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Tidal Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages

2012-02-21T23:03:00.001+05:30

Tidal Energy : Introduction

Tides are the waves caused due to the gravitational pull of the moon and also sun(though its pull is very low). The rise is called high tide and fall is called low tide. This building up and receding of waves happens twice a day and causes enormous movement of water. It is so powerful that it has caused many mishaps and resulted in sinking of ships. Thus tidal energy forms a large source of energy and can be harnessed in some of the coastal areas of the world. Tidal dams are built near shores for this purpose. During high tide, the water flows into the dam and during low tide, water flows out which result in turning the turbine.
Lets now discuss the advantages and disadvantages of tidal energy.

Advantages of Tidal Energy

1) It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
2) Tidal energy is environment friendly energy and doesn’t produce greenhouse gases.
3) As 71% of Earth’s surface is covered by water, there is scope to generate this energy on large scale.
4) We can predict the rise and fall of tides as they follow cyclic fashion.
5) Efficiency of tidal power is far greater as compared to coal, solar or wind energy. Its efficiency is around 80%.
6) Although cost of construction of tidal power is high but maintenance costs are relatively low.
7) Tidal Energy doesn’t require any kind of fuel to run.
8) The life of tidal energy power plant is very long.
9) The energy density of tidal energy is relatively higher than other renewable energy sources.

Disadvantages of Tidal Energy

1) Cost of construction of tidal power plant is high.
2) There are very few ideal locations for construction of plant and they too are localized to coastal regions only.
3) Intensity of sea waves is unpredictable and there can be damage to power generation units.
4) Influences aquatic life adversely and can disrupt migration of fish.
5) The actual generation is for a short period of time. The tides only happen twice a day so electricity can be produced only for that time.
6) Frozen sea, low or weak tides, straight shorelines, low tidal rise or fall are some of the obstructions.
7) This technology is still not cost effective and more technological advancements are required to make it commercially viable.
8) Usually the places where tidal energy is produced are far away from the places where it is consumed. This transmission is expensive and difficult.

Tidal Energy is thus a clean source of energy and doesn’t require much land or other resources as in harnessing energy from other sources. However, the energy generated is not much as high and low tides occur only twice a day and continuous energy production is not possible.

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Read More :
Biomass Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages
Wind Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages
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Biomass Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages

2012-02-18T12:44:00.001+05:30

What is Biomass Energy?

Biomass means all materials which come from living organisms. For instance, waste material of plants and animals, wood, agricultural wastes, dead parts of plants and animals. Since all living organisms contain carbon compounds, biomass has energy stored in the form of chemical compounds. The method of harnessing energy from each one of them could be different. Direct burning of these materials generally causes pollution but could be the cheapest form of energy. Eg. Using wood or dried cow dung cakes as fuel generates a lot of smoke. However, if cow dung is used in biogas plant, clean fuel can be generated. Mostly in villages, all types of biomass are traditionally burnt directly to produce heat. And if modern methods are used, they can be utilized properly.
Lets talk about advantages and disadvantages of biomass energy.

Advantages of Biomass Energy

1) It’s a renewable source of energy.
2) It’s a comparatively lesser pollution generating energy.
3) Biomass energy helps in cleanliness in villages and cities.
4) It provides manure for the agriculture and gardens.
5) There is tremendous potential to generate biogas energy.
6) Biomass energy is relatively cheaper and reliable.
7) It can be generated from everyday human and animal wastes, vegetable and agriculture left-over etc.
8) Recycling of waste reduces pollution and spread of diseases.
9) Heat energy that one gets from biogas is 3.5 times the heat from burning wood.
10) Because of more heat produced the time required for cooking is lesser.
11) Pressure on the surrounding forest and scrubs can be reduced when biogas is used as cooking fuel.
12) It is a more cost effective means of acquiring energy as compared to oil supplies. As oil supplies are getting depleted day by day, it is becoming a costly commodity.
13) Growing biomass crops use up carbon dioxide and produces oxygen.

Disadvantages of Biomass Energy

1) Cost of construction of biogas plant is high, so only rich people can use it.
2) Continuous supply of biomass is required to generate biomass energy.
3) Some people don’t like to cook food on biogas produced from sewage waste.
4) Biogas plant requires space and produces dirty smell.
5) Due to improper construction many biogas plants are working inefficiently.
6) It is difficult to store biogas in cylinders.
7) Transportation of biogas through pipe over long distances is difficult.
8) Many easily grown grains like corn, wheat are being used to make ethanol. This can have bad consequences if too much of food crop is diverted for use as fuel.
9) Crops which are used to produce biomass energy are seasonal and are not available over whole year.

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Read More :
Wind Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages
Geothermal Energy : Advantages And Disadvantages
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Solar Energy : Advantages and disadvantages

Wind Energy : Advantages and Disadvantages

2012-02-16T23:34:00.001+05:30

What is wind energy?

Wind, that is moving air, possesses some kinetic energy due to its high speed. Wind is a result of the solar energy, as heating of land results in movement of air. The most common application of wind could probably be kite flying! Or even paragliding, sail boats etc. Well these activities are definitely not possible without wind. Ever wondered what else it could be useful for?? Wind energy can be harnessed and used for generating electricity or for other smaller purposes by a windmill. In olden times, windmills were used to draw water out of wells or to grind flour etc. It is the rotatory motion of the shaft in a windmill that is used to rotate the turbine and convert it to the form of energy we need it in.

The main advantage of wind energy is that harnessing it doesn’t disrupt natural processes or harm the environment, unlike a lot of other energy sources. To generate electricity on a large scale, a number of windmills are set up over a large area, called a wind energy farm. Such areas need a wind speed of 15kmph.
Lets discuss advantages and disadvantages of Wind Energy.

Advantages Of Wind Energy

1) Wind Energy is an inexhaustible source of energy and is virtually a limitless resource.
2) Energy is generated without polluting environment.
3) This source of energy has tremendous potential to generate energy on large scale.
4) Like solar energy and hydropower, wind power taps a natural physical resource.
5) Windmill generators don’t emit any emissions that can lead to acid rain or greenhouse effect.
6) Wind Energy can be used directly as mechanical energy.
7) In remote areas, wind turbines can be used as great resource to generate energy.
8) In combination with Solar Energy they can be used to provide reliable as well as steady supply of electricity.
9) Land around wind turbines can be used for other uses, e.g. Farming.

Disadvantages Of Wind Energy

1) Wind energy requires expensive storage during peak production time.
2) It is unreliable energy source as winds are uncertain and unpredictable.
3) There is visual and aesthetic impact on region.
4) Requires large open areas for setting up wind farms.
5) Noise pollution problem is usually associated with wind mills.
6) Wind energy can be harnessed only in those areas where wind is strong enough and weather is windy for most parts of the year.
7) Usually places, where wind power set-up is situated, are away from the places where demand of electricity is there. Transmission from such places increases cost of electricity.
8) The average efficiency of wind turbine is very less as compared to fossil fuel power plants. We might require many wind turbines to produce similar impact.
9) It can be a threat to wildlife. Birds do get killed or injured when they fly into turbines.
10) Maintenance cost of wind turbines is high as they have mechanical parts which undergo wear and tear over the time.

Even though there are advantages of wind energy, the limitations make it extremely difficult for it to be harnessed and prove to be a setback.

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Geothermal Energy : Advantages And Disadvantages
Benefits And Drawbacks of Solar Energy
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Geothermal Energy : Advantages And Disadvantages

2012-02-10T23:40:00.000+05:30

Geothermal energy is the energy obtained from the earth(geo) from the hot rocks present inside the earth. It is produced due to the fission of radioactive materials in the earth’s core and some places inside the earth become very hot. These are called hot spots. They cause water deep inside the earth to form steam. As more steam is formed, it gets compressed at high pressure and comes out in the form of hot springs which produces geothermal power.

To harness this geothermal energy, two holes are dug deep into the earth and cold water is pumped through the first one and steam comes out through the second long pipe which helps in generating electricity. The holes dug for harnessing geothermal energy result in lesser emission of greenhouse gases than due to burning of fossil fuels. Thus if used at a larger scale and more efficiently, it gives a hope to reduce global warming.

Geo-thermal energy is one of the rare forms of energy which is not directly or indirectly from solar energy. In areas where hot springs are found, hot springs baths are very common and enjoyable form of recreation. However, they need to be in a controlled environment since they cannot be accessed without proper supervision. We have earlier seen how it is harnessed, the process involved is a long and expensive one and not feasible in some areas.
Construction of geothermal energy plants can affect the seismic stability to a large extent. Even though there are lesser emissions, digging deep holes causes seismic disturbances which have led to earthquakes.

Now lets discuss advantages and disadvantages of Geothermal Energy.

Advantages of Geothermal Energy

1) It is a renewable source of energy.
2) By far, it is non-polluting and environment friendly.
3) There is no wastage or generation of by-products.
4) Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people used this source of energy for heating homes, cooking, etc.
5) Maintenance cost of geothermal power plants is very less.
6) Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus help in protecting natural environment.
7) Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions.

Disadvantages of Geothermal Energy

1) Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.
2) Most of the sites, where geothermal energy is produced, are far from markets or cities, where it needs to be consumed.
3) Total generation potential of this source is too small.
4) There is always a danger of eruption of volcano.
5) Installation cost of steam power plant is very high.
6) There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is produced will justify the capital expenditure and operations costs.
7) It may release some harmful, poisonous gases that can escape through the holes drilled during construction.

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Read More :
Benefits And Drawbacks of Nuclear Energy.
Merits and Demerits of Solar Energy
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Primary Research Advantages And Disadvantages

2012-02-05T13:31:00.000+05:30

What is Primary Market Research?

The process of collecting original data about the market, by the marketer on its own is called primary market research. The research is carried out after getting some knowledge from the secondary sources (eg. govt surveys or surveys by other companies). One can decide to go for primary market research if he feels that the data available from secondary sources is not fulfilling his requirements. Primary market research can be quantitative or qualitative in nature.
This process of research can either be done by the marketer or can be outsourced to the person or organisation which specializes in these type of surveys.
Although this type of exercise may be lengthy and costly the information which we gather from is highly relevant for designing marketing strategy for the client. Primary research is not carried out frequently and organizations generally depend of secondary sources for information. In order to go for this process, the researcher has to take care of everything, starting from designing questionnaires, collecting replies from respondents and then interpreting it depending on requirements.

Now lets discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Primary Market Research to the marketer.

Advantages of Primary Market Research

1) Targeted Issues are addressed. The organization asking for the research has the complete control on the process and the research is streamlines as far as its objectives and scope is concerned. Researching company can be asked to concentrate their efforts to find data regarding specific market rather than concentration on mass market.

2) Data interpretation is better. The collected data can be examined and interpreted by the marketers depending on their needs rather than relying on the interpretation made by collectors of secondary data.

3) Recency of Data. Usually secondary data is not so recent and it may not be specific to the place or situation marketer is targeting. The researcher can use the irrelevant seeming information for knowing trends or may be able to find some relation with the current scenario. Thus primary data becomes a more accurate tool since we can use data which is useful for us.

4) Proprietary Issues. Collector of primary data is the owner of that information and he need not share it with other companies and competitors. This gives an edge over competitors replying on secondary data.

Disadvantages of Primary Market Research

1) High Cost. Collecting data using primary research is a costly proposition as marketer has to be involved throughout and has to design everything.

2) Time Consuming. Because of exhaustive nature of the exercise, the time required to do research accurately is very long as compared to secondary data, which can be collected in much lesser time duration.

3) Inaccurate Feed-backs. In case the research involves taking feedbacks from the targeted audience, there are high chances that feedback given is not correct. Feedbacks by their basic nature are usually biased or given just for the sake of it.

4) More number of resources are required. Leaving aside cost and time, other resources like human resources and materials too are needed in larger quantity to do surveys and data collection.

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Some Don'ts while trying to move on from a break-up

2012-01-26T17:47:00.002+05:30

Don'ts- Because do’s could vary with the cases but donts remain the same for all. Earlier we saw why we need to move-on and how to cope-up from a failed relationship. Carrying the discussion further lets discuss some Don'ts while you are coming in terms with the break-up.

Listening to songs that fit the mood
For me, this is by far, the most useless practice. These days they make all kinds of songs which fit a variety of situations. And that’s what makes it ugly- people “connect” with them and don’t get out of that depressed and irritated mood. The moment you hit the play button for the song, you play the series of all those memories and make yourself remember everything which you want to forget. The only way out for such an addiction- DELETE the infectious songs!!

Memories are wonderful to make, but sometimes painful to remember
If you have objects that are relevant to the experience you want to get over with, it is best to keep the objects out of sight for a few days. More than having an emotional value, they create a mental block. Memories are in the mind, but when you have physical objects that you can feel, touch and cherish(ed), it is definitely a good idea to keep them in the cold storage of the mind. That seems impossible in the beginning but then you know why it is important and essential.

Sulking and keeping to oneself
This is probably the worst thing to do. One may need his own time to think, rethink, come to conclusions and analyse repercussions. However one mistake doesn’t mean you boycott the whole world! There are people who love you, want to help you out and see that glowing, smiling face again. Wouldn’t it be selfish to deprive those few loved ones of it??

Don’t go on enjoying with them if u don’t want to, but be with your family and close friends. Try to be normal around them. They also know that you are trying your best to be happy but at least make an effort.
A solitary life could worsen the situation. Remember, Man is a social animal and needs some sort of interactions continuously.

Being rigid and stubborn
Life is all about change. The more you adapt with the present situation, the easier it is for you to be in harmony with yourself and your surroundings. This doesn’t mean that you lose yourself in the process. That could probably lead to a bigger problem, by making you lose confidence. None of us is perfect. Nor can anyone ever be. On the contrary, having thoughts like “I did everything right”, “It wasn’t my fault”, “I am going to be me, let the earth do its dance!” and believing them just shows that you are ignorant of your own shortcomings and your inability to be in terms with the reality.

Friends who reinforce your pessimist thoughts
An absolute no-no. Generally, these are the people who would just get too emotional or hysterical on hearing your stories. They might be good people, but try not to follow their advice if you don’t find it logical enough. They could be your family members or anyone who cares a lot for you. They understand your situation and your way of countering it. And thus take your side. Abandoning them is not an option but try to be less influenced. They intend no harm but end up doing the worst- make you stick to the situation by making you think you did nothing wrong. And hence the main purpose of you committing a mistake (that is, the process of learning) is lost.

Sometimes, it is just that you took a risk and it went bad. So what?! What if you didn’t take this risk? Wouldn’t you have been thinking what your life would be without the risk? Life is a game of ifs and buts. Each time you play, it gives you a better understanding of the game. Who knows what the results would be if you took that step at a different time. Probably you would have been successful and remorse free. Maybe next time with this experience you would be more than successful…. Thus move on, change your life for the best and be the happiest you have ever been….

Labels: How to Let Go of a Past Relationship,Healing after a divorce or breakup,Learning important lessons from a divorce or breakup,Useful Steps To Move On From A Relationship,Tips For Moving Forward When Your Relationship has Ended

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Why do we need to move on from past relationship ?

2012-01-26T14:02:00.001+05:30

Ever heard someone telling you to “get over it!!” or calling you a “depressed soul”? Annoying, isn’t it? Yes its a very annoying thought that the person doesn’t realize what you’ve been through and gives you the most common advice available. This too is easier said than done. Well, they all say it for a reason. Life goes on, no matter what. It’s our call to either improve with the changing times and changing people(which also includes oneself) or to stick to the past, sulk over it and regret. Well regretting is important too, otherwise how will you learn from your mistakes if you don’t sit and think what you could have done and where you could have been. Next time you would probably give your best shot to reach this 'could' level. Everyone makes mistakes and takes wrong decisions. The best thing you could do after that, is to carry the experience with you and not repeat the same mistakes again.

How to move on and cope up?

Some say distract yourself by pursuing your hobbies etc. But what to do when the problem lies in the things you do and it reminds you of the things you are trying to get over with? Distraction could be helpful for short durations. However when you somehow remember 'it' again, it could just bring all the memories back in a moment.

Generally, moving on isn’t a problem for optimists. But can be really hard and torturous for the rest. The first thing to do is to forgive yourself or the person who caused harm. At least try to understand the intentions of the doer. Probably he/she just did it for the best. Generally, forgiving oneself is the toughest. If the incident keeps playing in your mind over and over again, with your parts or mistakes as the highlights, it becomes all the more nightmarish. Sometimes literally!! Or can even lead to depression in extreme cases.

Accept the reality. Accept your mistakes. Then set yourself free of the guilt, the remorse and the unpleasant feelings. Try to STOP that record of memories right as it starts. Sometimes, all we need, is to talk to someone who can make us realize and reason out whatever happened (or talking to the person involved could help too). Initially, you will feel bad but eventually, we realize how things were meant to be this way and worked out for the best. Make sure the person is someone you trust and is mentally sound and would not become hyper on hearing your story(otherwise that would ultimately have a bad effect on the broader picture). Professional help would be the best. Just make sure you have someone to hear you out and half the work is done! You’ll feel comfortable and soon better.

Next : Some Donts while trying to Move On.

Labels: Moving on from a past relationship, Cure for Broken Heart, No more a boyfriend or girlfriend, Divorces Ex-husband/Wife, Coping with a Breakup or Divorce, Moving on after a relationship ends,How to Get Over a Break Up

Copyright © ianswer4u.com

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Hydroelectric Energy : Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

2012-01-21T21:13:00.000+05:30

After going through the advantages of hydroelectricity, a quick look on the limitations and concerns associated with it will help in giving a broader perspective of its actual impact. Altering earth’s natural processes, always incurs some costs. We first pay (in monetary terms) for the infrastructure etc. and then pay the intangible price of disrupting certain natural systems. Let’s see how.

Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1) It can be generated only in areas with heavy rainfall and sufficient supply of water.
2) Hydel power generation stations are to be located in hilly mountainous terrains where waterfalls as well as ideal sites for dams are located. In a region/country without hills hydel power generation is not possible.
3) Loss during transmission is very high, sometimes up to 30%.
4) Dams are expensive to build.
5) Building a dam affects the environment and wildlife of adjoining areas. Nearby low-lying areas are always under the threat of floods.
6) Building of dam causes lot of pollution.
7) If rains are scarce, there might not be enough water to turn turbines.

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Read More :-
Advantages of Hydro Power
Advantages of Solar Energy
Advantages of Nuclear Energy
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Hydroelectric Energy : Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy

2012-01-19T22:16:00.000+05:30

Hydroelectric energy is the electrical energy derived from hydro (water) power. It is a non-conventional or alternate source of energy.

How hydroelectric energy is generated ?

Before discussing advantages and disadvantages of Hydroelectric power, let’s first understand how a hydroelectric power plant works to understand its merits and demerits better. Flowing water possesses kinetic energy. Traditionally, this energy was used to drive water mills to grind pulses etc. Modern day methods have modified this use for a bigger purpose- generation of electricity. When rain falls on high grounds in hilly areas, it flows down in the form if rivers and reaches the sea level. This water is stopped in between and stored in large reservoirs or damns. The dams are at a height and thus water now contains potential energy. This water is then made to flow to large turbines. The water flows with high speed and pressure and rotates turbines, which in turn generates electricity. The water stream follows its natural course, once out of the generator. This is how a hydroelectric power plant can convert the potential energy of stored water in a reservoir of a tall dam into electric energy.
The main reason for using this form of energy for electricity generation is the fact that it is an alternate source of energy and can bring a relief to the use of conventional energy sources. Other advantages of hydro energy are discussed below.

Advantages of Hydroelectric Energy

1) It is a non-polluting source of energy.
2) It has lower operational cost compared to fossil fuel-based generation plants.
3) Can be easily transmitted through wires to long distances.
4) Dams made for generation of Hydroelectricity also help in irrigation projects.

Next we will discuss disadvantages of Hydroelectric energy.

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Solar Energy : Merits of Solar Energy
Solar Energy : Disadvantages of Solar Energy
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Solar Energy: Disadvantages of Solar Energy

2012-01-16T23:25:00.000+05:30

In our discussion about advantages and disadvantages of solar energy, we have already discussed advantages of solar energy. Now lets take a look at disadvantages of solar energy.

However, this seemingly free source of energy is not free of cost in literal terms, let’s see how.
Too much exposure to sun rays can be harmful for the skin and may lead to skin problems. But the atmosphere acts as a sieve and removes a major part of the unwanted harmful rays of the sun. However, due to the global warming (caused due to release harmful gases into the atmosphere), the ozone layer has a hole in it now. Nature has provided us with all solutions to keep us safe and cozy, but it too demands care, or at least doesn’t want its own destruction. Utilizing its resources in the right manner is the only thing we can do. Over utilization has led us to a stage where we need to change the way we live and that comes at a huge monetary cost.

So, the choice is up to us. Whether we want to this big ball of fire to spoil our future for the present or refrain from harming the soil we have grown on, for a sustainable life.

Disadvantages of Solar Energy

1) Solar energy is mostly available in tropical and sub-tropical areas. The region with maximum Solar energy potential is lying between 50 degrees north and south of equator. As we move towards poles, proportion of solar energy received by earth goes on decreasing.
2) It is seasonal in nature and cannot be utilized during monsoon or when weather is cloudy.
3) The solar power technology is still at infant stage and is quite expensive.
4) Cost of installation of solar energy plant is very high.
5) During night it is not possible to produce Solar Energy.
6) Storage of this form of energy is difficult.
7) At present heavy machines are not possible to operate on this source.
8) Solar panels consume land, as power generation per unit square is low.
9) Silicon, used in production of SPV (Solar Photo Voltaic), is a pollutant.
10) Return of Investment(ROI) on solar energy takes around 3-5 years.

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Read More :-
Solar Energy : Benefits of Solar Energy
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Solar Energy: Advantages of Solar Energy

2012-01-10T23:08:00.001+05:30

Solar energy is the energy that we get from the sun, as a result of nuclear fission reactions going on inside it. This energy is in the form of heat and light. Solar Energy is essential for a majority of living organisms on earth to survive. The plants, animals, certain micro-organisms, all survive due to the solar energy or by consuming substances which require solar energy to evolve. Not only does it affect living organisms, but also non-living things. For instance, many phenomena in nature like the wind, storms, rains, sea waves etc. are all dependent on this form of energy.

Having realized the true potential of solar energy and its importance, humans are now devising methods to utilize solar energy in our daily lives since it is a major source of renewable energy and in the fact that makes it all the more valuable. Some well-known solar energy utilizing devices are solar cooker, water heater, solar cells which can be used in multiple devices.

To make it mandatory to utilize this source of energy to the maximum, many countries have set norms for building green buildings. These are energy efficient and are dependent primarily on solar energy. They also help in cost cutting.

Now in this first part about advantages and disadvantages of solar energy, lets discuss Advantages of Solar Power.

Advantages of Solar Energy

1) It is one of the most readily available sources of energy.
2) It is an inexhaustible source of energy.
3) It is an uninterrupted and continuous source.
4) Solar Energy doesn’t give rise to any chemical or sound pollution.
5) It can be used directly for baking, drying. Devices like solar heater facilitate its use.
6) Solar devices can be installed in remote, inaccessible areas like forests, deserts, mountains, off-shore platforms, remote oceanic islands.
7) It is possible to produce Solar Energy in large quantities.
8) Poor tropical countries have locations which are advantageous for solar energy production.
9) More the number of solar units we have, the more units of energy will be produced. It is directly proportional.
10) It can be used directly in conjunction with other conventional or non-conventional energy supply systems.
11) Cost of maintenance is low.

Next we will discuss Disadvantages of Solar Energy.

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Nuclear Energy : Advantages of Nuclear Energy
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Tree Topology: Advantages and Disadvantages

2012-01-04T17:30:00.001+05:30

What is Tree Topology?

Tree Topology integrates the characteristics of Star and Bus Topology. Earlier we saw how in Physical Star network Topology, computers (nodes) are connected by each other through central hub. And we also saw in Bus Topology, work station devices are connected by the common cable called Bus. After understanding these two network configurations, we can discuss tree topology better. In Tree Topology, the number of Star networks are connected using Bus. This main cable seems like a main stem of a tree, and other star networks as the branches. It is also called Expanded Star Topology. Ethernet protocol is commonly used in this type of topology. The diagram below will make it clear.

Tree Topology

Let’s discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Tree Topology now.

Advantages of Tree Topology

1. It is an extension of Star and bus Topologies, so in networks where these topologies can't be implemented individually for reasons related to scalability, tree topology is the best alternative.
2. Expansion of Network is possible and easy.
3. Here, we divide the whole network into segments (star networks), which can be easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection and correction is easy.
5. Each segment is provided with dedicated point-to-point wiring to the central hub.
6. If one segment is damaged, other segments are not affected.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

1. Because of its basic structure, tree topology, relies heavily on the main bus cable, if it breaks whole network is crippled.
2. As more and more nodes and segments are added, the maintenance becomes difficult.
3. Scalability of the network depends on the type of cable used.

Other Reference Articles
Advantages and Disadvantages of Bus Topology
Benefits and Drawbacks of Star Topology
Merits and Demerits of Mesh Topology
Ring Topology Pros and Cons

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Nuclear Energy: Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

2011-12-20T16:26:00.002+05:30

Earlier in the discussion about advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy we saw how nuclear energy is beneficial, if used in the right manner and its scope utilised to the fullest.
However, there is a great deal of radiation danger associated with Nuclear energy. It is capable of causing genetic disorders, thus once exposed, can affect generations to come adversely. Another drawback is the storage of nuclear wastes, as it too can lead to disastrous effects if not disposed or stored in the right manner.

A well known nuclear disaster was the attack on Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the United States during World War II. An experiment, as described by some, was a grave event in the history of nuclear energy and its effects. It was the first of its kind. Another infamous event is the Chernobyl disaster. Although an accident, it made the world realize that controlling such a potentially great power is not entirely in our hands. The accident happened during a test in a nuclear power plant. The extent of damage was controlled as the plant was shut down immediately, and the residents relocated. Even now, the city is in ruins, a pale picture of its past.

The most recent nuclear mishap was the Fukushima Accident in Japan. It was caused by an earthquake-generated tsunami. The nuclear reactor was seismically robust, however could not sustain the effect of the gallons of sea water that went inside the reactor, thus leading to power failure which in turn led to overheating. This ultimately resulted in a hydrogen explosion and subsequent events led to the discharge of radioactive materials into the atmosphere.

Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy

1) Radioactive minerals are unevenly distributed around the world and are found in limited quantities.
2) Supply of high quality uranium, one of the raw material, will last only for few decades.
3) Nuclear waste from nuclear power plant creates thermal(heat) pollution which may damage the environment.
4) A large amount of nuclear waste is also created and disposal of this waste is a major problem.
5) The danger of accidental discharge of radio activity also exists.
6) Starting a nuclear plant requires huge capital investment and advanced technology.
7) Nuclear plants are opposed on moral grounds, by many groups, because of their close linkage with development of nuclear weapons.
8) There are number of restrictions on the export or import of nuclear technology,fuels etc.
9) Nuclear power stations are always at the risk from terrorist attack.
10) Aftermaths of Chernobyl cannot be forgotten easily.
11) Safety issues associated with nuclear power are hard to be overlooked.
12) Proliferation of nuclear technology increases the risk of nuclear war too.
13) The waste produced remains 'active' over many years and disposing it safely is a an issue which needs to be addressed properly.
14) Nuclear power is not a renewable source of energy. Uranium is a metal that is mined from the ground in much the same way as coal is mined. It is a scarce metal and the supply of uranium will one day run out making all the nuclear power plants obsolete.

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Advantages of Nuclear Power

Nuclear Energy : Advantages of Nuclear Energy

2011-12-16T14:51:00.002+05:30

What is nuclear energy?

Nuclear energy is a powerful source of energy, generated during a nuclear reaction, by change in the nucleus of an atom. The source of nuclear energy is the mass of the nucleus and energy generated during a nuclear reaction is due to conversion of mass into energy(Einstein's Theory)
There are two ways to obtain nuclear energy:
1) Nuclear fission and 2)Nuclear fusion.
In a nuclear fission reaction, the nucleus of a heavy radioactive element like uranium, plutonium or thorium splits up into smaller nuclei, when bombarded by low energy neutrons. A huge amount of heat is generated in this process, which is used in nuclear power plants to generate electricity.
Nuclear fusion reaction involves the combination or fusion of two light elements to form a heavier element and release uncontrollable energy. Thus it cannot be used to generate electricity, unlike fission reaction. Did you know that the sun’s energy is generated by nuclear fusion reaction? The heat and light that we get from Sun, is all due to the continuous reactions going on inside it. We can now imagine how much energy would be released in the nuclear fusion reaction, that it is the source of sun’s energy.
Let’s cut out the technical part behind nuclear power and discuss advantages and disadvantages of nuclear energy, starting with advantages.

Advantages of Nuclear Energy

1) As compared to other conventional energy sources, Nuclear power produces very less amount of pollution.
2) Very small amount of raw material is required to generate huge amount of nuclear energy. To put it into perspective, about 28gm of Uranium releases as much amount of energy as is generated by 100 metric tonnes of coal.
3) Since they are required in small quantities, atomic materials can be easily transported to far-off places even at a global scale. Thus transportation is easy unless you are considering security part of it.
4) If nuclear power stations are operated upto their full capacity they can produce cheap electricityand gain from other benefits of Nuclear energy.
5) The quantity of nuclear waste produced is also small.Cons of this advantage are discussed in Disadvantages of Nuclear Energy.
6) It is a very reliable source of energy. The average life span of a nuclear reactor is approx. 40 years which can be extended upto 60 years.
7) Nuclear power stations are usually very compact compared to thermal stations.
8) Although the initial capital cost of building a nuclear plant is high, the maintenance and running costs are relatively low.

Nuclear power has great prospects in the near future as nuclear power plants are efficient and do not produce any kind of pollution, unlike other sources. All in all, if nuclear energy is implemented extensively and its potential is exploited well, it would bring down the use of other important conventional sources of energy.

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Drawbacks of Nuclear energy

Spiral Model : Advantages and Disadvantages

2011-12-14T00:56:00.000+05:30

What is the Spiral Model?

The Spiral Life Cycle Model is a type of iterative software development model which is generally implemented in high risk projects. It was first proposed by Boehm. In this system development method, we combine the features of both, waterfall model and prototype model. In Spiral model we can arrange all the activities in the form of a spiral.

Each loop in a spiral represents a development phase (and we can have any number of loops according to the project). Each loop has four sections or quadrants :
1. To determine the objectives, alternatives and constraints. We try to understand the product objectives, alternatives in design and constraints imposed because of cost, technology, schedule, etc.
2. Risk analysis and evaluation of alternatives. Here we try to find which other approaches can be implemented in order to fulfill the identified constraints. Operational and technical issues are addressed here. Risk mitigation is in focus in this phase. And evaluation of all these factors determines future action.
3. Execution of that phase of development. In this phase we develop the planned product. Testing is also done. In order to do development, waterfall or incremental approach can be implemented.
4. Planning the next phase. Here we review the progress and judge it considering all parameters. Issues which need to be resolved are identified in this phase and necessary steps are taken.

Subsequent loops of spiral model involve similar phases. Analysis and engineering efforts are applied in this model. Large, expensive or complicated projects use this type of life cycle. If at any point of time one feels the risk involved in the project is a lot more than anticipated, one can abort it. Reviews at different phases can be done by an in-house person or by an external client.
Now let’s discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Spiral Model in detail.

Spiral Model Diagram

Advantages of Spiral Model

1) Spiral Life Cycle Model is one of the most flexible SDLC models in place. Development phases can be determined by the project manager, according to the complexity of the project.
2) Project monitoring is very easy and effective. Each phase, as well as each loop, requires a review from concerned people. This makes the model more transparent.
3) Risk management is one of the in-built features of the model, which makes it extra attractive compared to other models.
4) Changes can be introduced later in the life cycle as well. And coping with these changes isn’t a very big headache for the project manager.
5) Project estimates in terms of schedule, cost etc become more and more realistic as the project moves forward and loops in spiral get completed.
6) It is suitable for high risk projects, where business needs may be unstable.
7) A highly customized product can be developed using this.

Disadvantages of Spiral Model

1) Cost involved in this model is usually high.
2) It is a complicated approach especially for projects with a clear SRS.
3) Skills required, to evaluate and review project from time to time, need expertise.
4) Rules and protocols should be followed properly to effectively implement this model. Doing so, through-out the span of project is tough.
5) Due to various customizations allowed from the client, using the same prototype in other projects, in future, is difficult.
6) It is not suitable for low risk projects.
7) Meeting budgetary and scheduling requirements is tough if this development process is followed.

I hope after reading the benefits(pros)and drawbacks(cons) of Spiral model, you will be a better judge to which model suits your requirements best.

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Earned Value Management : Advantages and Disadvantages

2011-12-08T00:53:00.000+05:30

Earlier we saw what Earned Value Management is, and calculations in Earned Value Analysis. In project management, we use the concept of earned value to measure and predict the progress in the on-going project. It has become very popular now a days as a perfomance measuring method. Lets discuss the advantages and disadvantages of Earned Value Analysis/Management.

Earned Value Management Advantages and Benefits

1) EVM keeps the management on their toes. As EVA is done periodically, management tries to make sure that all the project parameters are on track.
2) It is probably the only system used at present which tracks the project in terms of work, time and money.
3) Timely performance measurement makes sure that steps can be taken to the bring project back on track before its too late.

Earned Value Management disadvantages and drawbacks

1) While doing earned value analysis, we don't take quality into consideration. It may be possible that our project is scoring high on earned value performance scale, but the quality of work is below par. Quality is an important criteria in any project, and unfortunately it is not considered in EVA.
2) In EVM, we take planned value as the baseline, using which we do our calculations and we make predictions. But there is always an element of uncertainity involved while doing any predictions. Our project may be on schedule when EVA is done, but because of unforeseenable risks it can get delayed at later stages. So basing our assumptions on Planned value is like playing with fire.
3) Cost of implementing Earned value management causes managers to not use it extensively. Generally, a software is required and coordination between different departments should be very good for it to achieve its goal.
4) Time required, to collect all the relevant data pertaining to Actual costs, is a lot in big and diverse projects.

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Earned Value Analysis terms and Formulae

2011-12-05T16:13:00.001+05:30

Earned Value Analysis terms
Earned Value Management is one of the most common techniques used to measure the performance of the ongoing project. To implement earned value analysis in project management, it is important to first understand the following EVA terms and formulae.

Planned Value (PV):
Also called Budgeted Cost of Work Scheduled(BCWS), is the cost that is proposed to be utilised on an activity during a specific time frame.

Actual Cost (AC):
Also called Actual Cost of Work Performed(ACWP), is the aggregate cost that is spent on an activity while its execution, during a specific time frame.

Rate of Performance (RP):
It is the rate at which the project is progressing. Mathematically, it is the percentage of the work actually completed out of the total work that was scheduled to be completed till that point of time.

Earned Value (EV):
Also called Budgeted Cost of Work Performed(BCWP), is the estimate of the value of the work completed, on the basis of how much work should have been completed and how much work was actually completed.
EV = PV X RP

EVA Chart

Illustration to explain these terms:
Consider a project where the work has to be completed in two months in Rs 20,000. Cost breakdown is Rs.10,000 for each month. The work scheduled in each month is half of the total work to be completed.
By the end of the first month, the project has completed only 25% of the total work to be completed, but the cost utilised is that of 50% of the total work.

Also given that, for completion of 25% work, the actual cost(AC) incurred =50% of total budgeted cost
=10,000

Now from given data :-
The planned value(PV) for the work to be completed by the end of the first month
=50% of total
=50% of 20,000
=10,000

The rate of performance(RP)= Percentage of ratio of work actually completed to the work scheduled to be completed
=(25/50)X 100
=50%
This implies that only half of the work scheduled to be completed by the end of the first month has been completed.

Now, the earned value(EV) or the value of the work actually completed in monetary terms
=Rate of performance X Planned Value of work to be completed till the first month (EV = PV X RP)
=50% of 10,000
=5,000
This implies that we have utilised Rs.10,000(AC) for the work which should have utilised Rs. 5,000(EV) according to our budget.

Some more important terms in Earned Value Management:

Cost Variance (CV):
As the name suggests, Cost Variance calculates the deviation between the cost actually incurred and the planned cost. It checks whether we have gone according to our budgeted costs or not.
CV = EV - AC

Cost Performance Index(CPI):
Cost Performance is used to estimate the projected or actual cost of completing the project based on the performance to date.
CPI = EV / AC

Schedule Variance (SV):
Schedule Variance calculates the deviation between the actual and planned time taken to complete the project or an activity of a project. It checks whether the project has taken more or less time than that of the planned schedule.
SV = EV - PV

Schedule Performance Index(SPI):
Schedule Performance Index is used to estimated the projected time to complete the project.
SPI = EV / PV

Estimate At Completion(EAC):
Used to find the estimate cost of the project at completion, going by the present performance.
EAC = PV of whole project/CPI

Estimated time to complete:
Used to find the approximate time required to complete the project, going by the present performance.
=Original time/SPI

Illustration:
Take the above example to understand these terms.

Cost variance(CV)=EV - AC
=5,000-10,000
=-5,000

Cost performance index(CPI)=EV / AC
=5,000/10,000
=1/2

Schedule variance(SV)=EV - PV
=5,000-10,000
=-5,000

Schedule performance index(SPI)=EV / PV
=5,000/10,000
=1/2

Estimate At Completion(EAC)=PV of whole project/CPI
=20,000/(1/2)
=40,000
This indicates that the project which had to be completed in a budget of Rs.20,000 will be completed in Rs.40,000(if the rate of performance is the same).

Estimated time to complete:
=Original time/SPI
=2 months/(1/2)
=4 months
This indicates that the project which had to be completed in 2 months will be completed in 4 months, if the work goes on in the same way.

Earned Value Illustration

Negative values denote:
If CV is negative, it means that actual cost of performing the work is more than planned (AC > PV)
If SV is negative, it means that the activity took more time than planned to complete.

CPI interpretations:
=1: the actual cost = planned cost
<1: actual costs are more than the budget >1: actual costs are under budget

SPI interpretations:
=1: on schedule
<1: behind schedule >1: ahead of schedule

After going through the definition, need and terms related to earned value management, I hope you will be able to use this tool properly to rate the performance of your project. Will Earned Value Analysis work for your project?
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Earned Value Analysis

2011-12-03T02:05:00.004+05:30

What is earned value analysis?

Earned value analysis is an approach for measuring how much work has been completed in a project at given point of time and performance.
This analysis can be done by calculating how much time, the work has taken and the resources it has utilised. These values are then compared with the planned values of time and resources. If the time taken to do the particular task is greater than what was planned, it means that the project is running behind schedule. Similarly, if the resources utilized are more than what were planned, it means the project has not been managed efficiently in terms of resources.

Formally, Earned value analysis may be defined as a tool to objectively measure project performance by integrating scope, time and cost data. Earned value management also provides a means to forecast future performance based on past performance.

Earned Value Terminology

Earned Value Analysis (EVA) - It is a quantitative technique using which we can evaluate the performance of project and predict the final results, for this we compare present progress and cost incurred to planned estimations.It is the most comprehensive trend analysis technique.
Earned Value Management (EVM) – It is project management methodology used for monitoring and controlling our project by measuring the performance Work Breakdown Structure (WBS).
Earned Value Analysis terms and Formulae

Earned Value Analysis And Project Management

Earned Value Analysis is a Cost Control tool in Project Management.
It is used as a forecaster and tracker for measuring the progress of the project in terms of work done and resources utilized. It should be noted that both these terms (work done and resources utilized) are inter-related when it comes to execution of a project.

A baseline (original plan plus approved changes) can determine how well the project is meeting its goals and baseline acts as a benchmark.
Earned value technique compares the cumulative value of the budgeted cost of work performed(earned) at the original allocated budgeted amount to both, the budgeted cost of work scheduled(planned) and the actual cost of work performed(actual).

Actual information must be entered periodically to use Earned Value Analysis:

Was each item of the Work Breakdown Structure(WBS) completed or approximately how much of the work was completed,
Actual start and end dates of the activities/tasks,
Actual costs of individual activities and tasks.

A "threshold" or tolerance point for the constraints in a project - time, cost and scope may be kept. Actual values should be kept below the tolerance levels. If the project constraints exceed these threshold values, it acts as a "danger sign" and required steps should be taken to address it immediately or at least some changes be made in the future plans to accommodate the discrepancies without much hassle.
Earned value analysis includes some easy mathematical formulae, based on common sense. So if you find these formulae too confusing, and think the only way to remember them is to mug them up, don't worry you will soon master them with the help of little understanding.....

Why is Earned Value Analysis done? Need of EVA in Project Management (PM)

Meeting project deadlines within a reasonable budget is hard to achieve. Focusing on both the parameters is a difficult but a necessary task. Without monitoring and controlling the project, it is nearly impossible to complete it within the scope, time and cost. Compromising on one of these three factors leads to the over utilization of other(s), which is not desirable and may lead to contractual penalties.
To complete a project in the given timeframe and within the given resources, it is necessary to plan for their judicious use, not only at the beginning of a project but also during its execution. This is essential to make the project adapt to external changes and absorb irregularities in the schedule.
This is where Earned Value Analysis comes into the picture. It is used as a tool for cost control as it is very helpful in determining how the project is going, in terms of cost, scope and time. That is, whether the cost is under control and if it will go over our planned budget or in how much time the project would be completed if we continue working at the same pace.
Thus Earned Value Analysis is helpful to plan and make changes in our plan depending on the current scenario and other internal and external factors which may influence the project later on.

Note that Earned Value Analysis calculations for any project can be done at any point of time, but if we are not using earned value management, we might not get accurate results.

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Earned Value Management : Advantages and Disadvantages

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Autobiography of a Word Processor

2011-12-01T12:05:00.001+05:30

Born in the year 1978, with tremendous efforts to create a unique word processor, I was yet another revolutionary product.
They initially created me for the purpose of easing out their essay writing skills. As my newer versions came into place, I had become a software that could even tell mistakes, correct grammar and help with coding. With each version, I was brought in with something new and was not limited to just the functionality of a typewriter with modifying options. Providing perfection at every step and easing out typing had become my sole function.
Slowly and steadily, by 1986, I became the largest selling application software. But that is when my position started being threatened by other similar copied softwares developed by other companies. Since people always go in for better and advanced products, the story is the same for my counterparts too. They developed, they used, they left us. Harsh, but true. So they left me for the better ones by 1995.
But soon, after the failure of others, I came into the limelight again by being used in the mobile revolution. And here I am, 30 years hence, continuing to win hearts of millions across the world.Read Grievances of A Software (Just 4 Fun)
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Success and Failure in Life

2011-11-29T00:10:00.001+05:30

What is Success? Answer to this may vary from person to person. Success gives us happiness, it gives us satisfaction.But if you ask me, success is the fulfillment of a goal for which you put in the best of your efforts and time. Each minute, each second, all you think about is how to fulfill that goal. Each right step towards it is a milestone and even one step gone wrong may be devastating and lead to failure. The joy and sense of achievement attained on reaching the goal is unmatched. However, success without failure is not possible. As they say, "A successful man is one who can lay a firm foundation with the bricks others have thrown at him."

Even the smallest of our daily life activities involve success and failure. For instance, reaching your place of work on time, inspite of obstacles, is a goal. Achieving this goal may be a small success, but significant enough to start your day in the right way. If you fail to achieve this small target, you are welcomed by taunts and insults. This has a domino effect on all the activities of the day.

Even success can have its ill-effects
For example, when you do a very important and difficult task right, you will be expected to do it right, with the same level of excellence each time. This task, of doing same activity repeatedly, can be very painful and irritating. There may come a point when you will be forced to do it without any motivation. Also, doing something challenging, builds confidence, which is good. Also when you take up herculean tasks and do them right too, it may lead to over confidence and get you all cocky which may have bad effect on your work. And if it gets into your head, it is a catastrophe. It has the potential to disrupt your personal as well as professional life.

Failure has its importance too
Each step in life, no matter how small, is important. So is success and failure. Wondering how failure is important? Well, failure makes you learn, makes you tough, gives you strength, the zest, the motivation required for something which may previously seem impossible. Remember, "Defeat is not the worst of failures. Not to have tried is the true failure". Sometimes, it just makes you realise what your capabilities and limitations are. After all, not everything in life is dependent on you. There are 7 billion others out there to screw your life in some or the other way.

However, if a moment of failure is not taken in the right manner, it can be discouraging and disastrous. Especially, when it directly affects your loved ones. In the worst cases it can lower your self-esteem and confidence. To avoid such a situation, it is essential to have a plan B, or at least be prepared for the situation, mentally. After failure, the person first spends time in relenting and regretting what went wrong and promising oneself that next time the same mistake would not be committed. The next step is to identify what exactly went wrong. Next, the person decides what is to be done with respect to starting all over again or leaving it and moving on, carrying the experience with you for the rest of your life. Failure can mean two things - First, one or more steps went wrong. And second, the goal was unachievable, not that it was impossible, but in the given the constraints it could not be achieved. If you commit yourself to something, make sure you at least know the consequences of its success and failure, not only for you, but the people who are going be affected through you.

At the end of the day, all you should worry about is what new experience you had today. And not about failure, because "success is sweeter when you have tasted failure". You will realize that each point of success or failure and each bit of hard work you put in counts, in this journey called LIFE.

"Life is a process. There is no success or failure – only feedback."

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Grievances of A Software

2011-11-26T16:32:00.002+05:30

Grievances of A Software a Sad Story of a Software...

Hello! I am a software. Yeh I know you use me every day, but do you even know who I am. I am not Windows, Mac or Linux nor am I VLC, Mozilla or Chrome.
I am just like any other baby out there. My developer, my parent, brought me into this world to help you with your various daily processes. The lines of code, that he wrote, are my body parts. And like you humans each of my parts has a function in itself.

After giving birth to me, my developer left me with his clients, to take care and use me according to their requirements.

You use me every day, still you don’t know me, nor do you understand my feelings. I work for you day-in and day-out, still you expect more and more from me. You use me to such an extent that I crash sometimes. My body gets injured and needs time to recover. Still you don’t understand my limitations.

Sometimes, some of my adopted parents upgrade me, give more functionality to my body parts. Still your expectations never get fulfilled. You throw me away after few years of use.

I have just a small appeal treat me as a HUMAN, because I have FEELINGS too. Read Autobiography of A Word Processor (Just 4 Fun)

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Difference between Prototype Model and Waterfall Model

2011-11-25T00:19:00.004+05:30

Earlier we discussed Waterfall model and Prototype Model in detail, now let’s evaluate the difference between the two of these Software Development Life Cycles(SDLC).

For development of Quality software, a company has to consider the following points:-
1) It meets the requirements of the client,
2) It is developed within a specific timeframe,
3) Software development process should be completed within planned budget.

In order to achieve aforesaid goals, various Software development models have evolved over the years. Before discussing the distinguishing factors in Waterfall and Prototype models, I would suggest you to go through the following articles for proper understanding about them.

1) What is Waterfall Model? (opens in new window)
2) Advantages and Disadvantages of Waterfall Model (opens in new window)
3) What is Prototype Model in SDLC? Its advantages and disadvantages (opens in new window)

Note that waterfall model is one of the most traditional processes, while prototyping is a more non-conventional one.

Prototype Model Vs Waterfall Model

I hope after going through the above articles, you have understood a fair bit about both the development processes. The basic difference in the two approaches is that, Waterfall Model is more rigid compared to Prototyping approach. We take the inputs from the user/client only till the start of designing phase of SDLC, while in prototype model we have constant interaction with the client and his inputs and suggestions are taken into consideration.

In prototyping we use evolutionary approach while in waterfall model we have a sort of linear, conventional approach.

Waterfall Model is implemented in the projects where conventional product/software has to be delivered to the client. In such cases user is sure and clear about his requirements. He states them clearly to the development team and chances of ambiguity is bare minimum. While Prototype model is usually used in online projects where client is not sure about his requirements, his expectations and preferences need to be taken care of.

Which model you should prefer Waterfall or Prototype?

Before deciding which process to go for, study the client requirements. We should also try to read his mind in order to judge whether he is sure and clear about his requirements. Incase he is not clear about them, it is advisable to go for prototyping model.

Cost incurred in making a prototype is usually an issue, but one also needs to ensure that the end product should satisfy the customer and if the final product doesn’t, then the whole activity of software development will be a waste of time and money.

Final verdict: Software requirement specifications(SRS) is the most important document in any development process, and if requirements are clear from customer's side, go for Waterfall model. At any given day, the cost of implementing Waterfall process is less than prototype process.

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Prototype Model: Advantages and Disadvantages

2011-11-15T00:23:00.009+05:30

What is Prototyping Model SDLC?

After waterfall model, lets discuss what is prototyping model in Software Development is. Here, a prototype is made first and based on it final product is developed. A prototype is a model or a program which is not based on strict planning, but is an early approximation of the final product or software system. A prototype acts as a sample to test the process. From this sample we learn and try to build a better final product. Please note that this prototype may or may not be completely different from the final system we are trying to develop.

Need of Prototyping Model

This type of System Development Method is employed when it is very difficult to obtain exact requirements from the customer(unlike waterfall model, where requirements are clear). While making the model, user keeps giving feedbacks from time to time and based on it, a prototype is made. Completely built sample model is shown to user and based on his feedback, the SRS(System Requirements Specifications) document is prepared. After completion of this, a more accurate SRS is prepared, and now development work can start using Waterfall Model.
Now lets discuss the disadvantages and advantages of the Prototype model in Software Development Method.

Prototyping Process Model

Advantages of Prototyping Model

1) When prototype is shown to the user, he gets a proper clarity and 'feel' of the functionality of the software and he can suggest changes and modifications.
2) This type of approach of developing the software is used for non-IT-literate people. They usually are not good at specifying their requirements, nor can tell properly about what they expect from the software.
3) When client is not confident about the developer's capabilities, he asks for a small prototype to be built. Based on this model, he judges capabilities of developer.
4) Sometimes it helps to demonstrate the concept to prospective investors to get funding for project.
5) It reduces risk of failure, as potential risks can be identified early and mitigation steps can be taken.
6) Iteration between development team and client provides a very good and conductive environment during project.
7) Time required to complete the project after getting final the SRS reduces, since the developer has a better idea about how he should approach the project.

Disadvantages of Prototyping Model:

1) Prototyping is usually done at the cost of the developer. So it should be done using minimal resources. It can be done using Rapid Application Development (RAD) tools. Please note sometimes the start-up cost of building the development team, focused on making prototype, is high.
2) Once we get proper requirements from client after showing prototype model, it may be of no use. That is why, sometimes we refer to the prototype as "Throw-away" prototype.
3) It is a slow process.
4) Too much involvement of client, is not always preferred by the developer.
5) Too many changes can disturb the rhythm of the development team.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Waterfall Model

2011-11-03T22:56:00.006+05:30

Earlier we saw what is Waterfall model (also called The Linear Sequential Model), now lets discuss some of the advantages and disadvantages(drawbacks) of this type of Software Development Process.Remember it is the oldest and the most widely used process for software engineering.

Advantages of Waterfall Iterative Model

1) Waterfall model is simple to implement and also the amount of resources required for it are minimal.

2) In this model, output is generated after each stage (as seen before), therefore it has high visibility. The client and project manager gets a feel that there is considerable progess. Here it is important to note that in any project psychological factors also play an important role.

3) Project management, both at internal level and client's level, is easy again because of visible outputs after each phase. Deadlines can be set for the completion of each phase and evaluation can be done from time to time, to check if project is going as per milestones.

4) This methodology is significantly better than the haphazard approach to develop software. It provides a template into which methods of analysis, design, coding, testing and maintainence can be placed.

Disadvantages of Waterfall Iterative Model of SDLC

1) Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow and iterations in this model are handled indirectly. These changes can cause confusion as the project proceeds.

2) It is often difficult to get customer requirements explicitly. Thus specifications can't be freezed. If that case arises baseline approach is followed, wherein output of one phase is carried forward to next phase. For example, even if SRS is not well defined and requirements can't be freezed, still design starts. Now if any changes are made in SRS then formal procedure is followed to put those changes in baseline document.

3) In this model we freeze software and hardware. But as technology changes at a rapid pace,such freezing is not advisable especially in long-term projects.

4) This method is especially bad in case client is not IT-literate as getting specifications from such a person is tough.

5) Even a smal change in any previous stage can cause big problem for subsequent phases as all phases are dependent on each-other.

Projects where Watefall Method is suitable for SDLC:-

1) In development of database-related software, eg commercial projects.
2) In development of E-commerce website or portal.
3) In Development of network protocol software.

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Read More :-
Iterative Waterfall Model of SDLC (Explained)
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Waterfall Model Advantages and Disadvantages

Waterfall Model

2011-11-01T22:59:00.006+05:30

What is Waterfall Iterative Model?
Waterfall Model is one of the most widely used Software Development Process.It is also called as "Linear Sequential model" or the "classic life cycle" or iterative model. It is widely used in the commercial development projects. It is called so because here, we move to next phase(step) after getting input from previous phase, like in a waterfall, water flows down to from the upper steps.

In this iterative waterfall model Software Development process is divided into five phases:-
a) SRS (Software Requirement Specifications)
b) System Design and Software Design
c) Implementation and Unit testing
d) Integration and System Testing
e) Operation and Maintenance

Iterative Waterfall Model with its stages

Lets discuss all these stages of waterfall model in detail.

Software Requirements Specifications:

This is the most crucial phase for the whole project, here project team along with the customer makes a detailed list of user requirements. The project team chalks out the functionality and limitations(if there are any) of the software they are developing, in detail. The document which contains all this information is called SRS, and it clearly and unambiguously indicates the requirements. A small amount of top-level analysis and design is also documented. This document is verified and endorsed by the customer before starting the project. SRS serves as the input for further phases.

System Design and Software Design:

Using SRS as input, system design is done. System design included designing of software and hardware i.e. functionality of hardware and software is separated-out. After separation design of software modules(see what is modularity) is done.The design process translates requirements into representation of the software that can be assessed for quality before generation of code begins. At the same time test plan is prepared, test plan describes the various tests which will be carried out on the system after completion of development.

Implementation and Unit Testing:

Now that we have system design, code generation begins. Code generation is conversion of design into machine-readable form. If designing of software and system is done well, code generation can be done easily. Software modules are now further divided into units. A unit is a logically separable part of the software. Testing of units can be done separately. In this phase unit testing is done by the developer itself, to ensure that there are no defects.

Integration and System testing:

Now the units of the software are integrated together and a system is built. So we have a complete software at hand which is tested to check if it meets the functional and performance requirements of the customer. Testing is done, as per the steps defined in the test plan, to ensure defined input produces actual results which agree with the required results. A test report is generated which contains test results.

Operation & maintenance:

Now that we have completed the tested software, we deliver it to the client. His feed-backs are taken and any changes,if required, are made in this phase. This phase goes on till the software is retired.

Outputs generated after each phase of Waterfall Model:

Requirements Specifications => SRS, Draft User Manual, Maintenance plan
System Design & Software design => System design document (Hardware and Software design documents), Interface design document, Unit test plan, System test plan
Implementation & Unit testing => Program code, Unit-test report
Integration & system testing => System test report, Final user manual, Working system
Operation & maintenance => No output

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Read More:-
What are the Advantages and Disadvantages of the Waterfall Model
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