while in transit. In other words, these labels can signal the type of packet. For instance on sound or moving images (motion picture) as far as possible be transferred as soon as possible even though the quality is slightly reduced. While e-mail or the WWW is more need to accurately than on the nature of real time.
The table on the IPv6 Flow Label Label Categories 0 Uncharacterized Traffic 1 "Filler" traffic (e.g., netnews) 2 Unattended data transfer (e.g., e-mail) 3 Reserved 4 Attended bulk transfer (e.g., FTP, HTTP, NFS) 5 Reserved 6 Interactive traffic (e.g., Telnet, X) 7 Internet control traffic (eg, routing protocols, SNMP) 8-15 Realtime communications traffic, non-congestion-controlled traffic Routers manage priorities and resources such as communication capacity or ability to process, based on this flow label. If the IPv4 packet is treated the same throughout, then at this IPv6 with different treatment to each packet, depending on the contents of the packet, can be realized applicative communications. Cover Internet Protocol version 4 which is the foundation of the Internet, has almost approached the final frontier of his ability, and IPv6 which is a new protocol has been designed to replace IPv4. The primary motivation for change was the lack of IPv4 addresses that long, only 32 bits only. In addition, IP is a protocol that is very old who are unable to support the need for secure communications, flexible routing and traffic control data. These reasons that encourage the emergence of IPv6, the next generation Internet protocol. IPv6 address that has a huge capacity, supporting the preparation of the address in a structured, which allows the Internet continues to grow and provide new routing capabilities not found in IPv4. IPv6 anycast address type that can be used to efficiently route selection. In addition, IPv6 is also complemented by the use of addresses in a local mechanism that allows the realization of a Plug & Play installation. IPv6 also provides a platform for new ways of Internet usage, such as support for data streams in real-time, provider selection, host mobility, end-to-end security, or automatic configuration.

Flooding

noreply@blogger.com (Asep Rojali) — Sat, 07 Jun 2008 18:32:00 +0000

Flooding is another act of flooding the network with unnecessary data or garbage data. Network who are victims will experience congestion (saturation) due to bandwidth capacity to service customers away by garbage data.
Flooding is a very terrible thing for the network admin. Most people think just walking in the ICMP flooding, but it is not. Flooding is very varied and can invade a variety of protocols other than ICMP.
1) Sniffing
Sniffing literally sniff out, of course, in this case that diendus is the message (either not yet or already encrypted) in a communication channel. It is common in an insecure public channel. The sniffing could recapitalize the conversation that occurred.
Spoofing
The attacker - for instance C - can impersonate A. Everyone was made to believe that C is A. The attacker tried to convince other parties that there was no wrong done with communication, but communication was done by the deceiver / attacker. For example, if people enter your PIN into the Card Acceptance Device (CAD) - which is really built like the original CAD - of course the fraudsters can get a PIN smartcard owner. Smartcard owner did not know that there has been crime.