VERSES RELEVANT TO HOURIS

Sad 38:52
“Alongside them will be female beings (houris), all of the same age, who focus their gaze on them.”

Saffat 37:48-49
“Alongside them will be wide-eyed female beings (houris) who focus their gaze on them. They are as if they were hidden eggs (radiant, with pure white-skin).”

Duhan 44:54
“Thus, we will bring wide-eyed houris close to them (for service).”

Toor 52:20
“Reclining upon ranged settees… And we will bring wide-eyed houris close to them (for service).”

Rahman 55:56
“Therein are female beings who focus their gaze (on those they serve). No human or jinn has contacted them before those (they serve).”

Rahman 55:72,74
“Houris that are sheltered in tents.”
“No human or jinn has contacted them before (the people of Paradise).”

Waqia 56:17-23
“Immortalized male servants (wildan) will circulate among them (the people close to Allah), with pitchers, ewers, and cups filled from a flowing spring…  Neither will their heads ache from what they drink, nor will they be intoxicated.  Those (servants) will also move about with the fruits preferred by the people of Paradise and the bird meat they desire. And there will be wide-eyed houris (circulating), as if they were pearls hidden in their shells. (All of this is) to reward them for what they used to do.”

Waqia 56:35-37
“We have created them (the houris) of special creation. We made them first ones (of their kind), cheerful and pure of heart, agemates^[1].”

Insan 76:19
“Immortalized male servants (wildan) will circulate among them (the people of Paradise). When you see them, you will reckon they are scattered pearls.”

Naba’ 78:33
“Female beings of the same age who provide high-quality service…”

LIFE IN PARADISE

There will be male and female servants in Paradise. Female servants are called “houri”, and male servants are called “wildan”.

These are among the rewards that the People of Paradise will receive. They consist of both believing men and believing women who used to refrain from doing wrong in worldly life.

WILDAN

Wildan are male servants who circulate among the people in Paradise carrying drinks and food. These wildān move gracefully like scattered pearls, carrying filled pitchers, ewers, goblets, assorted fruits, meats (including fowl), and ginger-infused drinks (Al-Insān 76:15-19).

HOURIS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES

Houris, whose bodies are veiled like hidden pearls in their shells, are close attendants assigned to each person. They will not take their eyes off the people they serve (Saffat 37/48-49, Rahman 55/56, 72; Waqi′a 56/22-23). They will have a very high quality of service according to the expression “kawaeba atraba (كَوَاعِبَ أَتْرَابًا)” in Naba 78/33.

ATRAB

“Atraba (أَتْرَابًا)” are agemates. The houris will have been created in Paradise as the first ones of their kind for the service of the People of Paradise. Therefore, they will all be the same age.

KAWAEB

In the Arabic language, anything high or rising is “ka′b (كَعْبٌ)”. A reputable and successful person is called “a person with high ka′b (رجلٌ عَالِي الكَعْب)” (Lisan′ul−Arab). The word “kawaeb (كَوَاعِبَ)” in verse 78:33 is the plural of “ka‘ib (كاعب)”, which means “having a high extent (of sth)”. What is expected from houris is “high-quality service”. The fact that they focus their eyes on the people they serve is a sign of the high-quality service provided by a close attendant (Sad 38/52, Rahman 55/56), as it signifies constant attention to the person.

WIVES OR CLOSE ATTENDANTS?

In traditional Islamic interpretations, the integrity of the relevant verses is ignored. Houris, who are of a kind never before contacted by humans or jinn (Waqi′a 56/35-37, Rahman 55/56), have been assumed as “virgin girls”, and the word “kawaeb (كواعب)” has been given the meaning of “full-breasted”.

Due to the phrase “(وَزَوَّجْنَاهُم بِحُورٍعِينٍ) We would “make them zawj with wide-eyed houris,” which appears in verses Toor 52:20 and Duhan 44:54, it is claimed that houris will be given to men entering Paradise as concubines, but this claim is incorrect because, the people given houris include both men and women, that is, all the people who refrain from doing wrong, according to the contexts beginning with verses Toor 52:17 and Duhan 44:51.

There are many details to consider to correctly understand the meaning of “zawwaja” in those verses.

THE MEANING OF THE NOUN “ZAWJ”

In Arabic, each person that is united around the same opinion (Waqi′a 56/7), the male and female of the same species of living beings, each shoe from a pair of shoes, and each of two things whose qualities are similar or opposite are called a “zawj”. The feminine word “zawja” is not used in classical Arabic.

THE MEANING OF THE VERB “ZAWWAJA”

The verb  “zawwaja (زَوَّجَ)”, derived from the same root as “zawj”, carries different meanings depending on its grammatical construction. When it takes a single object, it means “to make something a pair” (Shura 42:49-50). When it takes two objects—with the second attached directly to the verb—it means “to marry off” (Ahzab 33:37). However, if the second object is introduced via a preposition (harf jarr), the verb conveys the meaning of “bringing something very close” (Mufradat).

Consequently, the phrase “We would make them zawj with wide-eyed houris” (as found in verses Toor 52:20 and Duhan 44:54) should be understood as houris being made into close attendants. This interpretation is further reinforced by etymology.

ETYMOLOGY OF HOURI

The word houri derives from masdar “hawr (حَوْر)”, which denotes “moving away from and returning to something” (Lisān al-ʿArab). The English word *hover*, which sounds similar, means “to keep lingering about; to wait near at hand.” That is what houris do. They wait in a proximate, servile position to those they attend (Sād 38:52), retrieving and delivering what they request from the wildān (male servants) who circulate among the people of the Paradise. So, they are close attendants assigned to each person in Paradise. They remain attentively close to those they serve to fulfil their requests, never straying far.

VIRGINS OR FIRST ONES OF A KIND?

One of the false claims about houris is that they will be virgin wives or concubines of the men in Paradise. The following verses allegedly support this claim:

Waqia 56:34

وَفُرُشٍ مَرْفُوعَةٍۜ

(the dwellers of Paradise will be) on elevated couches.

Waqia 56:35

اِنَّٓا اَنْشَأْنَاهُنَّ اِنْشَٓاءًۙ

“We have created them (the houris) of special creation.”

The pronoun ‘hunna (هن) – them’, to which we attribute the meaning ‘houris’ in verse 56:35, is given the sense ‘the wives of the dwellers of Paradise’ in some traditional commentaries and translations. This stems from interpreting the phrase ‘wa furushin marfooatin (وَفُرُشٍ مَّرْفُوعَةٍ) – they will be on elevated couches’ in verse 56:34 as ‘we will give them most precious spouses’. This interpretation, however, is contrary to the Arabic language rules:

The expression in verse 34 is the last in a series of adverbial phrases of place that begin with verse 56:27, where the preposition ‘fī (في) – in’ clearly indicates a location. All the verses between 56:27 and 56:34 consist of descriptions of places where the people of Paradise who are given their records in their right hands, will reside. None of these verses include an additional preposition, which means that they are all connected to verse 56:27:
“lote-trees; banana-trees; extended shades; outpouring water (sources); unending, unrestricted, abundant fruits; elevated coaches”

FURUSHIN MARFOOATIN

To assign the meaning ‘we will give them most precious spouses’ to the verse, it would be necessary to treat the adverbial words as objects (maf’ul), which is impossible from the perspective of the Arabic language. Moreover, the word ‘furush (فُرُش),’ to which the commentators attribute the meaning ‘wives /spouses,’ is used in verse 54 of Surah Ar-Rahman to mean ‘the couches on which the dwellers of Paradise recline,’ and no one has ever assigned it a meaning other than ‘couches.’

In verse 56:34 as well, the word ‘furush’ carries the same meaning. Three verses after this, the statement: ‘These are for those given their records in their right hands’ (Al-Waqi’a 56:38) is repeated. So, verse 56:35 is not connected to 56:34.

Considering the sentence “We have created them (the houris) of special creation.” it is clear from the Arabic point of view that the only possible referent for the pronoun “hunna (them)” in 56:35  is the houris mentioned in Al-Waqi’a 56:22 because that pronoun is used for female beings in Arabic, and the only female being mentioned before 56:35 is the houris in 56:22. That means, the houris will be of a new and special creation.

THE MEANING OF “ABKAR”

Waqia 56:36

فَجَعَلْنَاهُنَّ اَبْكَارًاۙ

“We made them first ones (of their kind),”

The word rendered as ‘first ones’ is ‘(أبكار) abkar,’ the plural of ‘(بكر) bikr.’ The root meaning of ‘bikr’ is to be the first and origin of something (Makayis al-Lugha).
This word is also used for virgin females.

Commentaries and translations have given the verse ‘(فَجَعَلْنَاهُنَّ أَبْكَارًا)’ the meaning ‘we made them virgins’ instead of ‘we made them first ones.’ This interpretation roots in the misbelief that men can have concubines out of wedlock, besides their married wives even in this world, thus allowing them to have countless virgin concubines in Paradise. However, the notion that men may keep concubines outside marriage is entirely baseless^[2], so the assumption that houris are virgin concubine girls other than wives is also imaginary. Houris are female beings which are of a kind to be encountered by humans and jinn for the first time in Paradise (Ar-Rahman 55:56, 72-74). Their bodies, veiled like pearls in shells, signify that they are not objects of beauty or sexual desire. They will be assigned to both men and women in Paradise, and will not be similar to the girls of this world.

Waqia 56:37

عُرُبًا اَتْرَابًاۙ

“cheerful and pure of heart, agemates.”

SPOUSES IN PARADISE

Men and women who deserve the Paradise will not be alone there. Considering the facts that some people never married in this world, some men or women married more than once, some divorced, spouses of some will not deserve the jannah,etc. we can have the insight that the people of Paradise may have but are not bound to have their worldly spouses in the afterlife. They will all be created anew in immortal bodies, and purified by God according to the verse below:

Baqarah 2:25
“Give glad tidings to those who believe and perform righteous deeds: there are gardens for them in which rivers flow. Every time they are provided with a produce from there, they say: “This is what we were provided with before”, but they are given something similar. They will have purified spouses and will be immortal therein.”

The purification mentioned in the verse is not about cleanliness only but about having perfectly pure hearts with no jealousy, no hatred, and no bad feelings. We learn this from the verse below:

Hijr 15:47
“We will remove from their hearts all ill feelings; they will be brethren, lounging on couches, facing one another.”

CONCLUSION

Considering that all ill-feelings, which may also include lust and envy, will be removed and the dwellers of Paradise will already have purified spouses, there is no need for virgin concubines as a reward in Paradise. However, close attendants with a high quality of service and full attention on both male and female dwellers of Paradise are coherent with the rest of the rewards promised to the people of Paradise.

^[1] The word translated as “cheerful and pure of heart” is ‘urub’ (عرب), which is the plural of ‘aroob’ (عروب).

^[2] Please read the following article about slavery and concubinage: https://www.islamandquran.org/common-mistakes/battle-captives-and-concubinage.html

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THE PILGRIMAGE (HAJJ) AND SACRIFICE

بِسْمِ اللَّهِ ٱلرَّحْمـٰنِ ٱلرَّحِيمِ

وَٱلْبُدْنَ جَعَلْنَاهَا لَكُمْ مِّن شَعَائِرِ ٱللَّهِ لَكُمْ فِيهَا خَيْرٌ فَٱذْكُرُواْ ٱسْمَ ٱللَّهِ عَلَيْهَا صَوَآفَّ فَإِذَا وَجَبَتْ جُنُوبُهَا فَكُلُواْ مِنْهَا وَأَطْعِمُواْ ٱلْقَانِعَ وَٱلْمُعْتَرَّ كَذٰلِكَ سَخَّرْنَاهَا لَكُمْ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ ﴿﴾ لَن يَنَالَ ٱللَّهَ لُحُومُهَا وَلاَ دِمَآؤُهَا وَلَـٰكِن يَنَالُهُ ٱلتَّقْوَىٰ مِنكُمْ كَذٰلِكَ سَخَّرَهَا لَكُمْ لِتُكَبِّرُواْ ٱللَّهَ عَلَىٰ مَا هَدَاكُمْ وَبَشِّرِ ٱلْمُحْسِنِينَ ﴿﴾

“As for the physically mature sacrificial animals, We have appointed them for you among the symbols of worship to God. There is much good in them for you. so invoke God’s name over them as they are lined up for sacrifice. When they fall on their sides, eat of them and feed both those who ask and those who are too shy to ask. Thus, We have subjected these animals to you so that you may fulfill your duties. Neither their flesh nor their blood reaches God, but it is your piety that reaches Him. He has made these animals subservient to you, so that you may glorify God because He has guided you to the right path. Give glad tidings to those who do good.” (al-Hajj 22/36-37)

قَالَ أَصْحَابُ رَسُولِ اللَّهِ ـ صلى الله عليه وسلم ـ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ مَا هَذِهِ الأَضَاحِيُّ قَالَ ‏”‏ سُنَّةُ أَبِيكُمْ إِبْرَاهِيمَ ‏”‏ ‏

“The Companions of the Messenger of God (PBUH) said: ‘O Messenger of God, what are these sacrifices?’ He said: ‘The Sunnah of your father Abraham.’ (Ibn Majah, Adahi, 3)

Dear Muslims,

Eid al-Adha is coming soon. It is celebrated during the period of the year when Hajj -the pilgrimage to Mecca- is performed. However, the sacrifice of a specific animal is a kind of worship that every capable Muslim is responsible to fulfil whether he does the pilgrimage or not. Both Hajj and sacrifice are types of worship that are known to humans since Adam (PBUH). The first human in the world, Adam, built the first temple, and he must have performed the first pilgrimage because Abraham (PBUH) and his son Ishmael raised the Kaaba over its original foundation and prayed as such:

“Our Master! Make us both submissive to You and make a community that is submissive to You out of our descendants, too. Show us our rites (the places to perform the Pilgrimage and Umrah) and welcome us as we turn around (from our misdeeds). You are the One Who welcomes the turnarounds (from misdeeds) and You are the forgiving and the Most Beneficent.” (al-Baqarah 2:128)

God has accepted their prayer, and pilgrimage (Hajj) has become ongoing worship since then. God describes performing the worship of Hajj as His right on the people, for those who can find a course to go to Kaaba. Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his family were also the descendants of Ishmael and they were living in Mecca where the worship of pilgrimage (Hajj) is performed.

Dear Muslims,

Do you have further information about Ishmael (PBUH)? We already said that he is the son of Abraham (PBUH). In the Quran an incident about Abraham and his son Ishmael is narrated as follows:

“ ‘(Abraham said) O my Master, grant me a righteous son!’ We gave him the glad tidings of a gentle boy. When he reached the age when he could work with his father, Abraham said, ‘O my son, I have seen in a dream that I am sacrificing you. So, tell me what you think of it. He replied, ‘O my father, do as you are commanded; and God-willing, you will find me steadfast.’ When they both submitted themselves to God, and he laid his son down on the side of his face, We called out to him, ‘Abraham, you have fulfilled the vision.’ It is thus indeed that We reward those who do good – that surely was a manifest trial – We ransomed him with a great sacrifice and left him thus to be remembered among later generations: ‘Peace and blessings be upon Abraham!’ That is how We recompense the righteous. Truly, he was one of Our faithful servants.” (al-Saffat 37:100-111)

Dear Muslims,

We know from the Quran that the sacrifice of specific animals is known as a type of worship since Adam (AS) and that his sons also practiced it. Furthermore, the people who are mentioned as, “later generations” in the verses above are the ones who follow the footprints of Abraham (PBUH) and accept him as their ancestor; in other words, we Muslims. As we mentioned in the hadith above, the sacrifice of a specific animal is the sunnah of Abraham (PBUH). When we practice this type of devotion, we remember Abraham (PBUH) and Ishmael (PBUH).

Dear Muslims,

The essence of animal sacrifice is linked to refraining from associating partners with God, which is called “shirk” in the Quran. There are types of “shirk”. One of them is to associate partners with God assuming that they also have some attributes or authorities that in fact pertain to God only. Another type of shirk is to give priority to another being, philosophy, or authority before God’s orders and prohibitions. Refraining from committing “shirk” is the most important type of “taqwa”, that is, refraining from doing wrong due to fear of God. Therefore, every year on Eid al-Adha we sacrifice specific animals to show our submission to Almighty God. As it is commanded in relevant verses, we give most of the meat away to the needy and eat a small portion of it ourselves. So, we show the best example of aiding our community, while experiencing the inner peace of fulfilling the duty that God has imposed upon us. We wish you to celebrate Eid al-Adha with this awareness. Thus, we hope that we will be among the saved ones.

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When witnessing wrongdoing and sins committed in the name of Islam, the common refrain is, “This is not real Islam!” However, attempts to explain “Real Islam” often fail to refer to its source: the Quran.

Here, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the lifestyle prescribed in the Quran— the path designed by the Creator for humanity. We project that this document will shed light on the path of all citizens of the world: non-Muslims, newly converted Muslims, and some Muslims who are stuck in cultural traditions instead of finding primary guidance and solace in God’s Book.

FOUNDATIONAL CONCEPTS

WHY IS THERE GLOBAL BIAS AGAINST ISLAM?

Today, the so-called “Sharia Law” mostly consists of interpretations and judgments by scholars of Quranic verses. Unfortunately, some fundamental mistakes occur because these conclusions don’t follow the method of Hikmah (Wisdom) prescribed in the Quran. Instead, they reflect human-made rules.

Additionally, cultural traditions and superstitions in Muslim-majority countries are sometimes wrongly associated with Islamic rules. Generalizations and a lack of understanding of the diversity within Muslim communities contribute to misinformation and prejudice about Islam.

WHICH CRITERION CAN WE USE TO VERIFY THE ACCURACY OF QUR’AN TRANSLATIONS?

Without a grasp of Arabic, how can one verify translations of Qur’anic verses and trust the information provided about them, including those presented here? Is there a method to it?

RECOGNIZING GOD AS THE ONLY AUTHORITY

The errors and misjudgments made in the name of Islam arise because scholars often believe they are authorized to explain the Quran in detail. However, only God the Almighty has this authority, and He has done this by providing details of verses within other verses. So, God made the Quran a self-explanatory, self-evident Book, not authorizing anyone else to explain His verses in detail. We are only allowed to derive His explanations using the method taught in the Quran:

“Alif, Lam, Ra. This is a Book whose verses have been made decisive, and in the meantime have been explained in detail by the One Who judges correctly and is All-Aware; so that you shall not be the servants of any other than God. (Oh, Muhammad, say to people:) Indeed, I am the one who warns you with this Book and gives glad tidings to you from It.” (Quran 11:1-2)

THE METHOD IN THE QURAN

This method involves bringing together all verses relevant to a particular matter. When we evaluate all relevant verses together, the rulings become clear, like the full picture of a puzzle.

God refers to this method of deriving explanations as a “science (علم)” in the Quran. Without this method, every scholar could create their interpretations of Quranic verses and falsely attribute their own words to God. However, by examining a topic using the methodology prescribed in the Quran, we can quickly determine whether an interpretation or conclusion is accurate. The Quran provides criteria to distinguish truth from falsehood “so that we shall not be the servants of any other than God”.

For full details and the relevant verses on this science, please refer to:

http://www.islamandquran.org/research/the-science-of-explaining-the-quran.html

WAS THE QURAN SENT TO ARABS ONLY?

The Almighty God decrees:

“This (Qur’an) is a manifestation for humankind and guidance and admonition for those who refrain from doing wrong”. (Quran 3:138)

As clearly understood from this verse, the Quran has been sent to all the people on the earth, not only to Arabs.

WHAT ARE SIGNS OF GOD?

There are two types of signs related to God:
1. The words of God in divine books. They are called “the signs sent down by God” or “verses.”
2. All beings in the universe. They are called “the signs created by God”, “creation”, or “nature.”
The principles of the upright religion are innate in every uncorrupted human because every human is also a sign of God. Indeed, by correlating Quranic verses with the signs in themselves and their environment, humans can understand the divine origin of the Quran:
“We will show them Our signs in the environment and within themselves until it becomes manifest to them that this (Qur’an) is the truth.” (Quran 41:53)

Recognizing these signs leads to understanding our role and responsibility in relation to God. We, the human beings created by God, remain untainted signs of God as long as we protect ourselves from corruption by avoiding actions God prohibits or does not recommend.

WHY IS HUMAN RESPONSIBLE TOWARDS GOD? 

The Quran indicates that God grants humans unique abilities, distinct from other creatures, by breathing His spirit into the human body at a specific stage ^[1] during fetal development:

“Then God set its equilibrium (as of its organs) and breathed into it from His spirit. So, He made for you listening, foresight, and hearts capable of decision-making. How little you fulfill your duties!” (Quran 32:9)

The verse above is often mistranslated as “He made for you hearing, eyesight, and hearts.” However, hearing, eyesight, and the heart (as a physical organ or as the source of feelings) are shared with animals. Yet, there are significant differences between humans and animals due to the abilities God has granted humans by breathing from His spirit. Humans not only hear but also choose what to listen to, and not only see but also foresee potential outcomes. Most of all, humans not only possess feelings but also make decisions by evaluating information that their minds process alongside their feelings.

These unique abilities granted by God are the foundation of human accountability. Because humans make observations in nature and themselves, they recognize the signs created by God, thus obtaining information about His existence and unity. Thereafter, using these unique abilities, they can choose to obey God or disregard Him. They can analyze the reasons and consequences of their actions, thus making them accountable to God.

WHAT IS RELIGION?

God created humankind on the earth to live harmoniously with nature. Humans can disrupt this harmony unless they live by the principles that God has already established. These principles include the physical, chemical, and biological laws in nature (known as the laws of nature), and the unchanging moral principles, referred to as natural law ^[2]. We are required to follow these laws. In the Qur’an, God refers to this body of laws as “fitra,” which can also be translated as “natural order”:

“So set your face duly and steadily to that religion, the natural order (fitra) set by God. He has created humankind in compliance with it. There is nothing to substitute for what God creates. That is the upright religion, but most people do not know.” (Quran 30:30)

This indicates that religion is not just a belief system but a guide for living a physically and mentally healthy life in harmony with nature.

WHAT IS ISLAM?

Islam, as a word, means submission, peace and tranquility. According to the Quran, Islam is the submission of a person to God with their own will, or in other words, willing alignment with God’s guidance, that is, living a life in harmony with the purpose of creation. This submission is not a blind obedience; it is the outward reflection of the feelings of justice, mercy, meaning, and inclination towards truth that already exist within a person’s inner world. Islam establishes the connection of these fundamental values with God. The purpose of religion is to preserve this naturalness and guide a person to a life in harmony with their essence. In this sense, Islam calls the person to the deepest aspect of their humanity, their creation.

In the Quran, the expression “muslim” is used for everyone who submits to God with a sincere heart, who lovingly fulfills all their duties towards Him, and who chooses to live in peace and justice. Indeed, the Quran defines Abraham, the patriarch of the People of the Book, as “upright” and “one who submitted to God (muslim)” (Quran 3:67).

According to the Quran, true belief does not belong to a single race, nation, or geography. The religion in the sight of God is defined as “Islam” (Quran 3:19), but this is not just a name; it is a quality that describes a lifestyle where people submit unconditionally to God, thus attaining inner peace, as well as peace with the rest of the world.

For further details, please refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/true-islam/what-is-islam.html

CORE BELIEFS AND PRACTICES

IS IT PERMISSIBLE TO FORCE ISLAMIC FAITH OR RITUALS ON OTHERS?

Faith is confidence, or trust in a person or thing ^[3]. The essence of religion is faith in God, and the basis of faith is the approval of the heart. The heart is the inner realm where individuals are fully free. Even the most authoritative regimes cannot force someone to have confidence or trust in something if their heart is unwilling. Coercion, in this case, only leads to hypocrisy, which the Qur’an strongly criticizes. The 256th verse of Surah al-Baqarah emphasizes that there is no room for coercion in religion:

“There can not be any type of coercion in religion. Facts are made distinct from fiction. Whoever rejects the transgressors and trusts in God, certainly has held onto the firmest handle, which never breaks. God is all-listening, all-knowing.” (Quran 2:256)

This verse underscores a fundamental principle in an Islamic society: No coercion in religion!

THE EXAMPLE  OF PROPHET MUHAMMAD (PBUH)

No one has the right to force anyone to follow God’s commands, and neither did Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). In the Quran, God decrees addressing Prophet Muhammad (PBUH):

“We know well what they (deniers) say. You are not a dictator over them. So, inform them of the Quran whoever fears My promise (that the Day of Judgment and Hereafter are the truth).” (Quran 50:45)

Accordingly, no one can dictate any belief or practice to others. The only obligation of a believer is to communicate the Qur’an’s message in a way people can understand, allowing them to make their own choices:

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) never forced people to fast, pray, cover their hair, or perform any religious practice. Indeed, he said: “Actions are (judged) by motives (niyyah), so each person will have what they intended” ^[4].
So, a true Islamic law has no place for enforcing beliefs or practices. Trying to impose religious practices on people will only result in hypocrisy, which is more harmful to believers than having honest non-Muslim groups in a society.

We have noted that the upright religion consists of natural law and the laws of nature. Acting against them would spread corruption on the earth, which God dislikes. He manifests the misdeeds of wrongdoers in the Quran:

“Whenever they hold a position of authority, they endeavor to disturb the order of earth and to destroy resources and to exterminate nations (progenies). God does not like corruption.” (Quran 2:205)

In conclusion, everyone is free to choose their lifestyle as long as it does not harm others or disrupt the natural balance in the world and society. 

IS HUMAN SINFUL AT BIRTH? 

In the natural world, everything begins in an unblemished and pure state. Since humans are also part of nature, every newborn is inherently pure and innocent. God’s verses in divine scriptures do not directly address children, indicating that they are not held accountable by God until they reach puberty. Thus, not only is a newborn pure, but a child who has not yet reached puberty is also innocent:

“God has brought you out of your mothers’ wombs; you knew nothing then. He has granted you the ability to listen, foresight and hearts that make decisions, so that you may fulfill your duties.” (Quran 16:78)

Furthermore, the almighty God decrees that nobody bears another person’s burden both in the Quran and in previous Scriptures:

“No burden-bearer can bear another one’s burden. If someone weighed down calls for help to bear his load, none of it will be borne for him, even by his closest relative.” (Quran 35:18)

“That no burden-bearer can bear another one’s burden.” (Quran 53:38)

We can also read this fact in the Bible:

“The soul who sins shall die. The son shall not suffer for the iniquity of the father, nor the father shall suffer for the iniquity of the son. The righteousness of the righteous shall be upon himself, and the wickedness of the wicked shall be upon himself.” (Ezekiel 18:20)

“For every man shall bear his own burden.” (Galatians 6:5)

No one is born sinful or carries another person’s sin. Moreover, what would be the point of free will if we were held accountable for a sin we didn’t commit and didn’t choose to bear?

For further details, please refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/non-muslims/a-comparison-of-inherited-sin-in-christianity-and-innate-purity-in-islam.html

DO YOU ABANDON JESUS (PBUH) WHEN YOU EMBRACE THE ISLAMIC FAITH?

Jesus (PBUH) is a valuable messenger of God, a Word, and a Spirit from Him according to the Quran 4:171. He is one of the most often-mentioned prophets in the Quran. His mother, Mary, is also highly respected and is described as an obedient woman who preserved her chastity and confirmed God’s words and Scriptures (66:12).

The miracles Jesus (PBUH) performed by the authorization of God are mentioned in various verses, one of them being:
“When Jesus came to the Children of Israel as a messenger (he said): ‘I have come to you with a sign (miracle) from your Master. I create an idol of a bird out of clay and then breathe into it, and it turns out to be a real bird by God’s permission. I heal the blind from birth and the leper, and I bring the dead back to life by God’s permission, and I announce to you what you eat and what you store up in your houses.  Surely, in each of these, there is a  sign (miracle) for you if you are believers.'” (Quran 3:49)

The name Jesus is often qualified as “Jesus the Messiah” or “Jesus the son of Mary” in the Quran. He does not command people to worship him but to worship one God only. This is in perfect harmony with what He preaches about God in the Bible:
” Jesus replied: ‘This is the most important: ‘Hear O Israel, the Lord our God is One Lord.’ “ (Mark 12:29)

In conclusion, you do not -and cannot- abandon Jesus when you take to the Islamic faith because He is one of the most honorable prophets sent by God.

For further reading about Jesus in the Quran, please refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/non-muslims/do-you-abandon-jesus-pbuh-when-you-embrace-the-islamic-faith.html

THE RELATION BETWEEN QUR’AN AND PREVIOUS DIVINE BOOKS

Some Islamic scholars hold differing views on the present state of the Torah and Injeel (the Gospels), although the Quran states that the Scriptures given to Moses and Jesus contain guidance and light.

The Torah served as the Scripture by which former prophets judged the Jews (Quran 5:44). God granted the Gospel to Jesus and also taught him the Torah (Quran 3:48) because the Gospel did not abolish but instead confirmed most of the rulings in the Torah while also alleviating some of the provisions regarding specific topics:

“We had Jesus, the son of Mary, follow in their footsteps to confirm what had come before him from the Torah, and We gave him the Gospel which contains guidance and light, to confirm what he already had in the Torah, and as guidance and advice for those who refrain from wrongdoings.” (Quran 5:46)

Prophet Jesus (peace be upon him) was also responsible for adhering to the commandments given to the previous Israelite prophets:

“Think not that I have come to abolish the Law and the Prophets; I have come not to abolish them but to fulfill them.” (Matthew 5:17)

Today, all of the previous divine Scriptures still contain God’s guidance. Through the revelation of the Quran, Prophet Muhammad fulfilled the prophecies mentioned in those Scriptures. The experts of those Books can recognize him and the Quran easily, utilizing these fulfillments. For details about them, please refer to the following research:

https://www.islamandquran.org/research/the-expected-chief-cornerstone.html
https://www.islamandquran.org/research/a-prophet-like-moses.html
https://www.islamandquran.org/research/the-expected-prophet-in-the-bible.html

Whoever follows the previous prophets can see the similarities between them and Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), and whoever studies God’s previous Scriptures will easily understand that the Quran is the final version of God’s Book. After the revelation of the Quran, believers have become responsible for following it and making judgments according to it:

“And unto you (O, Muhammad) have We revealed this Book (Qur’an) with the truth, confirming and protecting whatever Book was revealed before It. So, judge between them by that which God has revealed, and follow not their desires, forsaking the truth which has come to you. For each, We have appointed special provisions and a clear way. Had God created (otherwise), He could have made you one community. But (He did this so) that He may try you by that which He has granted to you. So race with one another in good works. To God, you will all return, and He will then inform you of that on which you disagreed. ” (Quran 5:48)

Please also read:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/the-quran-the-final-link-of-divine-revelation.html
 

THE QURAN INCLUDES THE PREVIOUS MESSAGES

The Quran confirms the previous divine Scriptures and preserves the fundamentals of their content:
“He has sent down to you the Book which includes the whole truth and confirms the previous ones. He had also sent down the Torah and the Gospel.” (Quran 3:3)

These verses indicate that most of the rulings from previous scriptures are upheld in the Quran, while others have been updated with provisions that are easier to follow.  The almighty God decrees:
“Whichever verse We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring a better one or an equivalent one. Do you not know that God is the establisher of the measure of all things?” (Quran 2:106)

“He has ordained for you that religion which He enjoined Noah, and that which We sent down to you (Muhammad), and that which We enjoined Abraham, and Moses, and Jesus (is that): Uphold the religion and be not divided therein! ” (Quran 42:13)

The following verse also informs that the Qur’an contains the messages sent to previous communities:
“Or have they adopted other deities, placing them between themselves and Him? Say: “Produce your proof! This is the message of those with me and the message of those before me.” But most of them do not know the truth, so they turn away.” (Quran 21:24)

ARE THE TORAH AND THE GOSPELS ALTERED?

The Arabic word “tahrif (تَحْرِيف), which is mostly translated into English as “alteration” is of the root “harf (حرف)” which means “edge, verge, margin”. “Tahrif ” is “bending or pulling something to a margin” rather than locating it to its meant position. Then, “tahrif” is an act that applies to the meaning of the word, and the actual literal meaning of “tahrif” is “distortion” rather than “alteration”.

We can say that any sections in the Torah, Bible, Quran, or other divine Scriptures, whose meanings are distorted through false translations or interpretations, are subject to “tahrif”.

For details and examples of “tahrif”, please refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/research/are-the-torah-and-the-gospel-altered.html

SOCIAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES

IS ISLAM A MISOGYNISTIC FAITH?

Many people perceive Islam as misogynistic due to negative media portrayals and stereotypes. Cultural practices in some Muslim-majority countries, often mistaken for religious mandates, contribute to this perception. Additionally, a lack of understanding of the diversity within the Muslim world leads to generalized assumptions.

In reality, the Quran favors women:

-Although Eve is the main character in the Bible blamed for being expelled from the Garden of Eden, the Quran blames both Adam and Eve, but primarily Adam, who was “not perseverant enough” (20:115).
-Women have the same obligations towards God and will have the same rewards as men (4:124, 9:71, 16:97, 33:35).
-Motherhood and its difficulties are mentioned in the Quran more than once (2:233, 31:14, 46:15), in addition to parenthood.
-Women are described as “alluring” to humankind (3:14). This allure is not limited to men; women also experience envy towards one another. Consequently, a woman’s body is considered an adornment (ziynat) in itself and therefore needs to be covered (24:31).
-The woman gets paid by her husband as a gift for her marriage (4:4), and her husband is responsible for sustaining her (4:34) throughout their marriage. God commands men to get along with women in a good manner and to expect goodness even if they don’t like them anymore (4:19).

– In case a husband accuses her wife of adultery, he must produce four witnesses against his wife (4:15), but such an obligation does not apply against men. This is how Allah protects women and commands them to protect themselves in the absence of other people (4:34).
-A divorced woman bears no responsibility towards the children. She can live her own life, and the father is responsible for the childcare. She can look after them only if she wants, and the father is still responsible for all the financial burden of the children.

Many other misconceptions about women in Islam are debunked in the following articles:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/marriage/does-god-permit-beating-wives.html
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/are-child-marriages-permissible-in-islam.html
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/obedience-to-husband.html
https://www.islamandquran.org/common-mistakes/testimony-of-women.html

DO WOMEN HAVE TO OBEY THEIR HUSBANDS IN MARRIAGE?

In Islam, obedience is owed to God and His Messenger (Quran 4:13,14,69,80; 5:92). Both men and women are instructed to be submissive to God:

“The men who are submissive to God (Muslim men) and the women who are submissive to God (Muslim women), and the believing men and the believing women, and the obedient men and the obedient women…” (Quran 33:35)

If women are expected to obey their husbands, then who should men obey according to this verse? Their wives? No! Both men and women are required to obey God.

For further details, please read:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/obedience-to-husband.html

CAN A HUSBAND BEAT HIS WIFE ACCORDING TO VERSE 4:34?

The Quran instructs husbands to treat their wives with kindness and fairness, and to live with them according to the rulings of God:

“And get along with women according to ma’ruf (the known terms).” (Quran 4:19)

“Ma’ruf” refers to well-known standards of good conduct. The source of that knowledge is either the Qur’an or the traditions that are not against the rulings in the Qur’an.  So, men are required to get along with their wives in the best possible way according to this verse. Beating women cannot be included in “ma’ruf”.

In every family,  husband, wife, and even children may oppose one another. Each of them may covet the other’s rights, rebel against each other, cause discord, or even be hostile toward each other. That is natural. God gives the necessary directions to be happy and at peace, even in such cases:

“Oh, you who believe, some of your spouses and children may be hostile towards you, so beware of them! Yet if you pardon and start with a clean slate and forgive them, then surely God is the Most Forgiving, the Most Beneficent.” (Quran 64:14)

That means familial issues, even to the extent of hostility, are resolved not through violence but through mutual understanding and forgiveness. Verse 4:34 addresses women’s unilateral right to divorce, not permission for husbands to beat their wives. Traditional Islamic rulings have misinterpreted this verse, depriving women of their single-sided divorce rights. Women could easily use this right during the time of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) and his Companions.

For a comprehensive analysis of verse 4:34 and women’s rights, refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/research/does-god-permit-beating-wives.html

IS POLYGAMY THE NORM IN ISLAM?

Polygamy, or more accurately termed “limited polygyny,” has been a topic of scrutiny concerning Islam. Critics often highlight Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) multiple marriages while overlooking his monogamous marriage to Khadija (RA), which lasted for 25 years. Each of Prophet Muhammad’s marriages had specific reasons:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/marriages-of-prophet-muhammad.html

Monogamy is the recommended lifestyle in the Quran, but limited polygyny is not prohibited, as it may address certain social issues. The Quran allows polygyny under specific conditions and recommends monogamy:

“If you fear that you might not be able to act rightfully towards the orphans, then marry from among other women you like, two, three, or four. If you fear that you can not maintain justice, marry only one (free) woman or a captive woman.  This way, it is less likely that you do wrong.” (Quran 4:3)

For a detailed explanation, please refer to: https://www.islamandquran.org/research/polygamy-in-the-quran-and-in-the-modern-day.html 

ARE CHILD MARRIAGES PERMISSIBLE IN ISLAM?

According to the Quran, marriage is contingent upon reaching maturity, which differs from puberty. The Quran stipulates testing children until they attain maturity before transferring their property:
“Test the orphans extensively until they reach marriageable age. Then if you perceive maturity (rushd : رُشد) in them, release their properties to them. ” (Quran 4:6)

The verse indicates that children should be tested periodically to assess their ability to manage their wealth. This is what we refer to as ‘standing on one’s own feet’ today. A person must be trained well before being put to such a test. Through this verse, we see that parents or guardians of children must train them in a way to ensure that they can manage their wealth, thus standing on their own feet. This definition of maturity presented in the Qur’an is also the description of maturity in practice today.

Though the age may vary, having attained maturity doubtlessly occurs after puberty. According to the verse, the marriageable age is when people attain maturity because it is obvious that marriage brings along many responsibilities that only a mature person can undertake. Being able to manage money is an evaluable criterion regarding maturity. For further evidence on the age of marriage according to the Quran, please refer to the following link:

http://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/are-child-marriages-permissible-in-islam.html

Considering this and other conditions mentioned in the Quran, it is clear that child marriages are not permissible.

TESTIMONY OF WOMEN

The Quran emphasizes the importance of eyewitnesses in significant events such as marriage, divorce, legal cases, and financial agreements. Witnesses must be fair and just, free from personal biases, and committed to upholding the principles of justice:

“You who believe, for the sake of God, be constant in your devotion and bear witness rightfully. Do not let the hatred of a group of people lead you away from justice, but adhere to justice, for that is nearer to refraining from wrongs. Refrain from doing wrong regarding God. God is well aware of all that you do.” (Quran 5:8)”

The minimum requirements for testimony are outlined in Qur’an 5:106-108, with no distinction between genders. Therefore, two reliable witnesses of any gender are sufficient for marriage, divorce, inheritance, Qisas (which may result in capital punishment), Sariqa (which may require hand amputation), or any cases other than debt agreements. The only exception is debt agreements, as mentioned in Qur’an 2:282, which require either two men or one man and two women as witnesses. This exception aims to alleviate the burden on women in financial matters, considering that they can be more vulnerable to financial abuse and oppression because they are supposed to be sustained by their husbands, fathers, or brothers. For more details about women’s testimony, please read:

https://www.islamandquran.org/common-mistakes/testimony-of-women.html

DOES THE QURAN PERMIT SLAVERY?

Slavery During the Quranic Revelation Era
During the time of the Quran’s revelation, slavery was a widespread practice. Victorious parties in wars often enslaved large numbers of captives. The children of slaves were also considered slaves. They remained as slaves until they died or were freed by their owners. Another method of enslavement was the abduction of vulnerable individuals, a practice unjustifiable by the laws or customs of any era.

The Battle of Badr and Quranic Guidance
Muslims faced their first battle at Badr. Before this battle, Almighty God revealed the following verse:

“When you meet those who ignore (in battle), smite their necks until you suppress them. Then cordon (the rest of) them off strictly; thereafter set them (the captives) free, either by an act of grace or against ransom. Do this, so that the burden of war is laid down.” (Quran 47:4)

This verse clearly instructs the release of captives, either as an act of grace or in exchange for ransom. Releasing captives alleviates the enemy’s burden and prevents the justification of further conflict. Additionally, God has decreed:
“Good and evil are not equal. Repel evil with good, and the person who was your enemy becomes like an intimate friend. (Quran 41:34)

Prohibition of Enslavement
According to these verses, the enslavement of captives is unequivocally forbidden. Muslims are required to free captives in one of the two prescribed ways. This directive effectively ended the practice of enslavement before the first battle in Islamic history. Furthermore, the following verse reinforces the principle that no one can be another’s slave, as all people are equal in God’s sight:
“Oh humankind, We have created you from a male and female, and we have set you up as nations and tribes so that you may recognize one another. In God’s sight, the most honored of you are those who farthest refrain from doing wrong. God is all-knowing, all-aware.” (Quran 49:13)

For more information on the rulings regarding captives and the immoral act of using female captives as sex slaves, please visit:

https://www.islamandquran.org/common-mistakes/battle-captives-and-concubinage.html

ISLAMIC PRINCIPLES IN SOCIAL CONDUCT

The Quran provides comprehensive guidance on social conduct, emphasizing equality, justice, and compassion. Believers are urged to uphold these principles in their interactions, fostering mutual respect and understanding. Individuals contribute to the firm establishment of a just and harmonious society by adhering to these teachings.

No human being is inherently superior to another based on gender, race, lineage, or wealth. The true superiority lies in “taqwa” – refraining from wrongdoing. In God’s sight, only people having taqwa are superior to others. So, Islam, in no way, can be used as a justification for racism or discrimination against any group or gender of people.

God prohibits spreading gossip, maligning others, and seeking to learn people’s secrets. Such behavior only fosters discord and violates the principle of goodwill among people. The Quran condemns publicizing others’ faults without a just cause. Believers are urged to treat one another with respect and compassion, refraining from ridicule or offensive speech. Criticism should be constructive, aimed at rectifying wrongdoing rather than belittling others. Islam emphasizes mutual understanding and forgiveness in human relations.

The Quran outlines prohibitions and commandments essential for maintaining societal harmony and individual righteousness. To see all  the relevant verses and for further information, follow the link:

https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/community-life/quranic-principles-on-social-relations.html

THE IMPORTANCE OF TESTIMONY

The principles about witnesses and testimony in the Quran also serve to set the balance between crime and punishment. A person known to lie is not accepted as an eyewitness by the jurisdiction from then on.  This is a huge risk to take for a person because it means a permanent black mark on one’s reputation. So, people would have to be honest, at least, to protect their reputation.

In God’s law, the rich, the poor, the noble, or the ordinary people are always judged equally and justly. Even the governors/rulers have to submit themselves to the law of God so that they can be judged freely:
“You who believe, be maintainers of rightfulness by bearing witness for the sake of God, even if it is against yourselves, your parents, or your close relatives; whether the person is rich or poor. God is closer to them (than your closeness to them). Do not follow your own desire so that you can act justly. If you distort (the truth) or evade (testimony, know that) God is fully aware of what you do.”  (Quran 4:135)

“You who believe, be constantly upright for God, equitably bearing witness to the truth. Do not let the hatred of a group of people lead you into deviating from justice, but adhere to justice, for that is closest to refraining from wrongs. Be mindful of God: God is well aware of all that you do.” (Quran 5:8)

CONTEMPORARY CONCERNS

WHY ARE THERE SO MANY SECTS AND CULTS?  DO WE HAVE TO FOLLOW THEM?

The formation of various sects occurred over time following the passing of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). These sects could be seen as different schools of thought for practicing certain rituals of Islam. However, the current situation in the Muslim world indicates that sects often serve political purposes, leading to division within the Muslim community. As a result, Muslims may adopt identities associated with specific sects rather than the unified identity of “Muslim.”

God repeatedly disapproves of dividing Muslims into opposing parties, sects, or groups (see Qur’an 3:103, 6:159, 30:32, 42:13) and decrees that He has given the name “Muslims” to all believers:

“(…) He named you Muslims before, and in this (Quran), that the messenger may be a model to you and you be models to others. (…)” (Quran 22:78)

A Muslim should not adopt another name rather than “Muslim”. Muslims should identify themselves as God has named them and adhere to the manner ordained by God.

WHAT IS JIHAD? 

There is a special significance to the word “jihad” in the context of relations with non-Muslims. Misinformation about the description of “jihad”, as well as inaccurate Islamic edicts issued about it, are the main causes behind Islamophobia today.

THE ROOT MEANING

The word “jihad: جهاد‎” stems from the root “(j-h-d) جهد,” meaning “striving.” It encompasses various acts. Jihad involves upholding and conveying the truth, despite challenges. The Quran illustrates this broader definition, indicating that jihad includes intellectual and spiritual struggles, not just physical combat:

“So do not obey the disbelievers, and strive against them (jaahidhum) with this (Book) a great striving.” (Quran 25:52)

This verse underscores the multifaceted nature of jihad, emphasizing the struggle to uphold and convey divine truth.

USAGE IN THE QURAN

Even though jihad may include warfare, there are specific words such as “qital/muqaatalah” to refer to battle or fighting in the Quran. The essence of jihad lies in striving against efforts to suppress truth and convey the message of the Quran. It aims to rectify misconceptions and guide individuals towards understanding and embracing the truth. Jihad is not intended to harm others physically but to address misguided beliefs and save individuals from spiritual peril. For instance, consider the commandment regarding jihad in the Quran:

“And strive (jaahadu) for God in a manner worthy of that striving. He has chosen you and has not placed upon you in the religion any difficulty. (It is) the religion of your father, Abraham.” (Quran 22:78)

This verse demonstrates that jihad extends beyond physical conflict, as exemplified by Prophet Abraham’s (PBUH) efforts to combat false beliefs without resorting to violence. We know from verse 3:67 that the religion of Abraham was also Islam. Considering the verse above, we can conclude that jihad may include fighting when required, but its primary objective is to uphold and convey divine truth. There are only a few occasions when believers are supposed to fight, and these occasions are explained in verses 60:8-9 in the article below:

http://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/relations-with-nonmuslims.html

As additional reading:

http://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/is-islam-a-religion-of-war-or-peace.html

SHOULD DISBELIEVERS, INFIDELS, OR APOSTATES BE KILLED?

The Quran does not sanction the killing of individuals based on disbelief or apostasy. Rather, it emphasizes tolerance and patience because every human is a potential believer, and God gives everyone a chance to turn around from their misdeeds until death approaches (Quran 4:17-18).

The verses below cite the words of a group of people who lived in the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) era:

“A group of the Experts in the Book says: ‘At the beginning of the day (say that you) believe in what has been sent down to those who believe, and at the end of the day deny it (become kafir). Perhaps they also return (from their belief).'” (Quran 3:72)

They put a plan into operation to perturb the believers and lead them away from God’s path. So they can openly announce that they deny God’s verses. This verse is proof that apostasy is not a crime punishable by death. Had it been, nobody could dare say the words of denial openly.

For further clarification on the topic of apostasy and its consequences, refer to:
https://www.islamandquran.org/common-mistakes/apostates-to-be-killed-or-saved.html

DOES BLASPHEMY JUSTIFY AGGRESSION TOWARDS NON-MUSLIMS?

Blasphemy, while disrespectful, does not warrant aggression or violence against non-Muslims. The Quran acknowledges that Muslims may encounter disparaging remarks from others and emphasizes perseverance and steadfastness:

“It is for sure that you will be put to a hard test in the matters of your possessions and lives, and you will frequently hear discomforting words from those who were granted the Book before you and from those who interpose others between themselves and God. If you persevere by refraining from wrongdoings (you will succeed in the test). Yet, this is a matter of strong determination.” (Quran 3:186)

This verse highlights the inevitability of facing challenging circumstances, including verbal insults. However, it encourages Muslims to respond with patience and righteousness rather than aggression.

In cases of blasphemy, adherence to the Quranic commandments is paramount. Muslims are called to maintain composure and respond with dignity and grace. For more guidance on responding to blasphemy, refer to:

http://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/muslim-response-to-blasphemy.html

LGBT ISSUES IN GOD’S SCRIPTURES

Islam, as in all areas of life, has set certain limits and principles regarding sexual orientations and relationships too. Before addressing the issue of homosexuality in Islam, it is important to make a significant point:  God does not directly characterize human feelings as sinful and does not punish them. However, He holds the individual responsible for his/her words and actions. The article below discusses how religion approaches homosexuality and presents a perspective on individual and social approaches to the issue:
https://www.islamandquran.org/fatwas/homosexuality/understanding-lgbt-issues-through-gods-scriptures.html

For any other controversial issues about Islam, please search the https://www.islamandquran.org website, and ask us for further information: https://www.islamandquran.org/ask-us .

[1] According to Quran 46:15, “the mother carries a human and weans him/her in 30 months”. According to Quran 2:233, weaning takes two full years, which is 24 months. We can understand from here that the time a fetus spends in the mother’s womb as a “human being” is six months. We know that the average pregnancy period is 9 months and 10 days. That means God breathes from His spirit into the fetus when it is 3 months and 10 days old, thus granting the fetus the unique attributes of a human being.
[2] https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/natural_law
[3] http://www.wordreference.com/definition/faith
[4] 40 Hadith Nawawi, 1.

The post RECLAIMING ISLAM: Beyond Tradition, To the Quran appeared first on Islam and the Quran.

People who are submissive to God and stand up to all difficulties for His cause are named “Muslim”. Another pertinent characteristic of those who are “Muslim” is that they implement the rulings of the religion into their lives without any additions to it from their own desires. “Who speaks in a finer way than the one who invokes God, does righteous deeds and says: ‘I am of those who submit themselves to God (i.e. a Muslim)’?” (Fussilat 41:33)

The aim of this article is to shed light on the times of prayers (salah/namaz) and fasting (sawm/siyam) in accordance with relevant verses from the Quran and narrations (hadith) from Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Some of the terms and definitions presented in this article would be new concepts for the reader, while others would be correcting common misconceptions. We anticipate that Muslim readers who consider God’s word as the authority, rather than any governing bodies or institutions, would recognize them as a manifestation of facts because they have been extracted from the Quran.

***

The universality of The Grand Quran is its prominent quality. God’s religion is one; there is continuity from one book of God to another, from one Prophet to another, and all His books are previous links of revelation chain while the Quran is the final link. The Grand Quran is a complete manual about all topics of life, for all times to come and for all its people wherever they are. There are no gaps and missing information in his messages. The Quran, being the final message, constitutes a universal set of guidelines for all eras and regions of the world covering the topic of prayers (salah/namaz) comprehensively without leaving out any necessary information.

In the Quran, there are two verses which begin with the command “establish the prayer” ^[1]:

وَأَقِمِ الصَّلَاةَ طَرَفَيِ النَّهَارِ وَزُلَفًا مِنَ اللَّيْلِ إِنَّ الْحَسَنَاتِ يُذْهِبْنَ السَّيِّئَاتِ ذَلِكَ ذِكْرَى لِلذَّاكِرِينَ

“Establish the prayer in two parts of the daytime and at the zulaf of the night. Surely, good deeds eradicate bad deeds. This is sound information^[2] for those who use their knowledge.” (Hud, 11:114)

 

أَقِمِ الصَّلَاةَ لِدُلُوكِ الشَّمْسِ إِلَى غَسَقِ اللَّيْلِ وَقُرْآنَ الْفَجْرِ إِنَّ قُرْآنَ الْفَجْرِ كَانَ مَشْهُودًا

“Establish the prayer from the dolook of the sun till the ghasaq of the night, and at quran^[3] of the fajr. Quran of the fajr is visible to the eye ^[4].” (Isra 17:78)

The above mentioned two verses explain each other. Other verses which help us understand the topic further are as follows:

ومِن الليلِ فتهجد بِهِ نافِلةً لك عسى أن يبعثك ربك مقامًا محمودًا

“Wake up for prayer in some part of the night as an additional obligation for you: It may be that your Master will raise you to a station of praise and glory!” (Al-Isra 17:79)

وَاذْكُرِ اسْمَ رَبِّكَ بُكْرَةً وَأَصِيلًا . وَمِنَ اللَّيْلِ فَاسْجُدْ لَهُ وَسَبِّحْهُ لَيْلًا طَوِيلًا

“Keep the name of your Master on your mind through day and night. And during a part of the night prostrate to Him, and exalt Him (offer tahajjud prayer) during the long part of the night^[5].” (al-Insan 76:25-26)

ومِن اللّيلِ فسبِّحه وإِدبار النّجومِ

“Glorify Him at a part of the night and as the stars fade away.” (at-Tur 52:49)

We will understand the relevant terms, times of prayer and fasting in the light of these verses and other verses which include the details of these verses.

I. THE TERMINOLOGY FOR UNDERSTANDING THE CONCEPT OF PRAYER TIMES FOR A MUSLIM

According to the Qur’anic descriptions of both the day and night, they are distinguished from each other by their certain attributes, such as the former being time for spreading around and searching for God’s favor, and the latter being time for repose. There are also other distinctive attributes of nighttime and daytime which set the boundaries between these two time periods. By using these, we can say that both night and day occur every day and everywhere on the earth. If we use the Quranic criteria to determine the prayer times, they show the universality of prayers for the whole globe not only in places where sunrise and sunset follow a regular course, unlike polar regions. If these right Quranic criteria are used, prayers and fasting can be observed without any hardship on human bodies both in the winters and summers. In short, Quranic guidelines for the prayer times align with human nature (fitrah)^[6] for all regions of the globe. In order to understand the Quranic criteria for the prayers, let us look at essential terms used in this regard:

A- THE SUN

The Sun is the celestial body which produces “dhiya“. The Almighty God decrees:

هُو الذِي جعل الشمْس ضِياء

“It is He Who has made the sun dhiya…” (Jonah 10:5)

We do not see the Sun itself but its dhiya, that is, its rays, and we call those rays as “the Sun”.

The Sun, where dhiya aggregates^[7]

Dhiya is a type of sun ray which enables us to make the calculation of prayer times. The first dhiya of the Sun appears over the eastern horizon at the time of sahar, and then it wraps the horizon, and thereafter covers all around. In the evening it declines westwards, and in the middle of the night, it disappears completely. God, the Almighty has decreed:

قُلْ أرأيْتُمْ إِن جعل اللهُ عليْكُمُ الليْل سرْمدًا إِلى يوْمِ الْقِيامةِ منْ إِلهٌ غيْرُ اللهِ يأْتِيكُم بِضِياء أفلا تسْمعُون. قُلْ أرأيْتُمْ إِنْ جعل اللهُ عليْكُمُ النهار سرْمدًا إِلى يوْمِ الْقِيامةِ منْ إِلهٌ غيْرُ اللهِ يأْتِيكُمْ بِليْلٍ تسْكُنُون فِيهِ أفلا تُبْصِرُون

“Say: ‘Have you considered, if God should lay perpetual night over you until the Day of Rising, what deity besides God would bring you any dhiya? Do you not listen?’ Say: ‘Have you considered, if God should extend the daytime until the Day of Rising, what deity besides God would bring you the night wherein you might repose? Do you not listen?’ “ (al-Qasas 28:71-72)

During twilights of morning and evening, night and daytime are merged into each other. The night wherein we repose is right in the midst of the nighttime because the midst of the night is the time when all living creatures rest.

Dhiya can be observed in every region of the earth every day but along different durations. In polar regions, even on the days when the sun does not rise above the horizon, we calculate the prayer times according to the dhiya coming from it.

During white nights^[8], the light observed between the isha and sahar times is not dhiya but rather noor. The noor will be described under the section “The Moon”.

The sun emits another type of ray as well, which is called “duha”. Duha is a type of sun rays which emits heat. It emerges only during the daytime. The verses relevant to duha are as follows:

والشمْسِ وضُحاها .والْقمرِ إِذا تلاها . والنهارِ إِذا جلاها . والليْلِ إِذا يغْشاها .

“By the Sun and its duha^[9]; by the Moon when it follows it (either the Sun or its duha); by the daytime when it displays it (either the Sun or its duha); by the night when it veils it (either the Sun or its duha)” (al-Shams 91:1-4)

In the verse below, the word “duha” is used in the meaning “daytime”:

أَوَأَمِنَ أَهْلُ الْقُرَى أَنْ يَأْتِيَهُمْ بَأْسُنَا ضُحًى وَهُمْ يَلْعَبُونَ

“Or do the people of those towns feel safe from Us striking upon them misery during duha (daytime) while they are playing around?” (al-A’raf 7:98)

These verses show that daytime is described in relation to “duha” and night veils over the duha. From the definitions of sun and dhiya, we, therefore obtain the following fundamental understandings and definitions which are universally applicable to the whole globe and for all times to come:

Daytime: The period between the emergence and disappearance of duha

Nighttime: The period between the disappearance and emergence of duha

According to this, the fundamental distinctive sign of daytime is duha.

In polar regions, when the sun does not rise or appear over the horizon only for a short while, it is as if the sun rises and sets behind a mountain. The duha of the sun, however, exists throughout the daytime. When the sun does not set at all or sets only for a short while, we can still define the daytime in correspondence to duha.
The nights with midnight sun are like the shade mentioned in the verse below:

وَإِذْ قُلْنَا لِلْمَلَائِكَةِ اسْجُدُوا لِآدَمَ فَسَجَدُوا إِلَّا إِبْلِيسَ أَبَى. فَقُلْنَا يَا آدَمُ إِنَّ هَذَا عَدُوٌّ لَكَ وَلِزَوْجِكَ فَلَا يُخْرِجَنَّكُمَا مِنَ الْجَنَّةِ فَتَشْقَى. إِنَّ لَكَ أَلَّا تَجُوعَ فِيهَا وَلَا تَعْرَى. وَأَنَّكَ لَا تَظْمَأُ فِيهَا وَلَا تَضْحَى

“When We said to the angels, ‘Prostrate to Adam,’ they prostrated, except Iblees; he resisted. Then we said: ‘O Adam! Verily, this is an enemy to you and to your wife; so let him not get you both out of that garden, so that you are landed in misery. Therein you neither suffer from hunger nor go naked. Nor suffer from thirst, nor from the duha‘.” (Ta-Ha 20:116-119)

What protected Adam (pbuh) from the heating -even burning- effect of duha was the shades in the garden. During the midnight sun, the night serves as a shade that protects creatures from the negative effect of duha.

According to the following verse, the cause of the temperature difference between night and day is caused by duha which is radiated only during the daytime:

ولا الظلُماتُ ولا النورُ . ولا الظل ولا الْحرُورُ .

“Neither darkness and light are equal, nor shade and heat.” (Fatir 35:20-21)

The word “al-haroor = الحرور ” in the verse also means “the Sun” ^[10]. Therefore, we can call ‘haroor’ as daytime and ‘dhill = الظل = shade’ as night. The meaning of the verse, then, becomes:

“Neither darkness and light are equal, nor night and day.”

The sun rays that reach the earth during twilights radiate some heat, but the effects of the sun rays radiated during twilights are not like the effects of duha that is radiated during the daytime. According to the verses below, duha causes the daytime to wave like a sea:

وَالضُّحَى . وَاللَّيْلِ إِذَا سَجَى

“By the duha; and by the night when it becomes still.” (Duha 93:1-2)

The verb ‘saja = سَجَى’, means ‘to become still’. It is used to express the becoming still of a wavy sea^[11]. This verb is the criterion to determine the beginning of night during the white nights.

Note that the English word “night” may refer to “the period of darkness between sunset and sunrise” or to “the earlier part of this period ^[12]. In this context, it is essential to notice that the word “layl = لَيْل” in Arabic, which is translated as “night” throughout the article, unexceptionally covers both earlier and later periods of nighttime.

If stillness/tranquility and coolness are felt although the sun is above the horizon, we can say that the earlier period of the night has begun. As we shall see further in the article, the coldness of the night, rather than coolness, is the sign of another period of the night.

White nights veil over the duha of the sun just like a shade, thus causing human beings and animals to repose. Indeed, while on a visit to Tromsø in Norway, in the last week of June, we didn’t need to draw the curtains at night to be able to sleep because the sunlight filling in the room at night did not have an awakening effect on bodies.

B- THE MOON

The Moon is a celestial body which reflects the light arriving at it to the earth. Below is a relevant verse:

هُو الذِي جعل الشمْس ضِياء والْقمر نُورًا

“It is He Who has made the sun a dhiya and the moon a noor…” (Jonah 10:5)

Noor is a type of diffusing light that helps to see ^[13]. The light reflected by the Moon is called noor. The sunlight whose duha is eliminated and is radiated during white nights is also noor. The Almighty God decrees:

وجعل القمر فِيهِن نورًا وجعل الشمس سِراجًا

“God has made the moon a noor within the heavens and the sun a candle.” (Noah 71:16)

The sun is likened to a candle because a candle is a source of light. The dhiya from the sun, which is the source of light, reaches the moon as a noor. We see the moon in correspondence with the noor reflected by it, thus we call it crescent, half-moon or full moon.

C- THE EARTH

The earth follows a cradle-like motion during its yearly course. It tilts rightward until 20th June, and leftward until 20th December. On 22nd September and 20th March, it takes a vertical position. 21st March is the first day of spring, 21st June is the first day of summer, 23rd September is the first day of autumn, and 21st December is the first day of winter.

21st March

21st June

23rd September

21st December

The Almighty God decrees:

الذِي جعل لكم الأرض مهدًا

It is He Who has made the earth like a cradle for you. (Taha 20:53)

الذِي جعل لكم الأرض مهدًا وجعل لكم فِيها سبلًا لعلكم تهتدون

“It is He Who has made the earth like a cradle for you and made ways for you therein, so that you may reach your destination.” (Zuhkruf 43:10)

 

ألم نجعلِ الأرض مِهادًا. والجِبال أوتادًا

“Have We not made the earth as a cradle and the mountains as pegs?” (Naba’ 78:6-7)

 

The earth’s cradle-like motion requires the sunset and sunrise positions and the direction of shadow to change constantly. Verses relevant to shadows will be mentioned further below. Another relevant verse is the following:

فلا أُقْسِمُ بِرب الْمشارِقِ والْمغارِبِ إِنا لقادِرُون

“No need to swear by the Master^[14] of easts and wests (this is obviously important)! He establishes criteria ^[15].” (Maa’rij 70:40)

The expression ‘easts and wests’ point towards multiple points where sunrise and sunset are observed. The sun rises from the due east and sets from the due west only on 20th March and 22nd September. It reaches the farthest sunrise and sunset positions on 20th December and 20th June and returns thereafter. The verse expressing this fact is the following:

رَبُّ الْمَشْرِقَيْنِ وَرَبُّ الْمَغْرِبَيْنِ . فَبِأَيِّ آلَاءِ رَبِّكُمَا تُكَذِّبَانِ

“He is Master of the two easts and Master of the two wests. Then, which of the favors of your Master will you deny?” (Ar-Rahman 55:17-18)

D- THE NIGHTTIME AND THE DAYTIME

As we have seen above, daytime is the period between the emergence and disappearance of duha, and nighttime is the period between the disappearance and emergence of duha.

In a large area on the earth, duha is observed along with the sun and disappears along with it. In other areas where the sun does not rise above or does not set below the horizon or rises and sets in a short time, however, duha is not observed along with the sun. Indeed, day -thus its indicator duha- and night are independent and discrete entities according to the Qur’an, just like the Sun and the Moon are. They move independently from each other. The verse stating this fact is the following:

وَهُوَ الَّذِي خَلَقَ اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ وَالشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَ كُلٌّ فِي فَلَكٍ يَسْبَحُونَ

“It is He Who created the night and the day and the sun and the moon; all are floating in an orbit.” (Anbiya 21:33)

 

While Felix Baumgartner jumps from 39.000 meters of height, on 15th October 2012[16] the darkness of the space, the violet-colored layer of the night, and the illumination of the day are clearly seen[17]. In the third photo, we can see the electric lights in the darkness of the night, the distinct layer of the day which wraps over the night, on the left edge the twilight where the night and the day merge. Above it Aurora, and at the top, the darkness of the space[18] are seen altogether.

As seen in the photos, night and day, which never vanish, only swap places within the 24-hour period. During some part of the 24-hour period, the day comes to the front and covers over the night, and during the rest of the period, the night veils over the day. This fact is expressed in the following Quranic verse:

… يُغْشِي اللَّيْلَ النَّهَارَ يَطْلُبُهُ حَثِيثًا

“…God covers the day with the night that chases it continuously.” (Araf 7:54)

 

The day, as a discrete entity, serves a purpose that is similar to the Moon’s. It transforms the sun rays reaching it into illumination. Below is a relevant verse:

يقلب الله الليل والنهار إن في ذلك لعبرة لأولي الأبصار

“God alternates the night and the day. Verily in these things is a lesson for those who have vision!” (An-Noor 24:44)

 

خَلَقَ السَّمَاوَاتِ وَالْأَرْضَ بِالْحَقِّ يُكَوِّرُ اللَّيْلَ عَلَى النَّهَارِوَيُكَوِّرُ النَّهَارَ عَلَى اللَّيْلِ وَسَخَّرَ الشَّمْسَ وَالْقَمَرَكُلٌّ يَجْرِي لِأَجَلٍ مُسَمًّى أَلَا هُوَ الْعَزِيزُ الْغَفَّارُ

“God created the heavens and earth as true beings. He wraps the night over the day and wraps the day over the night. He has commissioned the sun and the moon. Each of them floats for an appointed time. Unquestionably, He is The Superior, The Forgiving.” (al-Zumar 39:5)

The expression “each of them floats for an appointed time” in the verse shows that the night, the day, the Sun and the Moon complete their orbits in certain periods.

1- The Indicator of the Daytime

In the regions other than polar zones, sighting the sun is assumed to be an indicator of the daytime and the darkness to be an indicator of the nighttime. The definitions of the night and day in all dictionaries correspond to these two conditions. In polar regions, though, sighting the sun or darkness are not essential indicators of the daytime or nighttime, nor are they so according to the Quran. The Almighty God decrees:

وَجَعَلْنَا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ آيَتَيْنِ فَمَحَوْنَا آيَةَ اللَّيْلِ وَجَعَلْنَا آيَةَالنَّهَارِ مُبْصِرَةً لِتَبْتَغُواْ فَضْلاً مِّن رَّبِّكُمْ وَلِتَعْلَمُواْ عَدَدَالسِّنِينَ وَالْحِسَابَ وَكُلَّ شَيْءٍ فَصَّلْنَاهُ تَفْصِيلاً

“We have made the night and the day two indicators (ayah); and then We have erased ^[19] the indicator of the night and made the indicator of the day to be providing sight. So, you may seek the favor of your Master and know the count of years and the calculation. We have explained everything in detail.” (Isra 17:12)

The word “ayah = الآية” means “clear sign”, that is, “indicator”^[20]. The expression “We have made the night and the day two ayah” states that the night and day are themselves two indicators and that they also have indicators.

The expressions “We have erased the indicator of the night” and “made the indicator of the day to be providing sight” state that, the night was “dark” at the beginning but then darkness was dismissed from being an indicator, and the indicator of the daytime is not ‘sighting the Sun’ but ’to be providing sight’.

That means the earth did not move like a cradle in the beginning. Half of the day would be illuminated and half of it would be dark then. Seasons would not occur. When it was made like a cradle, darkness ceased to be an indicator and seasons started to occur.

The word translated as ‘erase’ in the verse is ‘mahw =المحو’. The verse states that the indicator of the night has been erased. Although a denotation of the word ‘erase’ is ‘to remove, eliminate’, we know that the night has still got the indicator, ‘being dark’, in conventional regions while it can be partially dark or completely illuminated in polar regions. Then, we must define ‘mahw’ as ‘to erase partially or completely’. This is of high importance because the indicator of the night, which is conventionally known to be ‘darkness’, is not erased completely and suddenly at a certain latitude, but it ceases being an indicator beginning with 45-degrees latitude. From 45-degrees latitude toward the Pole, the darkness of the night keeps on disappearing gradually. The illuminated durations of the nights extend as we approach the Pole. It is essential to take this gradualism into consideration while creating a calendar. Further details and examples of this balance will be given in the section “The Balance (Mizan)”.

The word ‘mubsir = مبصر’, translated as “to be providing sight”, is of the root ‘basar = بصر = seeing with the eye’. ‘Mubsir’ means “that which provides sight”. Therefore, the daytime must either be sighted itself or provide that its surroundings are seen.

Since the indicator of the day is presumed to be the sun traditionally, people think that daytime does not occur where the sun does not rise above the horizon. In fact, there can be daytimes without sunrise because the indicator of the day is not sighting the sun but to be providing sight. As seen in the photo below, a daytime where the sun does not rise is like an ordinary cloudy winter day:

Tromsø, 12th December 2011; the Sun is 0.5 degrees below the horizon	Tromsø, 12th December 2011; the Sun is 3 degrees below the horizon

 

 

Where the sun does not rise or rises and sets in a short while, the daytime begins when the daylight in the east reaches the west^[21].

 

Below are photos of the horizon taken at relevant prayer times in Norwegian city Tromsø, during the second week of January 2011, on a day when the sun did not rise:

Fajr (the Sun -5°)	Dhuhr (the Sun -0,5°)	Asr (the Sun -1,75°)	Maghrib (the Sun -7°)	Isha (the Sun -9°)

It is not the Sun but the day as a discrete entity which provides us with sight. The Almighty God decrees about this:

هُوَ الَّذِي جَعَلَ لَكُمُ اللَّيْلَ لِتَسْكُنُوا فِيهِ وَالنَّهَارَ مُبْصِرًا إِنَّ فِي ذَلِكَ لَآيَاتٍ لِقَوْمٍ يَسْمَعُونَ

“He is the One who made for you the night that you may rest therein and has made the day to be providing sight. Verily in this are signs for those who listen.” (Jonah 10:67)

The day as a discrete entity transforms the sun rays into illumination which provides creatures with sight. This transformation does take place during the daytime even in regions where the sun does not rise above the horizon. No matter how many degrees below the horizon the sun may be, the effects of duha can be observed as if it is daytime. The two photos below facilitate understanding the matter:

The Sun is 9˚ below the horizon in Istanbul, it is the night

The Sun is 12˚ below the horizon in Svalbard, it is daytime.

In Istanbul, at 42-degrees latitude, the horizon would be so dark that it would not be distinguished from the sky when the sun is 12° below the horizon^[22]. In Svalbard, however, the horizon is illuminated in winter. This signifies that daytime can occur and be observed everywhere up to the Pole.

 

2- The Indicator of the Night

Since the indicator of the night is presumed to be sunset and the darkness following the sunset in conventional regions, people think that daytime does not occur in polar regions when the sun does not rise above the horizon. Darkness, however, is not the indicator of the night at all latitudes on the earth. In this regard, let us bring to mind the relevant expression from the verse mentioned above:

وَجَعَلْنَا اللَّيْلَ وَالنَّهَارَ آيَتَيْنِ فَمَحَوْنَا آيَةَ اللَّيْلِ

“We have made the night and the day two indicators (ayah); and then We have erased the indicator of the night....” (Isra 17:12)

The expression “We have made the night and the day two ayah^[23]” states that night and day are themselves two indicators. The expression “and then We have erased the indicator of the night” states that day and night also had indicators, but the indicator of the night has been erased. Then, darkness, which most people presume to be the indicator of the night, is in fact not essential for the occurrence of night. In traditional Islamic scholarship, the above-mentioned verse is not grasped in its true sense and thus is misinterpreted^[24] because the darkness was presumed to be the indicator of the night in the regions where Muslim scholars mostly lived. Due to traditional and cultural understandings, darkness was presumed to be the most prominent indicator of the night. This was, partially because most Muslim scholars lived in the non-polar regions where sunrise and sunset follow a regular course in contrast to the countries near the polar regions where the sun disappears for days or the daylight period can stretch to 21 hours, e.g. in Sweden and Norway.

Another verse about the night is as follows:

وَأَغْطَشَلَيْلَهَا وَأَخْرَجَ ضُحَاهَا

“(God) caused the night (of the heavens) to be without an indicator and took out its duha.” (An-Nazi’at 79:29)

The root of the word ‘aghtasha = أَغطَشَ’ which we have translated as ‘caused it to be without an indicator’ is ‘ghatash = الغَطَشُ = dazzling of the eye’. In a dazzled eye, everything seems blurred, nothing appears in clarity. The word ‘ghatash’ is also assigned the meaning ‘sadaf = السَّدَفُ= a mixture of darkness and illumination’. ‘Mafazat-un ghatsha = مفَازةٌ غَطْشى’ is the name given to a desert where all the signs pertaining to directions of pathways are lost, and ‘muteghatish = المُتغاطِشُ’ is a person who pretends not to have seen a thing’^[25].

When we consider the common root meaning in these definitions, we can conclude that ‘ghatash= الغَطَشُ’ means ‘to be without a sign, clue, or indicator’. Then, the word ‘aghtasha’, which is a transitive verb means ‘causing something to be without an indicator’. As a result, the expression ‘aghtasha laylaha = أَغْطَشَلَيْلَهَا‘ in the verse means, ’caused the night (of the heavens) to be without an indicator’.

In commentaries and translations of the Qur’an, the word ‘aghtasha = أَغطَشَ’ is assigned the meaning ‘darkened’. This is not the literal root meaning of the word in classical Arabic dictionaries but a denotation semantically derived from that root. Therefore, we should base our translation on the literal root meaning of this word. At night, the signs that determine the borders of objects and surroundings are not seen. It becomes as if they were removed, but according to the above verse, it is “the night” whose indicator was removed, not objects or surroundings. Therefore, the meaning of the sentence would be: ‘(God) has caused the night (of the heavens) to be without a sign/indicator…’. So, as opposed to the common view, darkness is not an essential sign of the night.

The following verse is commonly used as a piece of evidence from the Quran to say that the night should be dark. Let’s see what it fully means:

وَآَيَةٌ لَهُمُ اللَّيْلُ نَسْلَخُ مِنْهُ النَّهَارَ فَإِذَا هُمْ مُظْلِمُونَ

“And a sign for them is the night: We withdraw therefrom the day and behold they are plunged in darkness.” (Ya-Sin 36:37)

‘…Plunged in darkness’ is the translation of the expression ‘ fa iza hum mudhlimoon= فإذا هم مظلمون ‘. The word ‘mudhlimoon = مظلمون’ can mean ‘they will enter into darkness’ as well as ‘they will be plunged into gleaming weather’. In Arabic, the word ‘adhlama’ (أَظْلَمَ) has two opposing meanings; one is the dominance of the darkness, and the other is gleaming. For instance, the water dripping from the teeth is called ‘dhalm =ظَلْمٌ’ due to its pure gleaming color. The same word also means cleanliness and extreme gleaming of the teeth.

As in:

‘تَجْلُو عوارِضَ ذي ظَلْمٍ إذا ابتَسَمَت = tajloo awaaredha zi dhalmin iza ‘btasamat = When (my sweetheart) laughs she makes her gleaming^[26] rear teeth visible.’

When the front teeth gleam, the expression ‘adhlama ath-thaghru = أَظْلَمَ الثَّغْرُ = front teeth became mudhlim‘ is used[27].

Since the nights are dark in the whole globe except the countries in polar regions, the word ‘adhlama = أَظْلَم’ was always assigned the meaning ‘plunging of the darkness’ and the second meaning ‘gleaming’ was never recalled. The word ‘mudhlim’, however, expresses that nights may both be dark or gleamy without duha[28]. The photos below were taken in the Arctic in the summer when white nights were observed:

The leftmost and the second photos were taken during the daytime, while the third photo was taken during the white night after the end of isha prayer time. Although the sun was above the horizon in the third photo, the environment was tranquil and it was cold, thus we had to put on our coats on top of our short-sleeved shirts. During white nights, the night veils over the duha of the sun like a tulle curtain so that human beings and animals can rest.

3-Karahat Times (When Offering the Prayers is not Forbidden but Reprehensible)

According to the narration from Uqba ibn Amr al-Juhani, the Messenger of Allah (pbuh) forbade to pray, or bury the dead when the sun begins to rise until it has fully risen, when the sun is at its zenith at midday till it passes over the meridian, and when the sun draws near to setting till it fully sets[29]. Worshippers of the sun were used to prostrating to it at these times. These times are called “karahat times” in Islam. ‘Karahat’ means ‘dislike, unwillingness’. Offering the prayers during these times is not forbidden if one did not perform until then, but offering optional (nafl) prayers is reprehensible during these periods. Below is a verse which forbids prostrating to celestial bodies:

وَمِنْ آيَاتِهِ اللَّيْلُ وَالنَّهَارُ وَالشَّمْسُ وَالْقَمَرُ لَا تَسْجُدُوا لِلشَّمْسِ وَلَا لِلْقَمَرِ وَاسْجُدُوا لِلَّهِ الَّذِي خَلَقَهُنَّ إِن كُنتُمْ إِيَّاهُ تَعْبُدُونَ

“The night, the day, the sun, and the moon are of His signs. Do not prostrate to the sun or to the moon, but prostrate to God Who has created them if you shall serve only Him.” (Fussilat 41:37)

Prostration, ‘sajda = سجد’, is kneeling down and humbling yourself [30]. ‘Sajda’ before the Sun can be performed by lying the forehead on the ground, as well as by bending or bowing. During the times of karahat at sunrise and sunset, the height of the Sun above the horizon would be less than the length of one spear, which is approximately 5˚[31]. To detect this height, one can touch his chin to his chest and look at the horizon. If the sun cannot be observed at this position, the karahat time is out during the sunrise, and it is not yet due during the sunset. Since this criterion is not an arcdegree, its duration may change depending on the coordinates and the season. On 20th March and 22nd September, it decreases to a minimum of 20 minutes at the Equator, never less.

A person who had to delay the Asr prayer until the karahat time can offer it until sunset. Nabi Muhammad (pbuh) said: “Whoever catches up with one Rak’ah of ‘Asr prayer before the sun sets, or catches up with one Rak’ah of Fajr before the sun rises, has caught it” [32]. This hadith is a judgment inferred from the following verse:

فاصْبِرْ على ما يقُولُون وسبحْ بِحمْدِ ربك قبْل طُلُوعِ الشمْسِ وقبْل الْغُرُوبِ

“Persevere whatever they say! Exalt your Master before the sunrise and the sunset for He does everything perfectly.” (Qaf 50:39)

In this case, the meaning of the evening karahat time is that, delaying the Asr prayer until that time is a disliked (makruh) act.

While the sun crosses the top meridian, it is at the highest point of the day. The angular diameter of the Sun is 32 arcminutes. When we consider the criterion that the westward declination of the sun should be observed by the naked eye, we can conclude that the karahat time at noon is approximately 1 arc degree, which is 4 minutes.

4-Fay Zawal (فيئ الزوال)

The shadow which is formed during the sun’s meridian crossing and refers to the zenith distance is called ‘fay zawal‘. The sum of the shade angle and the incidence angle of sun rays always equals to 90 degrees. The verses below invite us to ponder over the shadow:

ألم تر إِلى ربك كيف مد الظل ولو شاء لجعله ساكِنًا ثم جعلنا الشمس عليهِ دلِيلًا. ثم قبضناه إِلينا قبضًا يسِيرًا. وهو الذِي جعل لكم الليل لِباسًا والنوم سباتًا وجعل النهار نشورًا

“Have you not considered how your Master extends the shadow? Had He preferred otherwise, He could have made it stationary. Then He made the sun an indication of it. He draws the shade toward Him gradually^[33]. It is He Who made the night a covering for you and the sleep a repose and made the daytime for spreading across (the earth).” (Al-Furqan 25:45-47)

 

The “extension of the shadow” occurs when the duration of the night extends. The expression “He draws the shade toward Him gradually” expresses the shortening of the shadow. “The sun being an indication of the shadow” expresses that the shadow must be calculated according to the Sun.

Another verse is:

ألمْ تر أن الله يُولِجُ الليْل فِي النهارِ ويُولِجُ النهار فِي الليْلِ وسخر الشمْس والْقمر كُل يجْرِي إِلى أجلٍ مُسمى وأن الله بِما تعْملُون خبِيرٌ

“Do you not consider that God causes the night to fit into the daytime and He causes the daytime to fit into the night. He has commissioned the Sun and the Moon. All of them float until an appointed term. God is aware of the real face of whatever you do.” (Luqman 31:29)

‘The night and the daytime fitting into one another’ expresses that one of them lengthens as the other one shortens.
‘The Sun and the Moon being commissioned’ states that the calculation must be made according to them.
‘All of them float until an appointed term’ expresses that the night, the daytime, the Sun and the Moon run along their orbits in certain periods and these periods are fixed.

The angle of fay zawal is the incidence angle of the Sun while it crosses the meridian. It denotes the angle between the Earth which tilts like a cradle and the Sun.

[34]

Fay Zawal in Different Seasons

As mentioned earlier, on 20th March and 22nd September, the numeric value of fay zawal equals the local latitude, everywhere on the Earth.

In conventional regions, the daytime can be defined as the period between sunrise and sunset. In regions where the sun does not rise or set or rises for a short while, or during the white nights, the daytime should be defined as the period when the duha of the sun emerges.

 

5- Customary Daytime (Nahar Urfi)

In the Arabic language, the daytime is the period between sunrise and sunset[35]. Since the Qur’an was sent down in Arabic, this is the meaning assigned to the words ‘nahar = النهارِ‘ mentioned in the Qur’an. The Almighty God decrees:

وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَا مِن رَّسُولٍ إِلاَّ بِلِسَانِ قَوْمِهِ لِيُبَيِّنَ لَهُمْ

“We sent every messenger in the language of his people to manifest (the verses) for them.” (Ibrahim 14:4)

Since this is a universal religion deemed to be practiced in all parts of the world and for all times, the matter was not left to the Arabic language. Definitions of the daytime and the night in the Qur’an are valid everywhere on the earth and at all times. Relevant verses are below:

والشمْسِ وضُحاها .والْقمرِ إِذا تلاها . والنهارِ إِذا جلاها . والليْلِ إِذا يغْشاها .

“By the sun and its duha, by the moon when it follows it (either the sun or its duha), by the daytime when it displays it (either the sun or its duha), by the night when it veils it (either the sun or its duha)” (al-Shams 91:1-4)

According to the Arabic grammar rules, the pronoun ‘it = ها’ in these verses may refer to both the sun and the duha. If we consider the pronoun to be referring to ‘the sun’, the translation becomes:

“By the sun and its duha, by the moon when it follows the sun, by the daytime when it displays the sun, by the night when it veils the sun” (al-Shams 91:1-4)

If we translate the verses with the pronoun “it= ها” referring to ‘the duha’, the verses read:

“By the sun and its duha, by the moon when it follows the duha, by the daytime when it displays the duha, by the night when it veils the duha” (al-Shams 91:1-4)

According to the verses, the daytime is the period when duha emerges. In the region where the Quran was sent down in the Arabian peninsula, duha emerges along with the Sun, and therefore the definition of the daytime according to people of that region was the period between sunrise and sunset. In fact, the essential element of the daytime is duha. It is daytime if duha exists, and it is night if duha does not exist.

 

6- Daytime Defined by the Sharia (Nahar Shari)

In Islamic tradition, a term called ‘nahar shari’, which does not exist in the Qur’an or in the Example of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), exists. According to it, ‘nahar shari’ is the time period between dawn and sunset[36]. This definition is wrong according to the Qur’an since duha cannot exist during the morning twilight. New terms which were fabricated without basing on any evidence during the course of time create a barrier in front of understanding the religion correctly. Such a term is unacceptable.

E- MANAZIL (CRITERIA OF COMING DOWN)

The singular form of the Arabic word ‘manazil = منازل’ is manzil[37], which means; time of coming down, place of coming down, and coming down. In terminology in Physics, these are called incidence time, incidence angle and incidence. We will shortly use the word ‘phases’ instead of ‘manazil’ in this article, although this translation would be deficient.

The almighty God decrees:

هُو الذِي جعل الشمْس ضِياء والْقمر نُورًا وقدرهُ منازِل لِتعْلمُواْ عدد السنِين والْحِساب ما خلق اللهُ ذلِك إِلا بِالْحق يُفصلُ الآياتِ لِقوْمٍ يعْلمُون

“It is He Who has made the Sun dhiya and the Moon noor. He has measured it out by phases (manazil) so that you may know the count of years and the calculation. God has created it in a way to show the truth. He explains these verses in detail for a group of people who know.” (Jonah 10:5)

The pronoun ‘it = hu = ُه’ in the expression “He has measured it out by phases (manazil)” may refer both to ‘noor’ and ‘dhiya’. Then, according to the verse, the phases (manazil) of both dhiya and noor are measured out. This means that the incidence angles and incidence times of both the sun rays and the moonlights are measured out.

1-The Measured Out Phases (Manazil) of the Moon

The Sun always appears as an aggregate of light, but the appearance of the Moon changes constantly. The relevant verse is below:

وَالشَّمْسُ تَجْرِي لِمُسْتَقَرٍّ لَهَا ذَلِكَ تَقْدِيرُ الْعَزِيزِ الْعَلِيمِ . وَالْقَمَرَ قَدَّرْنَاهُ مَنَازِلَ حَتَّى عَادَ كَالْعُرْجُونِ الْقَدِيمِ ِ.

“The sun runs along the orbit determined for it. That is the measure set by The Superior, The All-Knowing. As for the moon, We have measured it out by phases until it turns into a withered date-stalk.” (Ya-Sin 36:38-39)

 

Dhiya striking the Moon [38]	Crescent[39]	The lower part of a date-stalk

One side of the Moon faces the Sun. We see the Moon partially depending on the angle between us and the sun-facing side of the Moon. The appearance which is observed as a crescent at the first phase turns into another crescent at the end of the month- a crescent which looks like a “withered date-stalk”.

In verse Jonah 10:5, when we regard the pronoun ‘it = hu = ُه’ as referring to the moonlight in the expression “He has measured it out by phases (manazil)”, the verse reads:

“It is He Who has made the Sun dhiya and the Moon noor. He has measured the noor out by phases (manazil) so that you may know the count of years and the calculation. God has created it in a way to show the truth. He explains these verses in detail for a group of people who know.” (Jonah 10:5)

We can see the Moon in correspondence with the light (noor) reflecting from it. The incidence angle of the Moon’s noor changes by the position of the Moon.

^[40]

As seen in the diagram, we cannot see the illuminated part of the Moon when it is aligned with the Sun and the Earth. We can see it as waxing crescent, first quarter, full moon, last quarter and waning crescent as the angle between us and the sun-facing side of the moon changes. We do the calculation accordingly. The Almighty God decrees:

فالِق الإِصباحِ وجعل الليل سكنًا والشمس والقمر حسبانًا ذلِك تقدِير العزِيزِ العلِيمِ

“[He is] the One who cleaves the morning twilight; and He has made the night (time) for repose, and the sun and the moon (move) according to a calculation. These are the criteria established by the Superior, the All-Knowing.” (Al-An’am 6:96)

الشمْسُ والْقمرُ بِحُسْبانٍ

“The sun and the moon (move) according to a (particular) calculation.” (Rahman 55:5)

Since “God has explained these verses in detail for a group of people who know”, the criteria regarding the prayer times cannot be determined without such a team. The verses about the Moon clearly state that prayer times must be established through calculation^[41]. But during the time of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh), in the region he lived, there wasn’t an expert knowledgeable group who could determine those criteria and calculate the prayer times. Therefore, he said:

“إنا أمة أمية لا نكتب ولا نحسب…” “إذا رأيتم الهلال فصوموا وإذا رأيتموه فأفطروا فإن غم عليكم فصوموا ثلاثين يوما.”

“We are an illiterate nation; we neither write nor know accounts.^[42] Whenever you sight the new moon (of the month of Ramadan) observe fast, and when you sight it (the new moon of Shawwal) break it, and if the sky is cloudy for you, then observe fast for thirty days.^[43]” (Bukhari, Sawm 13)

In contrast to those times, in this day and age, there are sufficient means and enough knowledgeable experts in various fields who can create a lunar calendar. Therefore, there is no need to sight the moon to detect the beginning or end of a lunar month.

2- The Measured Out Phases (Manazil) of the Sun

The measured out manazil of the Sun are the incidence angles of the dhiya from the Sun that are measured out by God. Divisions of a day are determined based on the meridian crossing of the sun’s dhiya. As we will discuss further in the section “Times of Obligatory Prayers”, the first obligatory prayer of the day is the dhuhr prayer whose time begins as soon as the Sun crosses the meridian. The angle between the Sun and the meridian during sunrise and sunset is 90˚. Sahar and suhoor time begins when the Sun’s angular distance from the meridian decreases to 108˚in the morning, and isha time ends when it increases to 108˚. Fajr prayer time begins when the Sun’s angular distance from the meridian decreases to 99˚in the morning, and maghrib prayer time ends when it increases to 99˚. The period between the end of isha and sahar is the midst of the night. In this period, the dhiya of the sun, i.e., the rays that heat the earth, does not exist. Therefore, it is the coldest time of the night. During white nights, the illumination from the sun in the midst of the night is like the illumination from the moon during a full moon. It illuminates but does not heat.

Since the world is like a cradle, sunrise and sunset positions change every day, and the sun rays become perpendicular to the horizon only twice a year. Therefore, the degrees mentioned above would correspond to variant values when converted to minutes.

While the sun is above the horizon, the length of shadow facilitates detecting the incidence angle. The Almighty God has drawn great attention to shadows and said:

ألمْ تر إِلى ربك كيْف مد الظل ولوْ شاء لجعلهُ ساكِنًا ثُم جعلْنا الشمْس عليْهِ دلِيلًا . ثُم قبضْناهُ إِليْنا قبْضًا يسِيرًا . وهُو الذِي جعل لكُمُ الليْل لِباسًا والنوْم سُباتًا وجعل النهار نُشُورًا.

“Have you not considered how your Master extends the shadow? Had He preferred otherwise, He could have made it stationary. Then He made the sun an indication of it. He draws the shade toward Him^[44] (and shortens) gradually. It is He Who made the night a covering for you and the sleep a repose and made the daytime for spreading across (the earth).” (Al-Furqan 25:45-47)

Going back to verse Jonah 10:5, when we regard the pronoun ‘it = hu = ُه’ as referring to the dhiya in the expression “He has measured it out by phases (manazil)”, the verse reads:

“It is He Who has made the Sun dhiya and the Moon noor. He has measured the dhiya out by phases (manazil) so that you may know the count of years and the calculation. God has created it in a way to show the truth. He explains these verses in detail for a group of people who know.” (Jonah 10:5)

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The post PRAYER TIMES FROM THE EQUATOR TO THE POLES appeared first on Islam and the Quran.

FOREWORD

In Islam, the primary sources of rulings are the Qur’an and its practical application in the Sunnah of Prophet (Nabi) Muhammad (peace be upon him). However, the failure to evaluate the relevant Verses and Hadiths according to a certain methodology has inevitably led to differences of opinion, both in the past and present. The approach to the feet during ablution has also been an issue of dispute because of such a difference.

While Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah suggests, from the perspective of the Arabic language, that the feet should be wiped, the washing narrations in the Hadiths have been the primary cause of this disagreement. The different recitations (Qira’at) of the word “arjul (ارجل) / feet” in the Verse have further complicated the matter. After the passing of The Messanger of Allah (peace be upon him), the transmission of narrations regarding both washing and masah (wiping) led to different interpretations.

However, the issue would be easily resolved had the timing of the revelation of the Verse and its application been considered. The relevant Verse, which states the necessity of performing ablution before praying, was revealed during the Medina period. However, it is known that the prayer was made obligatory during the Mecca period and the Messenger of Allah certainly performed his prayers with ablution. There was no disagreement that the Messenger of Allah washed his feet during ablution until Verse 6 of Surah al-Ma’idah was revealed. The practice of masah (wiping) over the feet began after this Verse.

There is no significant difference among the opinions of Sunni Schools of Thought on this matter, but there is serious disagreement between Sunni Islam and the Imamiyyah Shia. The main objective of this study is to examine and evaluate the issues causing the dispute in light of the Quranic Verses and Hadiths, without being influenced by any particular School of Thought or opinion.

It is my sincere wish that this book, which serves as a summary of my master’s thesis, contributes to the correct understanding of the divine intent on this contentious issue.

Fatih, 2023

Ayşe Ulya ÖZEK

I. INTRODUCTION

Since ablution (wudu) is a prerequisite for prayer, performing it duly is extremely important. The question “Is masah (wiping) over the feet sufficient during ablution or not?” has been a long-standing debate among Muslims. Therefore, it is meaningful to reconsider this issue from all aspects and with all its pieces of evidence.

When the available sources are examined, the following different opinions regarding the approach to the feet during ablution are observed:

1. The feet must be washed.
2. The feet must be wiped over.
3. A person is free to choose between washing or wiping.
4. The feet must be wiped as if they were being washed.
5. Washing the feet is not sufficient, they must also be rubbed.

While the Sunni Schools of Thought and the Zaidiyyah sect from Shia Islam adopt the washing view, some Shia sects, especially the Imamiyyah sect along with some Sunni commentators (mufassirs) and jurists (fuqaha), endorse the masah (wiping) view. Although other views do not have followers in terms of being recognised as a distinct School of Thought, they are defended by some commentators and jurists.

Despite having a single Verse describing the ablution (wudu), there are different opinions regarding the approach to the feet. Its first reason is the different recitations (Qira’at) of the relevant word in the Verse and the different rulings inferred from it. The second reason is the presence of narrations in the Hadiths, more frequently advocating washing but likewise supporting both washing and wiping.

The proponents of each view read and interpret the Verse in line with their perspective, highlight the narrations that support their view, and either ignore or reinterpret other narrations. It is observed that commentators and jurists affiliated with a particular School of Thought generally exhibit this attitude.

When the pieces of evidence for these views are examined, it is seen that different recitations (Qira’at) and grammatical structure of the Verse are analysed, the Hadiths that reflect a certain view are studied, cleanliness aspect of ablution and caution are emphasised. However, the following points are rarely addressed: What was the ablution of the Prophet (peace be upon him) like before the revelation of Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah and what information was it based on? Was the ablution performed before the revelation of this Verse according to the previous Sharia laws? Did the practice of ablution change after the revelation of this Verse, indicating an instance of abrogation? Does the ‘completion of favor’ mentioned at the end of the Verse imply an ease or facilitation compared to the practice of previous communities? If so, does this ease refer to tayammum (dry ablution) mentioned in the Verse or is it about masah (wiping) over the feet?

With the increase and ease of transportation options, Muslims today travel to various parts of the world for different reasons (Hajj-Umrah, business-commerce, travel, preaching, conferences-symposiums, etc.) more often than before. In such places, it is observed that some Muslims from different countries wipe over their socks or bare feet during ablution, which is found strange, especially by Muslims from predominantly Sunni countries like Turkiye, who take jurisprudential matters at the level of catechism. In particular, in diverse gatherings, when some individuals are seen wiping over their socks or bare feet, those with sectarian knowledge that this is not permissible often consult various authorities and the topic gets discussed on social media and internet sites. Therefore, addressing the practice of masah (wiping), which offers more convenience compared to washing, has become increasingly important today.

When examining the fatwas given and the discussions held on the permissibility of wiping over bare feet, it is observed that the views presented (although there are a few different opinions) are considered within a narrow framework and largely repeat the opinions of particular Schools of Thought. Therefore, it has become necessary to address the issue comprehensively and objectively, and provide satisfactory answers to the questions that arise in people’s minds.

II. THE CONCEPT OF MASAH (WIPING)

Disputes arising in various matters can sometimes stem from differences in the meanings attributed to concepts or from changes in meanings over time. Some of the disagreements regarding the issue of masah (wiping) over the feet are also based on this reason.

A. Dictionary and Terminological Meaning

The term masah (مسح) is derived from the root “m-s-h (م- س- ح)”. In the dictionary, it means “to touch something with a hand or another object”^[1], “to move something over another thing”^[2], “to move the hand over something to remove residue”^[3], “to wipe away something that is flowing or smeared”^[4], “to groom”^[5] and “to apply water or oil with the hand”^[6].

The terminological meaning of masah (wiping) is not different from its dictionary meaning.^[7] In the Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), the term masah refers to the purification ritual performed by wiping with a wet hand over the head, neck and ears during ablution (wudu) or over leather socks or bandages as well as by wiping the face and arms with hands that have touched the soil during tayammum (dry ablution).^[8]

B. Masah (Wiping) in the Quran and Hadiths

The word masah (wiping) appears in three places in the Quran.^[9] In the Verse from Surah Sâd, Allah says:

رُدُّوهَا عَلَيَّ فَطَفِقَ مَسْحًا بِالسُّوقِ وَالْأَعْنَاقِ.

“He (Solomon) said, ‘Return them to me’ and began to stroke (perform masah over) their legs and necks with his hands”.^[10]

In many dictionaries, based on this Verse, the term masah has also been interpreted to mean “to strike or sever the neck or a limb with a sword”^[11], and thus, doing masah to the neck is said to mean “to strike or sever it”.^[12] For all these meanings to be applicable, the word masah would need to be used alongside the sword. This is because to do masah with a sword metaphorically implies severing.^[13] However, in this Verse, the word sword is not mentioned.

Another Verse in which the word masah is mentioned is in Surah An-Nisa:

يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ لاَ تَقْرَبُواْ الصَّلاَةَ وَأَنتُمْ سُكَارَى حَتَّىَ تَعْلَمُواْ مَا تَقُولُونَ وَلاَ جُنُبًا إِلاَّ عَابِرِي سَبِيلٍ حَتَّىَ تَغْتَسِلُواْ وَإِن كُنتُم مَّرْضَى أَوْ عَلَى سَفَرٍ أَوْ جَاء أَحَدٌ مِّنكُم مِّن الْغَآئِطِ أَوْ لاَمَسْتُمُ النِّسَاء فَلَمْ تَجِدُواْ مَاء فَتَيَمَّمُواْ صَعِيدًا طَيِّبًا فَامْسَحُواْ بِوُجُوهِكُمْ وَأَيْدِيكُمْ إِنَّ اللّهَ كَانَ عَفُوًّا غَفُورًا.

“O you who have believed, do not approach prayer while you are intoxicated until you know what you are saying or in a state of impurity (janabah) -except those who are on a journey- until you have washed [your whole body]. If you are ill or on a journey or one of you comes from the place of relieving himself or you have had sexual contact with women and find no water, then seek clean earth and wipe (masah) your faces and hands with it. Indeed, Allah is ever Pardoning and Merciful.^[14]

This Verse refers to ablution and mentions tayammum (dry ablution) for the first time, commanding that if water for ablution or ghusl (bathing) is not available, then the palms of the hand should be struck on a clean area of earth/surface and wiped over the face and hands.

The relevant Verse from Surah Al-Ma’idah is as follows:

يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُواْ إِذَا قُمْتُمْ إِلَى الصَّلاةِ فاغْسِلُواْ وُجُوهَكُمْ وَأَيْدِيَكُمْ إِلَى الْمَرَافِقِ وَامْسَحُواْ بِرُؤُوسِكُمْ وَأَرْجُلَكُمْ إِلَى الْكَعْبَينِ وَإِن كُنتُمْ جُنُبًا فَاطَّهَّرُواْ وَإِن كُنتُم مَّرْضَى أَوْ عَلَى سَفَرٍ أَوْ جَاء أَحَدٌ مَّنكُم مِّنَ الْغَائِطِ أَوْ لاَمَسْتُمُ النِّسَاء فَلَمْ تَجِدُواْ مَاء فَتَيَمَّمُواْ صَعِيدًا طَيِّبًا فَامْسَحُواْ بِوُجُوهِكُمْ وَأَيْدِيكُم مِّنْهُ مَا يُرِيدُ اللّهُ لِيَجْعَلَ عَلَيْكُم مِّنْ حَرَجٍ وَلَـكِن يُرِيدُ لِيُطَهَّرَكُمْ وَلِيُتِمَّ نِعْمَتَهُ عَلَيْكُمْ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَشْكُرُونَ.

“O you who have believed, when you rise to [perform] prayer, wash your faces and your forearms to the elbows and wipe over (masah) your heads and your feet to the ankles. If you are in a state of major impurity, then purify yourselves properly (wash your whole body). But if you are ill or on a journey or one of you comes from the place of relieving himself or you have had sexual contact with women and do not find water, then seek a clean part of earth/surface and wipe over (masah) your faces and hands with it. Allah does not intend to cause difficulty for you, but He intends to purify you and complete His favour upon you that you may be grateful”.^[15]

This Verse describes both ablution and ghusl (ritual purification) and reiterates that in situations where water cannot be found, one can perform tayammum (dry ablution). It concludes by stating that Allah does not intend to make things difficult for you but wants to purify you and complete His favour upon you.

Words derived from the root masah are used in Hadiths with meanings such as “touching”, “removing”, “wiping” and “applying”. For example, a narration from Bara’ b. Azib is as follows:

…فانتهيت إلى النبي صلى الله عليه و سلم فحدثته فقال ابسط رجلك فبسطت رجلي فمسحها فكأنها لم أشتكها قط

“…I went to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and explained (my distress) to him. He said, “Extend your leg”. I extended my leg, and he wiped it (gently rubbed it). After that, I had no complaints about it”.^[16]

عَنْ أَبِي هُرَيْرَةَ أَنَّ رَجُلًا شَكَا إِلَى رَسُولِ اللَّهِ صَلَّى اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَسَلَّمَ قَسْوَةَ قَلْبِهِ فَقَالَ لَهُ إِنْ أَرَدْتَ تَلْيِينَ قَلْبِكَ فَأَطْعِمْ الْمِسْكِينَ وَامْسَحْ رَأْسَ الْيَتِيمِ.

A narration from Abu Hurairah is as follows: A man complained to the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) about the hardness of his heart. The Prophet told him, “If you want your heart to soften, feed the needy and wipe/stroke (masah) the head of an orphan”.^[17]

As one can see, the term masah retains its dictionary meaning in narrations where it is mentioned alongside ra’s (head) and rijl (foot) outside of the context of ablution.

C. The Semantic Shift in the Word Masah

Regarding the concept of masah, when examining early period dictionaries, it is noted that the word’s meaning was assumed to be known for only different usages were provided. However, in later periods, the primary meaning was also given and increasingly detailed. Almost all the meanings the word has acquired over time are connected to its root meaning. As far as we can determine, the inclusion of interpretations related to washing the feet during ablution and the views of some linguists suggesting that the word masah could also mean washing in dictionaries occurred six centuries after the revelation of the Qur’an. These claims will be evaluated below.

Ibn al-Athir (d. 606/1210), in his work al-Nihaya^[18], interprets the Hadith “he performed tamassuh and prayed (اِنَّهُ تَمَسَّحَ وَ صَلَّى)” by stating that tamassaha (performed masah) means tawadda (performed ablution / washed), thus suggesting that masah also carries the meaning of washing.^[19] Tamassaha can be metaphorically used to mean “performed ablution”; however, it is problematic to derive the meaning of washing from masah based on this usage. In ablution, two organs are washed while two organs (the head and feet) are wiped. Therefore, it is natural for tamassaha to be used in the sense of tawadda (performed ablution). However, from tamassaha, the meaning “he performed ablution by washing his feet” cannot be derived. On the contrary, such an expression indicates that the feet are wiped during ablution. Because the verb tamassaha was used while discussing the issue of being led in prayer by someone who performs ablution by wiping over their shoes.^[20] If the meaning of tamassaha in their minds was “to perform ablution by washing”, such a topic would not have been debated. Indeed, Ibn al-Jawzi (d. 597/1201), in his work Ghareeb al-Hadith, which is thought to have been written before al-Nihaya, stated that tamassaha means tawadda (performed ablution), but did not indicate that masah means washing.^[21] Ibn Manzur’s (d. 711/1311) reference to Ibn al-Athir’s above-mentioned view marks the first point of divergence in the dictionaries.

Abu Zayd’s (d. 215/830) assertion that the term masah can be used for someone who washed their hands with water and that tamassaha can be used for someone who washed himself^[22] requires scrutiny. While washing sometimes involves wiping, masah never substitutes for washing. This is because when a person washes an organ with water and rubs it with their hands, they are performing masah. However, someone who performs masah cannot be washing. The expressions cited by Ibn Qutayba (d. 276/889) in his Gharib al-Hadith from Abu Zayd are as follows: “Do you not see that when you perform ablution for prayer, you say, ‘I performed tamassuh?’ Washing is called masah because to wash something is to cleanse it by pouring water over it, while masah is to cleanse by wiping with water. Therefore, masah is light washing”.^[23] Although Abu Zayd considers masah as light washing, since there is no process of pouring water in masah, it cannot be considered washing. Therefore, the opinions attributed to Abu Zayd that “masah also means washing”, “washing is called masah” and “masah is light washing” contradict each other as well as his own definitions of washing and masah.

Ibn Qutayba based his view that “washing the feet in ablution is called masah” on Abu Zayd and considered the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) act of washing his hands, face and feet with a small amount of water during ablution as masah. He also supported himself with the opinion attributed to Ibrahim (al-Nakha’i) (d. 96/714), which stated that “performing masah on the face by applying water to it is considered both; washing and masah“.^[24] First of all, in the information given about the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) ablution with a small amount of water, wiping the head is not mentioned. Although the actions performed here are expressed as masah, in reality, they are merely washing. Indeed, it is stated in the text that this is washing. Additionally, in the opinion attributed to Ibrahim, it is understood that the face is washed by the application of water, so expressing washing with the term masah might not cause confusion. However, since the Verse of ablution states, “wipe your heads and feet”, understanding the command “masah (wipe)” as wiping for the head but washing for the feet, and then, saying “what is meant by wiping the feet is actually washing them”, would not be consistent. This is because the organs to be washed are explicitly mentioned at the beginning of the Verse.

Firuzabadi (d. 817/1415) first presented Ibn Qutayba’s interpretation of the Prophet (peace be upon him) performing ablution with a small amount of water as if it were a Hadith, and then, based on this, he stated that what is meant by performing masah over the feet in the Verse is actually washing them. Moreover, he claimed that since the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) action clarifies this, the term masah is a common word that also includes the meaning of washing or that it is used literally for the head and metaphorically for the feet, thereby suggesting that masah could have two different meanings. His reasoning for saying this is based on his view that the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) action, which has reached us through solitary reports (Ahad Hadiths), cannot abrogate the Qur’an. Firuzabadi states that if this view is not accepted, the last resort would be to assume that the word “feet (اَرْجُلْ)” implies “wash in the sense of wipe”, which is an excessive stretch.^[25] Firuzabadi’s explanations illustrate that the semantic shift, which entered the lexicon through Ibn Manzur, has deepened and taken on different dimensions over time.

III. THE PERSPECTIVE OF ISLAMIC SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT ON MASAH (WIPING) OVER THE FEET

In the Hanafi School of Thought, washing the feet is obligatory.^[26] It is stated that wiping over sandals, slippers or bare feet is not sufficient.^[27] Their evidence for this includes narrations about washing the feet and Hadiths containing warnings about the heels. Regarding the relevant Verse, they prefer the fathah recitation (Qira’at) of arjul (feet) in connection with washing, interpreting it as including wiping. They argue that the kasrah recitation (Qira’at) is due to jewar (proximity) and to reconcile both recitations, they apply the kasrah recitation to wiping over footwear (khuffayn).^[28]

In the Shafi’i School of Thought, washing the feet is also obligatory,^[29] and they assert that there is consensus (ijma’) on this matter.^[30] Their interpretation of the relevant Verse aligns with that of the Hanafi School.^[31] They emphasise all narrations that pertain to washing the feet.^[32]

In the Maliki School of Thought, washing the feet is also obligatory. The Maliki approach to the Qur’anic Verses and Hadiths is similar to that of Hanafi and Shafi’i Schools.^[33] However, Ibn Rushd presents a unique perspective, arguing that the Hadiths warning about the heels are evidence for masah (wiping) rather than washing. He also highlights narrations from some Companions and Followers (Tabi’in) that indicate permissibility of masah. Despite this, he suggests that washing is more appropriate for cleanliness.^[34]

The Hanbali School of Thought, like the other Sunni Schools, states that washing the feet during ablution is obligatory based on the same evidence.^[35]

It is reported that the founder of the Zahiri School, Dawud b. Ali al-Isfahani, held the view of consolidation of washing and wiping. Other members of the Zahiri School, however, hold the opinion that washing the feet during ablution is obligatory. According to them, the Verse instructs the wiping (masah) of the feet, and setting a limit/boundary does not constitute evidence for washing. Nevertheless, the warning regarding the heels is considered to have abrogated both the Verse and the narrations concerning masah.^[36]

The Zaidiyyah Sect, which is a moderate Shia Sect prevalent in Iraq, Tabaristan and predominantly Yemen, considers washing the feet as obligatory similar to Sunni Schools of Thought within Ahl al-Sunnah.

According to the Twelver Shia (Shiite-Imamiyyah) Sect, which is more prevalent in Iran, it is obligatory to perform masah over the feet during ablution (wudu). Washing the feet is permissible only in cases of taqiyya (dissimulation) or fear. If washing the feet is necessary for cleanliness, it should be done either before or after performing ablution. Except for the sandals or slippers worn by Arabs, which are called na’l, masah cannot be performed over anything else that prevents wiping over the bare feet.^[37] According to them, the apparent meaning of the verse regarding the feet is wiping (masah), because the verse consists of two clauses: one containing the ruling of washing (the face and arms), and the other containing the ruling of wiping (the head and feet). Additionally, since the ruling of the noun introduced by the conjunction and the noun it is connected to cannot be different, the ruling for the head and the feet is the same. The Hadiths that align with the apparent meaning of the Qur’an are authentic; it is not permissible to abandon the ruling of masah based on solitary reports (Ahad Hadiths). The warning about the heels is due to the fact that Arabs who walked barefoot treated their cracked heels with urine. They interpret the words of Ali (RA)^[38] after performing masah on his feet, “This is the ablution of someone who is already in a state of ablution”, to mean “This is the ablution of someone who has not invented anything new”. It is not appropriate to cling to various interpretations such as caution against the Verse.^[39] The Sunnah does not abrogate the Qur’an; rather, the Qur’an abrogates the Sunnah. The statement narrated from Anas: “The Qur’an was revealed with masah (wiping), the Sunnah with washing”, refers to the practice of the Prophet (peace be upon him) before the revelation of the Verse. The widespread practice of washing despite the Verse became widespread due to administrative pressures. The words of Hajjaj and some narrations indicate this.^[40]

IV. THE TREATMENT OF THE TOPIC IN TAFSIRS (COMMENTARIES)

Due to the fact that the word “arjul (ارجل)” in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah is read differently by the Qira’at scholars, either with a fathah (“a” sound) or with a kasrah (“e” sound), and thus the Verse is given different meanings, the topic has been addressed in Tafsirs (Qur’anic exegesis) within the context of Qira’at (recitation variants).

A. Rulings Derived from the Differences in Qira’at (Recitation Variants)

In the ablution Verse, the word “arjul (ارجل) / feet” comes after the phrase, “Wipe (masah) your heads” and is read in two mutawatir^[41] (widely transmitted) recitations: “arjulakum (أَرْجُلَكُمْ)”  with a fathah^[42] or “arjulikum (أَرْجُلِكُمْ)” with a kasrah^[43]. According to this, the general consensus regarding the word arjul (feet) is as follows: those who read it with a fathah connect it to aydiya (hands), saying that the verb is ighsiloo (wash), and conclude that the feet must be washed. Those who read it with a kasrah connect it to ru’oos (heads), saying that the verb is imsahoo^[44] (wipe) and prefer that the feet should be wiped. There is also a rare (shaadh) recitation^[45] with a dammah (“u” sound) on this word. In this case, the word arjulukum becomes a mubtada (subject) with its khabar (predicate) omitted. According to the interpretation that favours washing, the meaning of the phrase is “Wash the feet up to the ankles”, and according to the interpretation that favours masah, it means “Wipe the feet up to the ankles”.^[46]

In addition to these two well-known views, there are two other approaches: one is the combination of washing and wiping, and the other is the freedom to choose between washing or wiping. While the majority of Ahl al-Sunnah adheres to the view of washing, some groups, particularly the Imami Shia, accept the view of wiping. The combination view is attributed to some scholars, such as Dawud ibn Ali al-Isfahani and Nasir al-Haqq, whereas it is reported that Hasan al-Basri and Ibn Jarir al-Tabari (d. 310/923) preferred “the freedom of choice”.^[47] However, Tabari’s view is not “the freedom of choice” as claimed but rather wiping the entire foot with water.^[48]

B. Combining the Opposing Qira’at (Recitation Variants)

Based on the principle of combining opposing Qira’at, the different recitations (with fathah and kasrah) of the word “arjul (ارجل)” in the ablution Verse have been considered as rulings of two distinct Verses and combined accordingly.

Those who combine the recitations by taking the fathah as the basis and interpret the different Qira’at of “arjul (ارجل)” as the ruling of washing the feet, either interpret the kasrah recitation as implying a light washing or say that the word “arjul (ارجل)” is recited with a kasrah due to jewar (proximity), and thus, it refers to the limbs that are to be washed. According to them, the evidence for jewar (proximity) in the ablution Verse is the specification of limits/boundaries for the feet, as limits are set for washed organs, not for those that are wiped. The insertion of the phrase “wipe your heads” in between indicates either the order (in the Verse and practice) or the economical use of water.^[49] Another view on combining the recitations (Qira’at) into the ruling of washing is that the kasrah recitation of “arjul (ارجل)” applies to the case when the feet are covered, and the fathah recitation applies when the feet are bare. Thus, if the feet are bare, they are washed, and if they are covered, they are wiped.

Those who base their interpretation on the kasrah recitation (Qira’at) and combine the recitations under the ruling of wiping the feet either consider the word “arjul (ارجل)” in the fathah recitation (Qira’at) to be linked to the position of the word ru’oos, in which case the ruling for the feet is still wiping^[50], or they say that the letter waw (و) at the beginning of wa arjulikum comes for maiyya (accompaniment) and has the meaning of mea (with). Thus, the expression reads “wipe your heads along with your feet”.

C. The Evidence for Washing and Masah (Wiping)

The most significant basis for the view that washing the feet in ablution is obligatory comes from the narrations reporting that Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) washed his feet during ablution and the alleged threatening warning to those who wipe their feet, “Woe to the heels from the Hellfire!”.^[51] Their scriptural basis in the Verse is the phrase “up to the ankles” which sets a limit/boundary for the feet. According to them, this limit is set to eliminate the misconception that the feet are to be wiped.^[52] Other bases include the principle of precaution^[53] and the essence of cleanliness^[54]. They argue that washing encompasses wiping and that the feet, being the most frequently soiled body part, need to be thoroughly cleaned.

The most important basis for the view that masah of the feet is obligatory (fardh) is the apparent meaning derived from the Verse.^[55] This view is also supported by narrations related to masah. Additionally, several rational arguments are presented, such as the fact that the organs wiped during ablution are excluded during tayammum (dry ablution), and the act of masah over footwear suggests that bare feet should primarily be wiped.^[56] It is also stated that washing the single organ (face) and the pair of organs (arms) forms a complete balance with the wiping of the single organ (head) and the pair of organs (feet).^[57] Some even consider the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) act of washing his feet not as obligatory but as a recommended (Sunnah) practice.^[58]

D. The Opinions of the Commentators (Mufassir)

There is no information in the commentary (tafsir) of the early exegete (mufassir) Dahhak (d. 105/723) other than that the word arjul (ارجل) is read in two different recitations (Qira’at).^[59] In the commentary of Muqatil ibn Suleiman (d. 150/767), the topic is not addressed.^[60] Although it is said that al-Tabari’s (d. 310/923) view is “the freedom to choose”, a review of his tafsir reveals that his position is that the feet should be entirely wiped with water. Al-Maturidi (d. 333/944), in his Tafsir al-Qur’an, after mentioning that arjul was read with both fathah and kasrah, also rejects the view that “the feet should be washed if they are bare and they should be wiped if they are covered,” as he finds this view inconsistent, and deems it an unlikely opinion. He states that it is inappropriate to command both washing and wiping (masah) together. According to him, the kasrah recitation is due to jewar (proximity) and there are examples of this in the Quran. The wisdom behind commanding the washing of these organs is to remind the spiritual purity. Washing these organs has two meanings: one is to express gratitude for them, and the other is to erase the sins committed with them.^[61]

When examining the tafsirs written by linguists, it is observed that Farra (d. 207/822) in his Maʿani al-Qur’an links the fathah recitation (Qira’at) of the word arjul to the word ru’oos. Farra reports that he received narrations indicating that Ibn Masʿud recited it with a fathah due to a word order change (taqdeem wa takheer); Ali stated, “The Book (Qur’an) was revealed with masah (wiping) and the Sunnah with washing”; and Sha’bi said, “Angel Gabriel (peace be upon him) revealed masah to Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) and all the Prophets”. Farra, therefore, concludes by saying, “The Sunnah is to wash”.^[62] Abu ʿUbaydah (d. 209/824) and Akhfash (d. 215/830) also mention that arjul is recited with a kasrah based on the vowel of the preceding word, implying that the meaning is “washing the feet”. Abu Ubaydah states that the evidence for this is the phrase “up to the ankles” in the Verse and the narrations that the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) washed his feet.^[63] Some Sunni commentators (mufassirs), such as Zajjaj (d. 311/923), al-Nahhas (d. 338/950), and Abu Hayyan (d. 745/1344) did not consider the practice of jewar (relying on the adjacent word for grammatical inflection) permissible in the Qur’an. However, Zajjaj stated that washing is intended since a limit/boundary is set for wiping the feet. According to al-Nahhas, the most suitable opinion on this matter is that both wiping and washing (masah) are obligatory. Abu Hayyan, on the other hand, believed that reciting the word arjul with a kasrah based on jewar is indeed a weak interpretation. Jewar applies only when there will be no ambiguity and only to adjectives.^[64]

Tahawi (d. 321/933), who is one of the authors of the legal exegesis (Ahkam), mentions that there is a disagreement about the recitation and meaning of the word arjul (ارجل). After noting that there are narrations both supporting the rulings of washing and wiping, he states that he prefers the opinion of washing.^[65] Jassas (d. 370/981) also discusses the differences in recitation (Qira’at) and potential meanings, explaining that the Verse is ambiguous (mujmal) and that the Hadith clarifies it. According to him, the intended meaning is washing, supported by widely known Hadiths about washing the feet and the idea that someone who washes their feet would not be criticized for not wiping them.^[66] According to Ibn al-ʿArabi (d. 543/1148), although both recitations are correct from the perspective of the Arabic language and some Companions recited with a kasrah to imply wiping, the Sunnah requires washing. He argues that the insertion of a sentence in between indicates the explanation of the order, while the recitation with a kasrah is meant to show that it is possible to wipe over the items worn on the feet.^[67] Qurtubi (d. 671/1273) states that masah (wiping) can also mean washing, and that the fathah recitation does not imply wiping in any way. He notes that there are many Hadiths regarding washing, so the recitation with a kasrah also means washing. He also points out that there is ijma’ (consensus) regarding washing, meaning that it is unanimously agreed that one who washes their feet has fulfilled the obligation, whereas there is disagreement concerning wiping.^[68]

Zamakhshari (d. 538/1144) explains that the reason the feet, one of the three washed body parts, come after the heads is to avoid wasting water and to promote its economical use. He also states that setting a limit/boundary eliminates the notion that masah (wiping) could be intended.^[69] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (d. 606/1210), while acknowledging the impossibility of jewar (relying on the adjacent word for grammatical inflection), argues that it is more appropriate to link arjul to the nearby term, namely ru’oos (heads). He also asserts that it is not permissible to abrogate the Qurʾan with a singular Hadith (Khabar wahed), but due to the multitude of Hadiths about washing and the fact that washing includes wiping, caution is required, and specifying the limit/boundary is only applicable to washing.^[70] Baydawi (d. 685/1286) states that the prevalent Sunnah, the practice of the Companions, and most of the school founders confirm that the recitation of arjul by connecting with the washed parts (i.e. feet) is correct. He then explains that reciting arjul with a kasrah is due to jewar (the grammatical concept of inflection based on the proximity).^[71] Ibn Kathir (d. 774/1373) also notes that masah can mean a light form of washing. He suggests that the recitation with a kasrah might be either because of  jewar or applicable to the condition when the feet are covered.^[72]

Among the recent commentators, Qasimi (d. 1332/1914) states that the apparent meaning of the Verse clearly indicates the obligation of masah. He suggests that the narrations (Hadiths) about washing express an addition and expansion in the obligation according to the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) practice. According to him, the legitimacy of masah (wiping) over socks and shoes also indicates that the obligatory act is wiping, because the basis of every act in Sunnah is found in the wording or meaning of The Book of Allah.^[73] Rashid Ridha (d. 1354/1935) states that it is established by widely transmitted (mutawatir) Hadiths explaining the Qur’an that bare feet are to be washed, and covered feet are to be wiped. He notes that this is consistent with the wisdom of cleanliness, that there is no contradiction between the two recitations (Qira’at) and that those who initially preferred the recitation with a kasrah later reverted to the other recitation based on the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) clarification.^[74] Elmalili Hamdi Yazir (1878-1942) states that considering masah of the feet permissible contradicts the wisdom of cleanliness mentioned at the end of the Verse, “Allah desires to purify you”.^[75] Ibn ʿAshur (d. 1394/1973) also linked the necessity of washing the feet to the wisdom of cleanliness, stating that when approaching the presence of Allah, extra attention should be given to washing the part of the body that gets the dirtiest. Regarding the recitation with a kasrah, he considered the statement “The Qur’an was revealed with wiping (masah) and the Sunnah with washing” as the best interpretation and said, “The masah of the feet was abrogated by the Sunnah”.^[76]

Süleyman Ateş states that the recitation (Qira’at) of arjul with a kasrah gives the meaning of “wipe your feet” and that deriving the meaning of washing from the fathah recitation does not appear consistent from the perspective of Arabic grammar. He emphasises the harmony and balance between washing one pair of organs and wiping another pair of organs in ablution, concluding that wiping the feet is obligatory. Ateş also finds the interpretations of Sunni scholars, who explain the Hadiths about wiping the feet as referring to “wiping over socks and khuffs or light washing” to be inconsistent, especially considering that wearing socks and sandals (khuffs) was not customary in a hot place like Medina. According to him, the Messenger of Allah did more than what was commanded in the Qur’an and, while not always, he often washed his feet. Ateş states that washing the feet in hot places relieves the body. He believes that by washing instead of just wiping, a better action is performed, fulfilling Allah’s command and making the ablution more perfect. He mentions that wiping the feet can suffice in circumstances like cold weather or water scarcity, but under normal conditions, washing the feet is more in line with the Sunnah.^[77] Bayraktar Bayrakli, while accepting both the recitations (Qira’at) and meanings (washing and wiping), emphasises the application based on circumstances. For instance, if water is scarce, if there is a fungal infection on the feet or if it is difficult for working women to remove their socks to perform ablution, then wiping the feet is the most appropriate. However, if a person is not travelling and has enough water to wash their feet, they should wash their feet.^[78]

Tabarsi (d. 548/1153) conveys the objections of Shi’a commentators to the Sunnis regarding the interpretation of wiping and washing. One objection is that “deriving the meaning of washing from the term masah is not feasible in some respects”, because the words for wiping and washing have different meanings, and thus, Allah’s separation of the organs to be washed and wiped is significant. Another objection is that due to the conjunction, the feet, like the head, should also be wiped. According to them, specifying a limit/boundary does not necessarily indicate washing; rather, it is possible to specify a limit/boundary for wiping as well. Tabarsi states that the use of jewar (proximity) in poetry, which is sometimes employed out of necessity, applies to adjectives not to conjuncts and only when there is no risk of causing ambiguity. He argues that Allah’s Book should not be based on such a weak interpretation. Tabarsi asserts that it is not permissible to deviate from the apparent meaning of the Qur’an, given the narrations that describe the Prophet (peace be upon him) washing his feet during ablution. He argues that these narrations do not hold conclusive knowledge but are speculative and contradict the narrations about masah. In this context, Tabarsi cites the following narration regarding the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) statement, “Those heels will drag one to the fire!”: “Bedouin Arabs used to urinate while standing, causing their urine to splash onto their heels and feet, and they would enter the mosque for prayer without washing their feet. The threat is about this behaviour”.^[79] Tabatabaʿi (1904-1981) also mentions that the narrations from the Imams of Ahl al-Bayt indicate that wiping the feet is required in ablution and that the narrations transmitted through Sunni sources contain different information, suggesting that they do not pertain to the interpretation of the Verse. He also describes the view that the terms masah (wiping) and ghasl (washing) have the same meaning as the weakest opinion on this matter. He claims that there is no connection between these two actions and that considering the wiping of the head while interpreting the wiping of the feet as washing is an unsupported choice.^[80]

E. Evaluation of the Opinions on Washing and Wiping

1. Evidence for the Opinion of Washing from the Verse: The Fathah Recitation (Qira’at) of Arjul

Proponents of the washing view, by preferring the fathah recitation of arjul (feet) have associated it with the washed organs, such as the aydiya (hands). They have argued that the reason for associating feet with hands is the fact that a limit/boundary is set for the feet “up to the ankles”, just as a limit/boundary is set for the hands that are washed “up to the elbows”.

a.      The Insertion of a Sentence Between Arjul and Aydiya

From a linguistic perspective, it is clear that associating a word with a distant term, when a similar term is nearby and a sentence is inserted between them, is not accurate.  Verses^[81] from the Qur’an cited as evidence for the permissibility of this practice have been examined in detail, and it has been determined that this is not the case. Considering the reason for the insertion of a sentence between the noun introduced by the conjunction and the noun connected to it as an indication of order or light washing is also inconsistent. Abu Hayyan states that this is an inference made by the proponents of the washing view as there is no evidence in the Verse requiring order.^[82] Indeed, according to Abu Hanifa and Imam Malik, order is not required when using waw (و) for conjunction. As for the view that lightly washing the feet -as if wiping them- is to avoid wasting water or to use it economically, this contradicts the opinion that “the feet are the most soiled organ and need to be washed”, as well as the Hadiths describing ablution, where the feet are washed three times.

b. Specifying the Limit/Boundary for the Feet

According to those who hold the view of washing, the justification for reciting the word arjul (ارجل) in the Verse with a fathah (indicating that it should be washed) and linking it to the “hands” is that, just as the command “wash your hands up to the elbows” specifies a limit, the same applies to the feet, specifying “up to the ankles”, thereby setting a boundary for wiping. Proponents of this view also use the fact that no limit/boundary is set for masah (wiping) in ablution and tayammum (dry ablution) as evidence. However, when the command to wash is given without specifying a limit, the general understanding is that the washing should be performed at least up to the ankles. This is similar to how in the Verses “cut off the hands of thieves”^[83] and “cut off the hands and feet of the thieves respectively”^[84], the limit/boundary is understood to be up to the wrists and ankles because no specific limit/boundary is mentioned.^[85] Therefore, it is not required to specify a limit for understanding that the feet should be washed “up to the ankles”, and thus setting a limit cannot be used as evidence for their washing. The phrase “up to the elbows” about the hands is meant to indicate that the arms also need to be washed. As noted by al-Ṭabari, wiping includes either the entire organ or a part of it.^[86] Therefore, in ablution, either the entire head or a part of it is wiped. If the command had been “wipe your feet” without specifying a limit, it would have been understood that either the entire foot or part of it should be wiped. Thus, the phrase “up to the ankles” clarifies the part of the foot to be wiped and indicates that the upper part of the foot is meant, not the lower part, since the ankles are located on the upper side of the foot. Indeed, there is consensus that wiping is done on the upper part of the foot. In tayammum, the face and hands are wiped. Since no limit is set for the hands, there are Hadiths indicating that wiping up to the elbows is acceptable, and there are also reports^[87] suggesting that wiping up to the wrists is sufficient.

c.      The Reason for the Use of the Kasrah Recitation for Arjul Due to Jewar

The predominant view among those who support the washing of the feet is that the recitation of arjul with a kasrah is due to jewar meaning that the vowel was affected by the preceding word. Although some linguists consider jewar acceptable in the context of ablution Verses it can only be permissible in poetry under necessity, and if it does not create confusion when read with a kasrah. Moreover, jewar is used for adjectives, not for conjuncts.^[88] The situation in the ablution Verse is different. The Word of Allah is free from the flawed method of jewar.^[89] Indeed, it has been determined that in other Verses^[90] used as evidence for this issue, the reason for the kasrah is not due to jewar^[91]. Consequently, it is not appropriate to recite the word arjul (ارجل)  with a kasrah due to jewar, nor is it suitable to link it to the preceding command “wash”, regardless of which recitation is preferred. This is because two separate sentences with different meanings, “wash” and “wipe” have been established in the Verse.

d.      The Meaning of Masah as Washing or Wiping Over Leather Socks

As for interpreting the meaning of masah (wiping) in the kasrah recitation as washing, a terminological study has shown that this is not feasible from the perspectives of the Qur’an, Hadiths and dictionaries. If that were the case, the term masah would become a homonymous word. Even if masah were to metaphorically mean washing, within the context of the Verse, masah (wiping) has been distinguished from washing; the organs that are washed and those that are wiped have been assigned different rulings. The assertion that the verb masah in the Verse on ablution (wudu) is literal for the head but metaphorical for the feet involves combining both the literal and metaphorical meanings of a word in the same sentence, which is impossible.^[92] Another opinion regarding reconciling the different recitations (Qira’at) in the ruling of washing states that the kasrah recitation of arjul (feet) applies to cases when the feet are covered, and the fathah recitation applies to cases when the feet are bare. However, there is no evidence in the Verse indicating this.

2. The Evidence for the View of Masah (Wiping) from the Verse: The Kasrah Recitation (Qira’at) of Arjul

One of the well-known and mutawatir (widely transmitted) recitations of the word arjul in the Verse of ablution is the kasrah recitation. In this case, arjul is connected to the nearby kasrah word ru’us. In all Quranic verses where ‘masah’ (wiping) is used, it is always preceded by the preposition ‘bi.’ Moreover, in all verses except the one regarding feet, the second object of ‘masah’ has a kasrah vowel. Therefore, consistent with other instances, the second object in the ablution verse should also be recited with a kasrah vowel, reflecting the grammatical association with the first object.This is the correct approach from the perspective of the Arabic language.

3. Other Bases for the Washing View
   a. The Cleanliness Rationale

The phrase in the ablution Verse, “Allah does not intend to cause difficulty for you, but He intends to purify you” is used to emphasise cleanliness and is taken as evidence that the feet should be washed. However, ablution (wudu) is a purification from ritual impurity (hadath), not from physical impurity (najasah). During ablution, clean body parts are usually washed or wiped. Therefore, the emphasis here is on spiritual cleanliness rather than physical cleanliness. If wiping the feet were meant to achieve physical cleanliness, it would be the bottom of the feet that would be wiped, not the top. Additionally, the thought that feet should be washed because they are the most frequently dirty part of the body, and thus, interpreting masah (wipe) in the Verse as “wash” is, as Anas ibn Malik said, contrary to Allah’s word. Since wiping the feet is not complete cleanliness, if the feet are dirty, they should indeed be washed. Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) instructed a Companion helping him to take ablution and attempted to remove the Prophet’s shoes while performing it, “Leave them, for I put them on while my feet were clean^[93]“. However, even if the feet are dirty, a person who wipes their feet during ablution is considered to have performed ablution, but any impurity (najasah) must still be removed.

b. The Principle of Precaution

Those who support the view of washing argue that washing the feet inherently fulfils the act of masah (wiping), thus advocating for precaution in religious practices. However, precaution, by its very nature, involves uncertainty and therefore cannot serve as evidence. There is nothing doubtful in The Book of Allah. Relying on precaution to interpret a clear Quranic verse can introduce ambiguity. This can lead to deviations from the explicit meaning of the verse based on reports that are not definitively established.

4. Other Grounds for the Masah (Wiping) View
   a.The Exclusion of Wiped Organs in Ablution from Dry Ablution (Tayammum)

Those who support the view that the feet must be wiped primarily use the apparent meaning of the verse as evidence. Another piece of evidence they present is that the organs washed during ablution are wiped in tayammum (dry ablution). However, in our view, ablution involves washing and wiping certain organs, while ghusl involves washing the entire body, and tayammum serves as a substitute for both; thus, this argument is invalid.

b. Using Masah (Wiping) Over Footwear as Evidence for Masah Over Bare Feet

Another argument for the practice of masah (wiping) over the feet is  the view that states: “If wiping the feet were not obligatory, the ruling of wiping over socks and leather footwear (khuff) would not have been established.” Indeed, the permissibility of wiping over a turban or headscarf is due to the obligation of wiping the head itself. If the feet were an organ that must be washed, like the face and hands, then it would not be permissible to wipe over socks, slippers, shoes, etc. Washing cannot be replaced by anything else and therefore wiping over items covering the face and hands is not allowed. The wiping of washed organs is only applicable in the case of tayammum (dry ablution). Therefore, those who accept the practice of wiping over items worn on the feet should primarily accept the practice of wiping the bare feet.

5.      The Legal Ruling of the Ablution Verse Concerning the Feet

Even though the ruling of washing is derived from the fathah recitation (Qira’at) and the ruling of wiping is derived from the recitation with kasrah by scholars, the important aspect is the conclusion reached according to the adopted view. When examined from this perspective, the meaning of the relevant part of the Verse should be “wipe your heads and your feet”. This is because the word arjul (feet) is connected to ru’oos (heads), which appears in the kasrah recitation (genitive case), therefore, it should take the ruling of ru’oos. Whether arjul is read with the fathah recitation or not, the ruling remains the same as it can be attributed to the grammatical position (mahal) of ru’oos. However, linking a word to the grammatical position of a conjunct while disregarding the actual wording in the conjunction is also not appropriate. According to us, whether the term is recited with kasrah or fathah, only one ruling can be derived from the Verse: that is, the feet are to be wiped, linking them with the heads. Allah Almighty has detailed the obligations and rulings of ablution by saying, “O you who have believed, when you rise to prayer, wash your faces and your hands to the elbows, wipe your heads and your feet to the ankles”. In this Verse, the organs to be washed and wiped are specified separately, and the limits/boundaries for the arms and feet are also defined.

V. EXAMINATION OF WASHING AND MASAH (WIPING) HADITHS

In Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh), the ruling that washing the feet is necessary during ablution is based more on the Hadiths than on the related Verse. Therefore, examining the Hadiths that form the core of this issue is of great importance.

A. Washing Narrations

When examining the narrations about washing the feet during ablution in the Hadith sources, it is observed that most of them describe the process of performing ablution. Some of these narrations describe how ablution should be performed. Some others both describe the ablution and suggest that the two units of prayer performed without any distraction after taking the ablution as described leads to the forgiveness of past sins. Additionally, some narrations describe that sins are washed away from the ablution organs and that on the Day of Judgment, the foreheads and feet of those who performed ablution will shine. Another group of narrations pertains to the issues of performing ablution, such as the need to ensure that water reaches between the fingers, and the requirement to repeat the ablution and prayer if there is a dry spot, such as a nail-sized area, left on the foot. The narrations which describe the ablution, are generally transmitted by well-known companions such as Abdullah ibn Zaid, Uthman ibn Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Ibn Abbas.

Narrations transmitted from Abdullah ibn Zaid^[94] are accounts of how Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) performed ablution. In these narrations, the feet are washed. Among them, a noteworthy account is from Abbâd ibn Tamim, the son of Abdullah ibn Zaid’s brother, who reported that his father or uncle narrated that the Prophet performed masah on his feet.

According to the reports^[95] transmitted from Uthman ibn Affan (ra), he performed ablution as he had seen the Prophet (peace be upon him) do, and in most reports, he washed his feet three times. It has been observed that the problematic part is the statement found at the end of most of these reports, which is said to be transmitted from the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) by Uthman, saying: “Whoever performs ablution as I have done, prays two units of prayer and does not talk during the prayer, his past sins will be forgiven”. This is problematic because it is impossible to pray without thinking of something, and it has been found that there are authentic reports associated with Verses stating that those who perform ablution and pray “as prescribed by Allah”  will have their sins -except for major sins- between obligatory prayers forgiven.

In the narrations^[96] reported from Ali ibn Abi Talib (peace be upon him), he performed ablution to demonstrate the Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) method of ablution. In some of these narrations, he washed his feet three times during ablution. In others, he performed ablution by wiping over his feet. There are reports where he stated, “Had I not seen the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) wiping over the tops of his feet, I would have thought that wiping the soles (of the feet) would be more correct”. There are also narrations where he said, “This is the ablution of one who is in a state of ablution”. In the reports mentioning that Ali performed ablution by wiping, there is a comment noting, “People do not like to drink water while standing, but I saw the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) do this” is similar to the explanation regarding wiping the upper part of the foot, which is considered permissible as seen in practice. Thus, such narrations are more consistent. We can also say that the phrase, “This is the ablution (wudu) of one who is already in a state of ablution” is inconsistent in other aspects. In some narrations, it is mentioned after wiping the face, arms, head and feet, while in others, it is mentioned after wiping only the feet. There is some confusion here. Additionally, a person who is already in a state of ablution does not need to perform it again. Furthermore, narrations that mention Ali (ra) wiping his sandals after urinating contradict the view that wiping the feet is only permissible when already in a state of ablution.

The Hadiths^[97] narrated from Ibn Abbas about seeing the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) washing his feet along with his sandals are more appropriately attributed to Ali (ra). This is because most of the narrations attributed to Ibn Abbas are known to actually belong to other companions. These narrations, in terms of their subject, closely resemble those coming from Ali (ra).

In the Hadiths^[98] narrated from Abdullah as-Sunabihi, which mention that sins are removed from the washed and wiped body parts during ablution, it is stated that the feet are washed. Since the removal of sins is not exclusive to the washed body parts in these narrations, it is not accurate to establish a connection between washing the feet and the removal of sins. The narrations^[99] related to this topic from Amr b. Abasa and Abu Umamah are similar.

In the narrations^[100] from Abu Hurairah, where he took ablution by washing his arms up to his shoulders and his feet up to his knees, and then reported from our Prophet (peace be upon him) saying that, “On the Day of Resurrection, your foreheads and feet will shine due to your ablution. Whoever wants to extend their radiance should do so”, is not appropriate to establish a connection between the washing of the feet and the radiance. This is because the phrases, “taking ablution properly” and “the marks of ablution”, mentioned in these narrations are general. Even though the entire face and arms are washed, it is only stated that the forehead and feet will shine. Additionally, in another narration^[101] from Abu Hurairah, it is mentioned that the Ummah will be recognised in the Hereafter by the radiance on their foreheads and feet due to their ablution.

Regarding the narrations^[102] about interlacing the fingers and that if they are not interlaced, the fire will interlace them: The word asaabi’ mentioned there is the plural form of words like esba’, usbu’ etc., which mean finger. The verb form is sabea’ which, in the dictionary, has meanings such as “to point at someone being gossiped about with a finger, to insert a finger into something, to touch with a finger, to probe with a finger and to indicate something with a finger”.^[103]  In the Qur’an, the word asaabi’ appears in two places^[104] and is used to mean “fingers of the hand”. The primary meaning of this word is the fingers of the hand. For it to mean toes, there needs to be contextual evidence. In the narrations from Ibn Abi Shaybah, including those from Ibn Mas’ud, Hudhayfah, Hasan and Abu Bakr, the phrase, “the fire will interlace the fingers that are not interlaced” does not indicate anything about the feet. The expression attributed to Umar, where he tells a group of people performing ablution to interlace their fingers, is also of this nature.^[105] In Tabari’s account, the phrase regarding Ibn Umar, “After removing his shoes and washing his feet, he would interlace his fingers” is stated in the Hadith sources as “After removing his shoes, he would interlace his fingers”.^[106] The narration from Ibn Abbas, where the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “When you rise for prayer, perform your ablution correctly and make sure to let the water pass between your fingers and toes” is considered weak.^[107] Similarly, the narration from Mustawrid ibn Shaddad, “I saw the Prophet (peace be upon him) rubbing his toes with his little finger while performing ablution”^[108] is also considered weak.

In Tabari’s account, it is narrated from al-Mughirah ibn Hanin that the Prophet (peace be upon him), upon seeing someone washing their feet while performing ablution, said: “I was commanded to do so”.^[109] However, this narration has not been found in Hadith sources. Even if such narrations are authentic, if the Prophet (peace be upon him) was washing his feet by Allah’s command, it must pertain to a period before the relevant Verse was revealed and does not preclude wiping the feet. Additionally, there is no specific command in the Hadiths to wash the feet. There is only a narration where the Prophet (peace be upon him) instructed a blind man, “Wash the soles of your feet”.^[110] This command might have been given to ensure the blind man washed away dirt or something that might have stuck to the bottom of his feet.

The narration^[111] from Abu Dhar states, “While we were performing ablution, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) saw us from his house and said, “Woe to the heels from the Fire”. So we started rubbing and washing our feet”. If this narration is correct, it can be understood that they were not washing their feet but wiping over them before this warning. Regarding the narration^[112] from Abu Umamah, “When the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) said three times, ‘Woe to the heels from the Fire’, there was no one in the masjid who did not turn their heels and look at them”, it has not been found in the Hadith sources.

Among the companions, the only one besides Ibn Mas’ud and in one narration, Ibn Abbas, who is reported to have recited the word arjul with a fatha is Ali (may Allah be pleased with him). There is a narration in some tafsir books where Ali (may Allah be pleased with him) hears Hasan and Husayn reciting the Verse as arjulikum and says, “It should be arjulakum; this is because of the word order change (taqdeem wa takheer) in the sentence”. However, this narration^[113] has not been found in Hadith sources.

The narrations about Umar (may Allah be pleased with him) seeing a man who had a dry spot the size of a fingernail on his foot, ordering him to redo his ablution and prayer (after finishing his prayer) or saying, “Go back and perform your ablution properly”, after which the man went back and prayed again, may have used the word wudu^[114] in the sense of ghusl (full ritual purification). This is because there are similar narrations related to ghusl.^[115] However, the narrations from Anas and some other companions conveying this meaning have been considered weak.^[116]

The narration^[117] from Abdullah ibn Amr which describes the Prophet (peace be upon him) washing his face and arms three times, wiping his head, and then washing his feet three times, and saying, “This is how ablution is performed. Whoever adds to or subtracts from this has sinned and committed wrongdoing.” is considered weak; both in terms of its chain of transmission and its content.^[118] This is because the ablution is still valid even if the organs are washed once or twice during ablution.

The narration^[119] cited by Kasani in his work Bada’i’ al-Sana’i’, where the Prophet (peace be upon him) performed ablution by washing each part once, washed his feet, and said, “This is the ablution without which Allah will not accept the prayer”, contains the phrase “washed his feet”, which is not found in the primary Hadith sources.

B. Masah (Wiping) Over the Feet

The narrations regarding the masah of the feet in ablution are reported from companions such as Uthman, Ali, Anas ibn Malik, Ibn Abbas, Ibn Umar, Aws ibn Abi Aws, Rifa’a ibn Rafi’, Hudhayfah and Tamim al-Mazini. The Hadiths containing warnings about the heels will also be considered alongside the masah narrations.

When Uthman, during his caliphate, performed ablution by wiping his head and feet, and this was confirmed^[120] by the companions, it indicates that wiping the feet was practised during that period.

When Hajjaj (d. 95/714), in a sermon in Ahwaz, spoke about ablution, he said: “There is no part of the body that gets dirtier than the feet. Therefore, wash the soles, tops and heels of your feet”. When Anas b. Malik heard this, he said, “Allah has spoken the truth, but Hajjaj is lying”, and he recited the word arjul (ارجل) with a kasrah (genitive case), meaning “Wipe your heads and feet”. The narrator mentioned that when Anas wiped his feet, he wetted them.^[121] In another narration, Anas ibn Malik is reported to have said, “The Quran was revealed with wiping. The Sunnah brought washing / even though the Sunnah was washing”.^[122]

It is also narrated from Ibn Abbas that ablution consists of washing two parts and wiping two parts. Another narration from him states: “People insist on washing their feet, but I find only wiping (masah) in the Book of Allah”.^[123] From Ibn Abbas’ view on masah, it is understood that he did not see the Prophet (peace be upon him) performing ablution and based his opinion on the Verse. He likely made this statement in response to people’s insistence on making things difficult. Those who say that Ibn Abbas recited the word arjul in the Verse with a kasrah (genitive case) to derive the meaning of masah (wiping) and changed to a fathah (accusative case) upon learning of the warning about the heels, are -unknowingly- accepting that the correct recitation should be with a kasrah and that the recitation (Qira’at) with a fathah emerged later.

In the Hadith^[124] of Rifaa ibn Rafi, the act of performing ablution thoroughly (isbaghu’l-wudu’ / properly washing and wiping the organs) is described as washing the face and arms and wiping the head and feet, as commanded by Allah. This is consistent with the Book of Allah.

In the narrations^[125] of Aws ibn Abi Aws, the Prophet (peace be upon him) is reported to have wiped over his sandals (na’layn) or his feet while wearing sandals. This is considered one of the narrations about wiping because a na’l is a type of sandal or footwear that leaves parts of the feet exposed and does not reach the ankles.^[126] Therefore, wiping over the sandals also involves wiping the feet. Additionally, there are authentic narrations^[127] from Ibn Umar, stating that he saw the Prophet (peace be upon him) performing ablution while wearing sandals and that he himself also did the same.

Qatada also expressed his view on the Verse about ablution by saying, “Allah has made two washings and two wipings obligatory”.^[128] Additionally, it has been reported that Ikrima said, “There is no mention of washing the feet. What is revealed about them is wiping”.^[129] From Abu Jaʿfar, the view has been reported as “Wipe over your head and feet”.^[130] The reports from Shaʿbi are as follows: “Angel Gabriel  brought the wiping” and “Do you not see that tayammum is the wiping of what has been washed and the abandonment of what has been wiped”.^[131]

The narrations that include warnings about the heels are hadiths that caution the companions who performed ablution by wiping their feet, emphasising the necessity of performing ablution properly. These narrations come from Abdullah ibn Amr, Abu Hurayrah, Aisha, Jabir ibn Abdullah, Abdullah ibn Harith, Muaykib, Abu Dharr, Khalid ibn al-Walid, Shurahbil, Amr ibn al-As, Yazid ibn Abi Sufyan, and Abu Umamah and his brother.

According to the narration^[132] of Abdullah ibn Amr regarding the Hadiths that contain warnings about the heels, the incident occurred while returning from Mecca to Medina. Since Abdullah ibn Amr came to Medina with his father after the 7th year of Hijra, this incident must have occurred during the return from the Farewell Pilgrimage, not during Umrah al-Qada (the lesser pilgrimage). This was after the revelation of Surah Al-Ma’idah. During this journey, the feet were wiped during ablution. It is believed that since the narrations mention that the ablution was performed hastily, they emphasise the need for proper ablution and attention to any impurities that might be on the heels. The fact that washing the feet was not commanded while issuing the warning indicates that washing the feet during ablution is not necessary. The Prophet’s (peace be upon him) statement, “Woe to the heels from the Fire”, mentioned in these narrations, has been interpreted by the majority as indicating that the feet are an organ that should be washed. However, this interpretation is not consistent. This is not a narration that commands washing, but rather one that has been interpreted as such. If washing had been obligatory, the command would have been, “wash your feet”. However, it is clear that the issue is not related to this. Additionally, this interpretation would imply that the companions had not yet understood the proper way to perform ablution, which is illogical. It is unreasonable to think that the companions were unaware of this matter.

It is narrated from Jabir ibn Abdullah that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said: “Woe to the heels from the Fire”.^[133] According to some of these narrations, this was said to a man who had a spot the size of a dirham on his foot that had not been washed or whose heels had not been touched by water. These narrations do not mention washing the feet, only issuing a warning concerning the heels.

It is narrated^[134] from Abu Hurayrah and Aisha: “Perform your ablution completely, for I heard the Messenger of Allah say, -Woe to the heels from the Fire-“. As understood from these related narrations, Abu Hurayrah and Aisha cited the Prophet’s warning about the heels as a reason for completing ablution properly. However, over time, these words have been used as evidence for the necessity of washing the feet.

C. Comparison of the Narrations on Washing and Wiping (Masah)

There are authentic narrations regarding both the washing and the masah of the feet. It is claimed that the narrations about wiping are fewer in number and rare compared to those about washing. Since Surah Al-Ma’idah is one of the last revealed Surahs and there was less need to ask questions while the Verse was present, it is natural that there are fewer narrations about wiping. Additionally, the fact that washing includes wiping and reasons such as the feet being dirty may explain why there are more narrations about washing than wiping. However, it is also evident that the narrations about wiping over socks and leather boots (khuffayn) are numerous and considered valid narrations of masah.

There are many reports of the Messenger of Allah performing masah over his turbans, socks, sandals and shoes. For example, it is narrated from Ja’far ibn Amr who transmitted from his father (Ummayyeh al-Damri) who said: “I saw the Prophet (peace be upon him) wiping over his turban and khuffayn”.^[135] Mughira ibn Shu’ba also reported that the Prophet (peace be upon him) performed ablution after urinating and wiped over his socks and sandals.^[136] The greater number of narrations about wiping over footwear compared to those about wiping directly on bare feet stems from the difficulty of deriving the rule that wiping can be done over footwear from the apparent meaning of the Verse. Although the Verse does not explicitly mention wiping over footwear, the permissibility of wiping over such items arises from the linguistic meaning of masah. Since wiping is not washing, it can be performed on the organ itself or anything on it.

VI. EVALUATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE QUR’AN AND SUNNAH RELATIONSHIP

The Qur’an, being the primary source to be consulted for clarifying any matter, necessitates that a specific method be followed for its understanding. This involves a holistic approach in evaluating a Verse alongside other related Verses (Qur’an) and determining the correct rulings, which are considered wisdom (hikmah). The Prophet (peace be upon him), who is the best example for his community, conveyed and practised the Hadiths, each of which embodies wisdom. His adherence to the Qur’an requires that the Verses and Hadiths on a specific issue be considered together rather than separately, making it impossible for a Verse to state one thing and a Hadith to state something different. However, this principle has sometimes been overlooked, leading to differing opinions regarding the correct practice concerning the feet during ablution, as there are seemingly contradictory narrations. Those who advocate for washing have considered the Hadiths about wiping as rare (shadh) and have provided interpretations of the Verse that do not align with the Arabic rules. On the other hand, those who support the wiping view have not taken into account the Hadiths about washing and wiping over footwear, arguing that “it is not permissible to depart from the apparent meaning of the Verse based on solitary reports (Ahad Hadiths)”.

A.    The Relationship Between Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah and Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa

To accurately evaluate Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, it is necessary to establish its relationship with the similar Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa. Specifically, questions such as whether Verse 6 of Al-Ma’idah is a Verse about ablution (wudu) or dry ablution (tayammum), and which Verse was revealed earlier or later, need to be addressed. Additionally, considering whether abrogation (naskh) is relevant to the issues of ablution and dry ablution (tayammum) will contribute to a better understanding of the subject.

1. Is Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, a Verse About Tayammum (Dry Ablution)?

In tafsirs (exegeses), Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah is often referred to as the Verse about tayammum (dry ablution). This Verse describes ablution in detail and reiterates both ghusl (full-body ritual purification bath) and tayammum. In its similar counterpart, Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa, while ghusl and tayammum are described, ablution is only alluded to with the phrase “If one of you comes from the toilet and does not find water …”. This is because the actions performed in the toilet invalidate ablution. The Verse explains what invalidates ablution and ghusl, and how tayammum should be performed if water is unavailable. This situation indicates that ablution (wudu) already existed before and that it was performed before prayer. The event cited as the basis for the legitimacy of tayammum (dry ablution) occurred during the return from the Banu Mustaliq expedition, which was in the 5th year of the Hijrah.^[137] The revelation of Surah Al-Ma’idah, however, was no earlier than after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah, which occurred towards the end of the 6th year of the Hijrah. Therefore, the Verse in Surah An-Nisa was revealed before the Verse in Surah Al-Ma’idah.

Surah Al-Ma’idah, in terms of its topics, serves as a complement to the preceding Surah An-Nisa.^[138] This also applies to the Verse 43 of An-Nisa and Verse 6 of Al-Ma’idah. Both the Verses discuss the purification required for prayer. The fact that the Verse in Surah Al-Ma’idah provides detailed information about ablution and reiterates tayammum, followed by mentioning the completion of favour upon Muslims, clearly indicates that this Verse was revealed later. Therefore, it is appropriate to consider that the Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa, where tayammum is mentioned for the first time, is the tayammum Verse.

2. Has Abrogation (Naskh) Occurred in Ablution (Wudu’) and Dry Ablution (Tayammum)?

The Verses in the Qur’an are revealed in a manner that includes both similar (mutashabihat) and paired (mathani) Verses; the explicit (muhkam) Verses are explained in detail by the similar (mutashabih) ones. To understand any topic in the Qur’an, the explicit and similar Verses are brought together to form a cohesive understanding and to obtain detailed information.^[139] Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah and Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa are similar (mutashabih) Verses. Among these, the Verse in Surah An-Nisa is explicit regarding both ablution (wudu) and dry ablution (tayammum). This Verse refers only to ablution indirectly, as it commands those who do not have water to perform tayammum. Therefore, it is understood that ablution was practised according to the earlier Sharia as established by the Prophet (peace be upon him), and tayammum was first introduced in this Surah.

Verse 106 of Surah Al-Baqarah states, “We do not abrogate a Verse or cause it to be forgotten except that We bring forth one better than it or similar to it…” This indicates how abrogation (naskh) of an existing or forgotten Verse occurs. Allah’s final Book was revealed to replace the previous ones. Allah excluded some of the rulings in the earlier Scriptures from His final Book, replaced some rulings with better ones and transmitted a large portion exactly as they were.^[140] According to this, the Verse in Surah An-Nisa’ does not provide a detailed explanation of ablution but only alludes to it, and therefore, it constitutes an abrogation of previous laws by replacing them with a similar ruling. Since  Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah provides a detailed explanation about ablution, it shows that this Verse abrogates the Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa with a more comprehensive ruling, indicating that the ruling on ablution has been made more lenient.

As it is well known, the obligation and method of performing ablution (wudu) were known and practised through the Sunnah of the Prophet (peace be upon him) before the relevant Verses were revealed. The Prophet’s (peace be upon him) practice of ablution was based on the practices of previous Prophets^[141], and he was likely taught this knowledge  by  Angel Gabriel  (peace be upon him).^[142] Therefore, he (peace be upon him) used to wash his feet during ablution in accordance with the Sharia of those who came before him.

The Noble Qur’an was revealed as a confirmation^[143] of the previous Scriptures. From the statements^[144] found in the Torah, it is understood that a practice similar to ablution in Islam had existed before the revelation of the Quran.

An important indicator of the abrogation in ablution (wudu) mentioned in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah is the phrase at the end of the Verse: “Allah does not intend to cause difficulty for you, but He intends to purify you and complete His favour upon you so that you may be grateful”. Allah does not want to cause hardship for His servants, and thus, He has prescribed tayammum (dry ablution) in certain necessary situations. The allowance for wiping (masah) over the feet instead of washing them is also considered a facilitation. The fact that ablution involves purification from ritual impurity and that tayammum is also regarded as a purifying act indicates that Allah’s intent for ease and cleanliness applies to both ablution and tayammum.

For the completion of favour, a new ruling must be introduced, meaning it must be abrogated with a better one. This applies to ablution rather than tayammum because there has been no change in the practice of tayammum as mentioned earlier in Surah An-Nisa, but the practice of washing the feet in ablution has been changed to masah (wiping) over them. Moreover, the fact that ablution is only a condition for prayer and is not required for other acts of worship or actions is another aspect of the completion of favour.

B.     The Relationship Between Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah and the Related Hadiths

There are both washing and wiping (masah) Hadiths related to ablution. Since Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah commands the wiping of the feet, there must have been washing before the Verse was abrogated by something better, that is, wiping. Considering Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah and the related Hadiths together, the Hadiths about wiping the feet must pertain to the period after the revelation of this Verse. Some narrations indicating that wiping occurred after the revelation of Surah Al-Ma’idah support this view. In this case, the integrity of the Qur’an and Sunnah is maintained, neither is an inaccurate interpretation given to the Verse as “wash your feet” nor are the Hadiths about washing and wiping disregarded.

It is asserted that the Verse was revealed with the command of masah (wiping), and the Sunnah introduced washing. Since it is accepted that ablution has been practised since the beginning of Islam, it cannot be said that the Prophet’s (peace be upon him) Sunnah related to washing came after the revelation of Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah. However, it is possible that feet were washed for some reason even after the revelation of the relevant Verse. Therefore, washing the feet in ablution could have occurred both before and after the Verse was revealed. What is important here is that the Hadiths about wiping pertain to the period after the revelation of the Verse. The narration from Abdullah ibn Amr indicates that wiping the feet occurred after the revelation of Surah Al-Ma’idah. There are also reports that during his Caliphate, Uthman wiped his feet. Other relevant narrations are as follows:

It is narrated from Aisha (may Allah be pleased with her) that she said: “The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) continued to perform masah until he met Allah after Surah Al-Ma’idah was revealed”.^[145]

It is narrated from Jarir ibn Abdullah al-Bajali that he said: “I became a Muslim after Surah Al-Ma’idah was revealed. I saw the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) performing masah after I became a Muslim”.^[146] The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) performed masah on his khuffayn (leather socks) after Surah Al-Ma’idah was revealed.^[147]

These two narrations referring to Surah Al-Ma’idah are significant. This is because the primary basis for considering the feet as body parts for masah and the permissibility of wiping over leather socks (khuffayn) is rooted in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah. The expression found in some versions of the narration, “Did you become Muslim before or after Surah Al-Ma’idah?” also alludes to this. Before the revelation of the Verse concerning ablution, feet were only washed according to the previous Sharia. The reason for asking such a question is likely related to this matter. In truth, every practice in Sunnah has a foundation in the Book of Allah, either explicitly or implicitly.

Miqdam bin Shurayh narrated from his father: “I asked Aisha about masah over the leather socks (khuffayn). She said, ‘Go to Ali, for he used to travel with the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him).’ So, I went to Ali and asked him. He said, ‘We used to travel with the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him), and he would command us to wipe over our khuffayn‘”.^[148]

Awf bin Malik al-Ashja’i narrated: “The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) commanded us during the Battle of Tabuk that for a traveller, wiping over the leather socks (khuffayn) is permitted for three days and three nights, and for a resident, for one day and one night”.^[149]

Sulaiman b. Buraida narrated from his father who said: “On the Day of the Conquest, the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) performed ablution and wiped over his leather socks (khuffayn). Thereupon, Omar said to him, ‘O Messenger of Allah, today I saw you doing something you had not done before’. The Prophet replied, ‘O Omar, I did it deliberately’”.^[150]

VII. CONCLUSION

The word masah in dictionaries means to touch, to rub, to pass something over something else, to wipe away something flowing or smeared, to apply water or oil with the hand, etc. The inclusion of the view in dictionaries that the term masah in the context of ablution could indirectly mean “light washing” alongside its primary meaning, based on some legal interpretations and opinions of some linguists, appears to have occurred approximately six centuries after the decease of the Messenger Muhammad (peace be upon him). In the Qur’an and Hadiths, masah is not used in the sense of washing.

The issue of washing or masah of the feet during ablution is generally addressed in the context of recitation (Qira’at) in tafsirs (exegeses). According to the commentators (mufassirs), the recitation of arjul with fathah (accusative case) indicates washing, while the recitation with kasrah (genitive case) indicates wiping. Additionally, there are two other views: one combines washing and wiping and the other one allows for a choice between washing or wiping.

Those who support the view of washing the feet base their preference on authentic Hadiths about washing and warnings related to the heels. They favour the recitation of arjul with fathah, linking it to aydiya (hands) and argue that the reason for the kasrah recitation is due to jewar (proximity). Some have said that the kasrah recitation implies either washing or wiping over footwear. They have cited the specification of a limit/boundary for the feet in the Verse as a justification that the phrase means “to wash the feet”. They interpret the phrase, “Wipe your heads” coming in between as referring to the order of cleaning or the economical use of water. Additionally, they argue that washing is more appropriate from a cleanliness perspective,  and because washing also encompasses wiping, suggesting that washing is more prudent.

Those who hold the view of masah state that, according to the rules of the Arabic language, the recitation of arjul with a kasrah should be preferred, linking it to ru’oos (heads). They also argue that the recitation with a fathah can refer to the position of ru’oos and support their view with Hadiths that mention masah. They cite as evidence the fact that the organs wiped in ablution are omitted in tayammum (dry ablution), and the permissibility of wiping over footwear implies that wiping over bare feet should be considered permissible.

The recitation of the word arjul with a fathah linking it to aydiya (hands) -thereby introducing a new legal ruling in between- and the recitation of arjul with a kasrah due to jewar are not appropriate according to the rules of the Arabic language. The examples from the Verses and the interpretations provided by those who support the view of washing have not been found accurate in this regard. As for specifying a boundary for the feet, it cannot be a justification for interpreting the Verse as referring to washing because specifying a boundary can also apply to wiping. Therefore, the ruling regarding the feet in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah is that they should be wiped.

Although the Verse about ablution commands the wiping of feet, the presence of narrations about washing and warnings about the heels has made it seem as though there is a conflict between the Verse and Hadiths. To resolve this, proponents of washing have suggested that the Sunnah introduced washing, thus interpreting the Verse as “Wash your feet”. This view has dominated the majority of the Islamic world. However, it becomes evident that the ablution and tayammum described in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah are also present in Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa if the relationship between the Verses is considered. In Verse 43 of Surah An-Nisa, tayammum is explicitly described, while ablution is mentioned implicitly. In subsequently revealed Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, ablution is detailed, and tayammum is repeated. Therefore, it can be inferred that the Prophet (peace be upon him) initially performed and taught ablution by washing the feet according to the previous Sharia, which was then abrogated by the easier command of wiping in Surah Al-Ma’idah. Since the Verse commands the wiping of the feet, the prior practice must have involved the more difficult task of washing. Thus, there is no conflict between the authentic narrations of washing and wiping. The ruling about the feet during ablution was washing before the revelation of the Verse and wiping after it. It is natural for narrations about both practices to exist. Reports indicating that wiping was practiced after the revelation of Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah further support this conclusion.

While Sunni Schools of Thought and the Zaidiyyah Sect of Shia Islam adopt the view of washing, the Imamiyyah Sect of Shia Islam adheres to the view of masah (wiping). In fact, all sects in some way converge on the view of masah. This is because Sunni Scholars allow masah over socks, leather socks (khuffs) and shoes under certain conditions, while the Imamiyyah Sect accepts masah over bare feet. Since there is no disagreement on the matter of masah (despite the differences in its form), the notion that feet must necessarily be washed is logically incorrect. Additionally, stating that the feet are not organs for wiping, yet saying that wiping over socks (khuffs) is permissible, is a clear contradiction. As known, the majority of scholars in the Sunni Schools of Thought hold the view that wiping over bare feet is not allowed. According to them, only wiping over leather socks (khuffs) is permissible. However, this is not a consistent understanding. Just as there is no need for anything on our heads while wiping over them, there is similarly no need for anything on our feet while wiping over them. Furthermore, to say that wiping over bare feet is not allowed implies that wiping over a bare head is also not allowed, which is clearly not the case. Saying that wiping over bare feet is not allowed also implies that wiping over leather socks (khuffs) is not allowed either. There are indications that the transformation of wiping the feet into washing in ablution has historical and political background, particularly due to administrative pressures during the Umayyad period.

From the perspective of the coherence between the Qur’an and Sunnah, it can be understood that the act of wiping (masah) over the feet mentioned in Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, abrogated the previous practice of washing them. Before the revelation of this Verse, the feet were washed during ablution, but afterwards, they were wiped. The phrase at the end of the Verse, “Allah does not intend to cause difficulty for you, but He intends to purify you and complete His favour upon you so that you may be grateful”, aligns with this change. The completion of the favour refers to the introduction of an ease that was not previously present, which is the permission to perform masah over the feet.

Islam being a religion based on fitrah, which is the natural laws of creation, means that Allah’s message is universally applicable at all times and places. This ensures that the system it establishes can be easily implemented by all people and that it fosters harmony between nature and human beings. The fundamental principle of, “There is no hardship in religion” is emphasised in the Verse regarding ablution, and every possible ease has been provided for this practice, which is a condition for performing prayer. This undoubtedly provides a convenience for Muslims, as washing the feet is not as easy or feasible for everyone under all circumstances as it might be assumed.

In conclusion, a person who wipes their feet, whether bare or covered, while performing ablution does fully comply with both the Verse and Hadiths. Although rubbing the feet by hand while washing them includes the act of wiping, if a person believes that Allah’s command is to wipe, they should wipe their feet. Additionally, wiping the feet is a convenience provided not by us but by Allah to His servants, and it is not limited to situations of necessity. If the commentators (mufassirs) and jurists (fuqaha) had understood the narrations in the light of the Qur’anic Verses, there would have been no disagreement, and the correct ruling would have been reached.

Translated by NEZIHA KAYA

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[34] Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd al-Qurtubi, Bidayat al-Mujtahid wa Nihayat al-Muqtasid, 2 volumes, 6th edition, Beirut, Dar al-Ma’rifah, 1982, Volume I, pp. 15-16.

[35] Abu Muhammad Abdullah ibn Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Qudamah al-Jama’ili al-Maqdisi, Al-Mughni, edited by Abdullah ibn Abdulmuhsin al-Turki and Abdulfattah Muhammad al-Hulw, 15 volumes, 2nd edition, Cairo, Hijr for Printing and Publishing, 1992, Volume I, pp. 184-189.

[36] Abu Muhammad Ali ibn Ahmad ibn Sa’id ibn Hazm, Al-Muhalla, edited by Ahmad Muhammad Shakir, 11 volumes, Cairo, Idarat al-Tiba’ah al-Muniriyyah, 1928, Volume II, pp. 56-58.

[37] Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Hasan ibn Ali al-Tusi, Al-Mabsut fi Fiqh al-Imamiyyah, edited by Sayyid Muhammad Taqi al-Kashfi, 8 volumes, 3rd edition, Tehran, Al-Maktabah al-Murtazawiyyah, 1967, Volume I, p. 22; Al-Istibsar, edited by al-Sayyid Hasan Khursan, 4 volumes, 3rd edition, Tehran, Dar al-Kutub al-Islamiyyah, 1970, Volume I, pp. 64-65.

[38] “هَذَا وُضُوءُ مَنْ لَمْ يُحدِثْ”

[39] For detailed information, see: Muhammad ibn Ali al-Karajiki, Al-Qawl al-Mubin ‘an Wujub Mashi al-Rijlayn, edited by Ali Musa Ka’bi, n.p., Majma’ al-Maliki li-Buhuth al-Hadarat al-Islamiyyah, 1996, pp. 20-21, 23-25, 30-36.

[40] For detailed information, see: Ja’far al-Subhani, Hukm al-Arjul fi al-Wudu’, Qom, Mu’assasat al-Imam al-Sadiq, 1417, pp. 28-41, 99-102.

[41] Narrated by a large group of people who cannot possibly agree to lie.

[42] The Qira’at imams Nafi’ (d. 169/785), Ibn Amir (d. 118/736), Abu Ja’far al-Qari (d. 130/747-48), Kisa’i (d. 189/805), Ya’qub al-Hadrami (d. 205/821) and Hafs (d. 180/796), who narrated from Asim (d. 127/745), recited the word arjul” with a fathah, connecting it to the word aydiyakum, resulting in arjula. It has been narrated that the Companions Umar (d. 23/644), Ibn Umar (d. 73/692), Abdullah ibn Mas’ud (d. 32/652-53), Ali (d. 40/661), and, according to one narration, Ibn Abbas (d. 68/687-88) held this view. Among the Tabi’un, scholars such as Urwah (d. 94/713), Mujahid (d. 103/721), Suddi (d. 127/745), A’mash (d. 148/765), Ibrahim al-Nakha’i (d. 96/714) and Dahhak (d. 105/723) also held the view that washing is commanded, following this recitation. See: Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, Jami’ al-Bayan ‘an Ta’wil Ay al-Qur’an (Tafsir al-Tabari), edited by Abdullah ibn Abdulmuhsin al-Turki, 26 volumes, Riyadh, Dar ‘Alam al-Kutub, 2003, Vol. VIII, pp. 189-194; Abu Bakr Ahmad ibn Ali al-Razi al-Jassas, Ahkam al-Qur’an, edited by Muhammad al-Sadiq Qamhawi, 5 volumes, Beirut, Dar Ihya al-Turath al-Arabi, 1985, Vol. III, p. 349.

[43] Ibn Kathir (d. 120/728), Abu Amr (d. 154/771), Hamza ibn Habib (d. 156/773), Khalaf ibn Hisham (d. 229/844), and Abu Bakr Shu’bah (d. 193/809), who narrated from Asim, recited the word in question as arjuli with a kasrah. According to this, the word arjul is connected to the phrase bi-ru’oosikum (your heads). According to the narrations, the view that the feet should be wiped was also supported by the Companions Ali, Ibn Abbas and Anas ibn Malik (d. 93/711-12), as well as by the Followers Amir al-Sha’bi (d. 104/722), Ikrimah (d. 105/723), Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Ali al-Baqir (d. 114/733) and Qatadah (d. 117/735). It is mentioned that Hasan (d. 110/728), Alqamah (d. 62/682), A’mash, Mujahid and Dahhak also recited this word with a kasrah. See: Abu Ja’far Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Salamah al-Tahawi, Ahkam al-Qur’an al-Karim, edited by Sadettin Ünal, 2 volumes, Istanbul, Turkish Religious Foundation Islamic Research Centre (ISAM), 1995, Vol. I, p. 81; Tabari, ibid., VIII, 195-198; Jassas, ibid., III, 349. Jassas states: The known view from Hasan al-Basri is that he wiped the entire foot. I do not know anyone else from the Salaf who considered it permissible to wipe the entire foot or part of it.

[44] Mustafa Öztürk, Polemics Between Ahl al-Sunnah and Shia in Tafsir, Ankara, Ankara Okulu Publications, 2009, pp. 323-324.

[45] This recitation (Qira’at) is attributed to A’mash and Hasan (al-Basri). It is also narrated by Walid ibn Muslim that Nafi’ recited in this way. See: Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Abdullah Ibn al-Arabi, Ahkam al-Qur’an, edited by Muhammad Abd al-Qadir Ata, 4 volumes, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, n.d., Vol. II, p. 80.

[46] Abu Hayyan Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Andalusi, Tafsir al-Bahr al-Muhit, 8 volumes, 2nd edition, n.p., Dar al-Fikr, 1983, Vol. III, p. 438.

[47] Abu Abdullah Muhammad b. Umar Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, 16 volumes, Beirut, Dar al-Kutub al-Ilmiyya, 1990, Volume VI, Part 11, p. 127; Abu Hayyan, al-Bahr al-Muhit, III, 437.

[48] For detailed information, see Ayşe Ulya Özek, The Issue of Wiping the Feet in the Context of Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, Istanbul, Suleymaniye Foundation Publications, 2016, pp. 89-98.

[49] Abu’s-Sana Shihab al-Din Mahmoud ibn Abdullah al-Alusi, Ruh al-Ma’ani fi Tafsir al-Qur’an al-Azim wa al-Sab al-Mathani, edited by Muhammad Hussein al-Arab, 30 volumes, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, 1997, Vol. V, pp. 110-113.

[50] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, Vol. VI, p. 127.

[51] Jassas, Ahkam al-Qur’an, Vol. III, pp. 351-352.

[52] Ibn al-Arabi, Ahkam al-Qur’an, Vol. II, p. 72; Abu al-Qasim Jarallah Mahmud ibn Umar ibn Muhammad al-Zamakhshari, Al-Kashshaf ‘an Haqa’iq al-Tanzil wa ‘Uyun al-Aqawil fi Wujuh al-Ta’wil, 4 volumes, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, 1977, Vol. I, p. 597..

[53] Jassas, Ahkam al-Qur’an, Vol. III, p. 351.

[54] Abu al-Barakat Hafiz al-Din Abdullah ibn Ahmed ibn Mahmud al-Nasafi, Madarik al-Tanzil wa Haqa’iq al-Ta’wil, edited by Yusuf Ali Budaywi, 3 volumes, Beirut, Dar Ibn Kathir, 2008, Vol. I, pp. 430-431; Elmalili Muhammad Hamdi Yazir, Hak Dini Kur’an Dili, edited by Ismail Karacam et al., 10 volumes, Istanbul, Feza Gazetecilik, n.d., Vol. III, p. 171; Muhammad Tahir Ibn Ashur, Tafsir al-Tahrir wa al-Tanwir, 30 volumes, Tunis, al-Dar al-Tunisiyya, 1984, Vol. VI, p. 131; Nihat Dalgın, Gündemdeki Tartışmalı Konular, Istanbul, Etut Publications, 2004, p. 23.

[55] Fahreddin al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, Vol. VI, p. 128; Abu Ali al-Fadl ibn al-Hasan al-Tabarsi, Majma’ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, 10 volumes, Beirut, Mu’assasat al-‘Alami li’l-Matbuat, 1995, Vol. III, p. 288.

[56] Muhammad Jamal al-Din al-Qasimi, Tafsir al-Qasimi (Mahasin al-Ta’wil), edited by Muhammad Fuad Abdulbaki, 17 volumes, 2nd edition, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, 1978, Vol. VI, p. 112.

[57] Süleyman Ateş, The Contemporary Interpretation of the Noble Quran, 12 volumes, Istanbul, Yeni Ufuklar Publishing, 1989, Vol. II, pp. 477-478.

[58] Mahasin al-Ta’wil, Vol. VI, p. 112; Süleyman Ateş, The Contemporary Interpretation of the Noble Quran, Vol. II, p. 480; Mustafa Öztürk, Polemics Between Ahl al-Sunnah and Shia in Tafsir, p. 334.

[59] Abu al-Qasim Dahhak ibn Muzahim, Tafsir al-Dahhak, edited by Muhammad Shukri Ahmed al-Zawiyati, 2 volumes, Cairo, Dar al-Salam, 1999, Vol. I, pp. 321-322.

[60] Abu al-Hasan Mukatil ibn Suleiman, Tafsir al-Kabir, edited by Abdurrahman Mahmoud Shahhata, translated by M. Beşir Eryarsoy, 4 volumes, Istanbul, Isaret Publications, 2006, Vol. I, p. 444.

[61] Abu Mansur Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Maturidi, Tafsir al-Kuran (Exegesis of the Quran), edited by Mehmet Boynukalın, annotated by Bekir Topaloğlu, 17 volumes, Istanbul, Mizan Publishing, 2005, Vol. IV, pp. 169-170.

[62] Abu Zakariya Yahya ibn Ziyad al-Farra, Ma’ani al-Qur’an (The Meanings of the Quran), 3 volumes, 2nd edition, Beirut, Alam al-Kutub, 1980, Vol. I, pp. 302-303.

[63] Abu ʿUbaydah al-Taymi, Maʿmar b. Musanna, Majaz al-Qurʾan edited by Fuat Sezgin, published by Muhammad Sami Amin al-Hanji, 2 volumes, Cairo, 1954, Volume I, page 155; Abu al-Hasan Saʿid b. Masʿadah al-Halabi al-Mujashiʿi Akhfash al-Awsaṭ, Maʿani al-Qurʾan, edited by ʿAbd al-Amir Muhammad Amin al-Ward, 2 volumes, Beirut, ʿAlam al-Kutub, 1985, Volume II, page 466.

[64] Abu Ishaq Ibrahim b. al-Sari al-Zajjaj, Maʿani al-Qurʾan wa Iʿrabuhu, edited by ʿAbd al-Jalil ʿAbduh Salabi, 5 volumes, Beirut, ʿAlam al-Kutub, 1988, Volume II, page 153; Abu Jaʿfar Ahmad b. Muhammad al-Nahhas, Iʿrab al-Qurʾan, edited by Zuhayr Ghazi Zahid, 5 volumes, Beirut, ʿAlam al-Kutub, 1988, Volume II, page 9; Abu Hayyan, al-Bahr al-Muhiṭ, Volume III, page 437.

[65] Ṭahawi, Ahkam al-Qurʾan, Volume I, pages 81-86.

[66] Jassas, Ahkam al-Qurʾan, Volume III, pages 349-351.

[67] Abu Bakr Muhammad b. ʿAbdallah Ibn al-ʿArabi, Ahkam al-Qurʾan, edited by Muhammad ʿAbd al-Qadir ʿAṭa, 4 volumes, Beirut, Dar al-Fikr, n.d., Volume II, pages 71-72.

[68] Abu ʿAbdallah Muhammad b. Ahmad b. Abi Bakr al-Kurtubi, al-Jamiʿ li Ahkam al-Qurʾan, edited by ʿAbdallah b. ʿAbd al-Muhsin al-Turki, 24 volumes, Beirut, Muʾassasat al-Risalah, 2006, Volume VII, pages 342-345, 348-349.

[69] Zamakhshari, al-Kashshaf, Volume I, page 597.

[70] Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, Volume VI, pages 127-128.

[71] Abu Saʿid Naṣir al-Din ʿAbdallah b. ʿUmar b. Muhammad al-Bayḍawi, Anwar al-Tanzil wa Asrar al-Tawil, 2 volumes, Istanbul, Şirket-i Ṣahafiye-i ʿOsmaniye, 1886, Volume I, page 326.

[72] Abu l-Fidaʾ Imad al-Din Ismaʿil b. ʿUmar Ibn Kathir, Tafsir al-Qurʾan al-ʿAzim, edited by Sami b. Muhammad al-Salamah, 8 volumes, Riyadh, Dar al-Tayyibah, 1997, Volume III, pages 52-53.

[73] Qasimi, Mahasin al-Taʾwil, Volume VI, page 112.

[74] Rashid Riḍa, Tafsir al-Manar, Volume VI, page 235.

[75] Elmalılı Hamdi Yazır, Hak Dini Kur’an Dili, Volume III, page 171.

[76] Ibn ʿAshur, al-Tahrir wa al-Tanwir, Volume VI, pages 130-131.

[77] Süleyman Ateş, Yüce Kur’ân’ın Çağdaş Tefsiri, Volume II, pages 477-480.

[78] Bayraktar Bayraklı, Yeni Bir Anlayışın Işığında Kur’ân Tefsiri, 21 volumes, Istanbul, Bayraklı Yayınları, 2002, Volume V, page 477.

[79] Tabersî, Mecmeu’l-Beyân, III, 286-289.

[80] Muhammad Hussein b. Muhammad Tabatabaʿi, al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qurʾan, Beirut, Matbaat al-Watan, 20 volumes, 2nd ed., 1970, Volume V, pages 222-223.

[81] Surat al-Ma’idah 5/5; Surat at-Ta-Ha 20/129; Surat at-Tawbah 9/3.

[82] Abu Hayyan, in al-Bahr al-Muhit, Volume III, page 438, states that the insertion of a sentence between the attributed and the attributing terms and interpreting it as an indication of order or light washing is an inference made by those who support the washing view.

[83] Surah al-Ma’idah 5/38.

[84] Surah al-Ma’idah 5/33.

[85] Since the practice of the Prophet Muhammad and the companions was in this direction, the vast majority of Islamic jurists agree that the thief’s hand should be amputated at the wrist. See Ali Bardakoğlu, Theft, Dictionnaire de l’Islam, XVII, 390.

[86] Al-Ṭabari, Jamiʿ al-Bayan, Volume VIII, page 198.

[87] Bukhari, Tayammum, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8; Muslim, Purification, 28; Abu Dawud, Purification, 121; Tirmidhi, Purification, 110; Nasa’i, Purification, 199, 200, 202.

[88] Abu Hayyan, Al-Bahr Al-Muhit, III, 437.

[89] Tabarsi, Majma’ al-Bayan, III, 287; Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, VI, 127.

[90] Hud 11:26, 84; Ibrahim 14:18; Rahman 55:35; Waqia 56:17-23; Insan 76:21.

[91] Muhiddin al-Darwish, I’rab al-Qur’an al-Karim wa Bayanuhu, Vol. IV, p. 337; Vol. V, p. 171; Vol. IX, pp. 409-410; Vol. X, pp. 324-325. For detailed information, see Ayşe Ulya Özek, The Issue of Wiping Over the Feet in the Context of Verse 6 of Surah Al-Ma’idah, pp. 70-73.

[92] Mücteba Uğur, Washing the Feet in Ablution According to the Qur’an and Sunnah, Islamic Studies, Vol. III, No. 2, 1989, p. 18; Tabersî, Mecmeu’l-Beyân, III, 286-287; Tabatabâî, el-Mîzân, V, 223.

[93] Bukhari, Ablution (Wudu), 48; Muslim, Purification (Tahara), 22; Abu Dawood, Purification (Tahara), 60.

[94] Abu Abdullah al-Asbahî al-Himyari, Al-Muwatta by Malik ibn Anas, ed. Abu Usama Salim ibn Eid al-Hilali al-Salafi, 4 vols., Dubai, Maktabat al-Furqan, 2003, Vol. I, pp. 221-223; Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Zubair al-Humaydi, Al-Musnad, ed. Habiburrahman al-A’zami, 2 vols., Beirut, Alam al-Kutub, 1962, Vol. I, p. 202; Abu Bakr Abdullah ibn Muhammad ibn Abi Shaybah, Al-Musannaf, ed. Muhammad Avvama, 26 vols., Jeddah, Dar al-Kibla, 2006, Vol. I, pp. 256-257; Abu Bakr Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam al-San’ani, Al-Musannaf, ed. Habiburrahman al-A’zami, 11 vols., 2nd ed., Beirut, Al-Majlis al-Ilmi, 1983, Vol. I, p. 44; Abu Abdullah Ahmed ibn Muhammad al-Shaybani, Musnad Imam Ahmad ibn Hanbal, ed. Shu’ayb al-Arnaut et al., 50 vols., Beirut, Maktabat al-Risala, 2001, Vol. II, pp. 23-24; XXVI, pp. 360-361, 372-373, 380-382, 384; Abdurrahman al-Darimi, Sunan al-Darimi, ed. Fawwaz Ahmed Zamli and Khalid al-Sab’i al-Alami, 2 vols., Beirut, Dar al-Kitab al-Arabi, 1987, Vol. I, p. 193 (Tahara, 37); Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, Sahih al-Bukhari, ed. Mustafa Dib al-Bughah, 6 vols., Damascus, Dar Ibn Kathir; Beirut, al-Yamama, 1990, Vol. I, pp. 80 (Wudu, 37, 40, 44); Abu al-Husayn al-Kushayri al-Naysaburi, Sahih Muslim, ed. Muhammad Fuad Abdulbaki, 5 vols., Cairo, Dar Ihya al-Kutub al-Arabiyya, 1955, Vol. I, p. 211 (Tahara, 7); Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Sahih Sunan Ibn Majah, 2 vols., Riyadh, Maktabat al-Tarbiya al-Arabi li-Duwal al-Khalij, 1986, Vol. I, p. 73 (Tahara, 51); Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Sahih Sunan Abu Dawood, 3 vols., Riyadh, Maktabat al-Tarbiya al-Arabi li-Duwal al-Khalij, 1989, Vol. I, pp. 25-26 (Tahara, 50); Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Sahih Sunan al-Tirmidhi, 3 vols., Riyadh, Maktabat al-Tarbiya al-Arabi li-Duwal al-Khalij, 1988, Vol. I, p. 12 (Tahara, 24, 36); Muhammad Nasiruddin al-Albani, Sahih Sunan al-Nasa’i, 3 vols., Riyadh, Maktabat al-Tarbiya al-Arabi li-Duwal al-Khalij, 1988, Vol. I, pp. 22-23 (Tahara, 80, 81); Abu Bakr Muhammad ibn Ishaq ibn Huzaymah, Sahih Ibn Huzaymah, ed. Muhammad Mustafa Azami, 4 vols., Beirut, al-Maktaba al-Islamiya, 1975, Vol. I, pp. 79-80, 88-89, 101;

Alaeddin Ali ibn Balaban, Al-Ihsan fi Taqrib Sahih Ibn Hibban, ed. Shu’ayb al-Arnaut, 16 vols., Beirut, Mu’assasat al-Risala, 1987, Vol. III, pp. 358-359, 365-367, 373.

[95] Malik b. Anas, Muwatta’, I, 263-265; Sulayman b. Dawud al-Jarud, Musnad Abi Dawad al-Tayalisi, ed. Muḥammad b. ʿAbd al-Muḥsin al-Turki, 4 vols., Giza, Hijr for Printing and Publishing, 1999, Vol. I, pp. 74-76; Ḥumaydi, Musnad, I, 21; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, I, 462, 467, 477, 514, 521, 524, 527, 531-532; ʿAbd al-Razzaq b. Hammam, Musannaf, I, 40-41, 44-45; Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 260-261, 263; Darimi, Tahara, 27; Bukhari, Wuḍu’, 23, 27; Sawm, 27; Muslim, Tahara, 3, 4; Ibn Majah, Tahara, 57; Abu Dawud, Tahara, 50; Nasa’i, Tahara, 68-69, 94; Ibn Khuzayma, Sahih, I, 4-5, 81-82; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 318-319, 340-341, 343-344; Abu Bakr Aḥmad b. ʿAmr b. ʿAbd al-Khalik al-Bazzar, al-Baḥr al-Zakhkhar (Musnad al-Bazzar), ed. Maḥfuz al-Raḥman Zaynallah, 18 vols., Beirut, Dar al-ʿUlum al-Qur’an; Medina, Maktabat ʿUlum wa’l-Hikam, 1988, Vol. II, pp. 72-73; Abu ʿAwana Yaʿqub b. Ishaq al-Isfara’ini, Musnad Abi ʿAwana, ed. Ayman b. ʿArif al-Dimashqi, 5 vols., Beirut, Dar al-Maʿarif, 1998, Vol. I, pp. 190, 192-194.

[96] Tayalisi, Musnad, I, 125-126; Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 253-255, 259, 298-301, 303; ʿAbd al-Razzaq b. Hammam, Musannaf, I, 19-20, 38-40; Humaydi, Musnad, I, 26; Darimi, Tahara, 43; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, II, 23, 139, 220-223, 239, 242-243, 256, 274, 284, 289, 291, 295-296, 309, 311, 350-351, 368, 370, 380, 384, 393, 437, 442, 452-453, 456-460, 471; Bukhari, Ashriba, 15; Ibn Majah, Tahara, 56; Abu Dawud, Tahara, 50, 51; Tirmidhi, Tahara, 37; Nasaʾi, Tahara, 75, 76, 78-79, 93, 100; Abu Yaʿla, Musnad, I, 246, 262, 300, 303, 385; Ibn Khuzayma, Sahih, I, 11-12, 76, 100-101; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 337, 339-340, 360-361; Bazzar, Musnad, II, 183-184, 309, III, 30-32, 39-43.

[97] Tayalisi, Musnad, IV, 381-382; Abdurrazzaq b. Hammam, Musannaf, I, 199, 201; Ibn Abi Shaybah, Musannaf, I, 262-263; II, 276-277; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, IV, 239-240; Bukhari, Wudu, 7; Abu Dawood, Tahara, 50, 52; Nasa’i, Tahara, 85; Ibn Khuzaymah, Sahih, I, 77; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 360, 367; Ahmad b. Ali b. al-Muthanna Abu Ya’la al-Mawsili, Musnad of Abu Ya’la al-Mawsili, edited by Hussein Salim Asad, 13 volumes, Damascus, Dar al-Ma’mun li al-Turath, 1984, Volume I, pp. 448-449.

[98] Ibn Majah, Tahara, 6; Nasa’i, Tahara, 85.

[99] Ibn Majah, Tahara, 6; Nasa’i, Tahara, 108.

[100] Muslim, Tahara, 12.

[101] Muslim, Tahara, 12.

[102] Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam, al-Musannaf, Volume I, pages 22-26; Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, Volume I, pages 269-273.

[103] Ibrahim Mustafa et al., al-Mu’jam al-Wasit, p. 506; Mevlut Sarı, al-Mawarid (Arabic-Turkish Dictionary), Istanbul, Bahar Publications, 1980, p. 855.

[104] Surah Al-Baqarah, Verse 19; Surah Nuh, Verse 7.

[105] Tabari, Jami’ al-Bayan, VIII, 189-190. Also see: Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam, al-Musannaf, I, 22-25, 36-37; Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, I, 269-271, 376.

[106] Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, I, 271.

[107] Ibn Majah, Tahara, 54. For verification, see Serdar Murat Gürses, “An Evaluation of Hadiths on Wudu and Wiping Over Bare Feet in the Kutub al-Sittah” Master’s Thesis, Istanbul, 2009, 64-66.

[108] Abu Dawud, Tahara, 59.

[109] Tabari, op. cit., VIII, 189-190.

[110] Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam, al-Musannaf, I, 25; Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, I, 305-306.

[111] Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam, op. cit., I, 22.

[112] Mâwardi, al-Hawi, I, 126.

[113] Tabari, a.g.e., VIII, 191; Ibn al-‘Arabi, Ahkam al-Qur’an, II, 70-71.

[114] ʿAbd al-Razzaq b. Hammam, al-Muṣannaf, I, 36-37; Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Muṣannaf, I, 376; Muslim, Ṭaharah, 10.

[115] Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Muṣannaf, I, 374-378.

[116] Serdar Murat Gürses, “Evaluation of the Hadiths Regarding Ablution and Wiping Over Bare Feet in the Six Canonical Collections”, Master’s Thesis, Istanbul, 2009, pp. 127-129.

[117] Ibn Majah, Purification, 48; Abu Dawud, Purification, 52; Nasa’i, Purification, 105.

[118] Necati Yeniel, Hüseyin Kayapınar, Translation and Commentary of Sunan Abu Dawud, I, 246; Serdar Murat Gürses, “Evaluation of Hadiths in the Kutub al-Sittah Regarding Ablution and Wiping Over Bare Feet”, Master’s Thesis, Istanbul, 2009, 83-84.

[119] Kasani, Bada’i‘ al-Ṣana’i‘, I, 113-121.

[120] Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, I, 255-256; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, al-Musnad, I, 486, 522-523; al-Bazzar, al-Musnad, II, 74-75.

[121] Tabari, Jami’ al-Bayan, VIII, 195. See also Ibn Abi Shaybah, Al-Musannaf, I, 306.

[122] Tabari, op. cit., VIII, 195.

[123] Tabari, Jami’ al-Bayan, VIII, 195; Tabarsi, Majma’ al-Bayan, III, 284. See also: Abdurazzaq b. Hammam, Al-Musannaf, I, 19, 22; Humaydi, Musnad, I, 163-165; Ibn Abi Shayba, Al-Musannaf, I, 305; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, XLIV, 565-566; Ibn Majah, Tahara, 56.

[124] Darimi, Salat, 78; Ibn Majah, Tahara, 57; Abu Dawud, Salat, 149; Bazzar, Musnad, IX, 178; Nasa’i, Iftitah, 167.

[125] Tayalisi, Musnad, II, 436; Ibn Abi Shaybah, Musannaf, II, 279; XX, 165; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XXVI, 79-80, 88, 91, 99; Abu Dawud, Tahara, 62; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, IV, 168.

[126] Nebi Bozkurt, “Na’l-i Şerif”, DİA, XXXII, 346. The Prophet (peace be upon him) states that those in ihram who do not have sandals may wear huff (a type of boot) that are cut below the ankles. See: Bukhari, “Hajj”, 21; “The Punishment for Hunting”, 15; “Clothing”, 37; Muslim, “Hajj”, 1, 2, 3. Therefore, shoes that are below the ankles are also included under the category of na‘l.

[127] Malik ibn Anas, Muwatta’, II, 418-419; Abdur-Razzaq, Musannaf, I, 202; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, VIII, 298; Bukhari, Wudu’, 29; Muslim, Hajj, 5; Abu Dawood, Menasik, 21; Nasa’i, Tahara, 95; bn Khuzaymah, Sahih, I, 100; Abu Avanah, Musnad, II, 424.

[128] Tabari, op. cit., VIII, 197.

[129] Jami’ al-Bayan, VIII, 196. Also see: Ibn Abi Shaybah, Musannaf, I, 297-298.

[130] Tabari, op. cit.

[131] Tabari, op. cit., VIII, 196-197. Also see Abdurrazzaq b. Hammam, Musannaf, I, 19; Ibn Abi Shayba, op. cit., I, 298, 302.

[132] Tayâlisî, Musnad, IV, 46; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XI, 412-413, 475, 558, 672; Ibn Abî Shayba, Musannaf, I, 326; Bukhari, Ilm, 3, 30, Wudu’, 26; Muslim, Tahara, 9; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 55; Abu Dawud, Tahara, 46; al-Nasa’i, Tahara, 89; al-Bezzar, Musnad, VI, 353-354; Ibn Khuzaymah, Sahih, I, 83-84, 86; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 335; Abu ʿAwana, Musnad, I, 194-195, 210.

[133] Tayalisi, Musnad, III, 342; Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 326-327; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XXII, 287, XXIII, 220, 373, 390; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 55; Abu Ya’la, Musnad, IV, 52, 110, 201; Abu Awana, Musnad, I, 212.

[134] For the narrations from Abu Hurayrah, see: Tayalisi, Musnad, IV, 228; Abdurrazaq ibn Hammam, Musannaf, I, 21; Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 327; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XII, 18-19; XIII, 203, 221; XV, 151, 161, 174-175, 341; XVI, 108, 176, 282; Bukhari, Wudu’, 28; Muslim, Tahara, 9; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 55; Tirmidhi, Tahara, 31; al-Nasa’i, Tahara, 89; Abu Awana, Musnad, I, 211-212; Ibn Khuzaymah, Sahih, I, 84; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 368. For the narrations from Aisha, see: Malik ibn Anas, Muwatta’, I, 224; Tayalisi, Musnad, III, 135-136; Abdurrazaq ibn Hammam, Musannaf, I, 23; Humaydi, Musnad, I, 87; Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 325; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XL, 149; XLI, 62, 91, 213; XLIII, 277; Muslim, Tahara, 9; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 55; Ibn Hibban, Sahih, III, 341; Abu Ya’la, Musnad, VII, 400; Abu Awana, Musnad, I, 211.

[135] Ibn Abi Shayba, Musannaf, I, 314, II, 250; Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad, XXIX, 154; Darimi, Tahara, 38; Bukhari, Wudu’, 47; Ibn Majah, Tahara, 89.

[136] Ibn Abi Shayba, op. cit., XX, 164.

[137] Mehmet Boynukalın, Tayammum DİA, XLI, 51; Mustafa Fayda, The Incident of Ifk, DİA, XXI, 507-508.

[138] Mustafa İzci, An Examination of Surah Al-Ma’idah from a Recitation (Qira’at) Perspective, M.A. Thesis, Dokuz Eylül University Institute of Social Sciences, İzmir, 1996, pp. 8-9.

[139] For detailed information, see Abdulaziz Bayındır, Misconceptions That We Think To Be True in the Light of the Qur’an, 4th ed., Istanbul, Süleymaniye Foundation Publications, 2011, pp. 314-323; Fatih Orum, The Method of Understanding the Qur’an Based on the Qur’an and Sunnah, Istanbul, Süleymaniye Foundation Publications, 2013, pp. 152-157.

[140] Abdulaziz Bayındır, Misconceptions That We Think To Be True, pp. 296-301; For more information, see Fatih Orum, The Method of Understanding the Qur’an, pp. 140-151.

[141] In Surah Al-An’am, after mentioning the names of eighteen Prophets, it is stated in Verse 90 that along with them, Allah also chose Prophets from among their fathers, descendants and brothers, and guided them. The Verse then says: “These are the ones whom Allah has guided, so follow their guidance. Say: I do not ask you for any payment for it (the Qur’an). It is only a reminder to the worlds”. The phrase “their guidance-path” in this Verse should be understood as referring to their Sharia (religious law). This is because the preceding Verse mentions that Allah gave them Scripture, wisdom and prophethood. Indeed, Razi also indicates that this phrase can be understood as referring to their Sharia, and after addressing the counterarguments, he states that this Verse is evidence for the concept of “the legislation of those before us” (shar’u man qablana). See: Fakhr al-Din al-Razi, Mafatih al-Ghayb, Vol. VII, Part: 13, pp. 57-58.

[142] The Prophet (peace be upon him) reportedly said, after requesting water and washing his limbs three times, “This is my ablution (wudu) and the ablution of the Prophets before me” and “This is my ablution and the ablution of Ibrahim, the friend of Allah.” Refer to: Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, Vol. X, 27; Vol. XXIX, 25-27; Ibn Maja, Tahara, 47. Although the chains of narration for these Hadiths are considered weak, it seems unlikely that the Prophet (peace be upon him) could have accurately learned this information from the polytheistic Arab society or the People of the Book at the beginning of Islam. It is most likely that Angel Gabriel (peace be upon him) taught him. There are narrations in some sources to support this: According to one narration, at the beginning of the revelation, Angel Gabriel came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and taught him ablution. Another narration states that when prayer was made obligatory, Angel Gabriel came to the Prophet (peace be upon him) and struck his heel on the ground at the edge of a valley, causing water to gush forth. The Prophet (peace be upon him), observing this, performed ablution by washing his face, rinsing his mouth and nose, wiping his head and ears, washing his arms up to the elbows and washing his feet up to the ankles. Refer to: Abu Umar Jamaluddin Yusuf ibn Abdullah Ibn Abd al-Barr al-Namiri, al-Istidhkar al-Jami’ li Madhahib Fuqaha al-Amsar wa Ulama al-Aqtar, edited by Abdulmu’ti Ameen Kal’aji, 30 volumes, Beirut, Dar Al-Kutub Al-‘Ilmiyya, 1993, Vol. I, pp. 183-184.

[143] Al-Baqarah 2:41, 89, 91, 97, 101; Al ‘Imran 3:3, 50, 81, and other relevant Verses.

[144] “The Lord said to Moses: ‘Make a bronze basin with a bronze stand for washing. Place it between the Tent of Meeting and the altar, and put water in it. Aaron and his sons are to wash their hands and feet with water from it. Whenever they enter the Tent of Meeting or approach the altar to minister by offering a food offering to the Lord, they must wash with water so that they will not die. This is to be a lasting ordinance for Aaron and his descendants for the generations to come.'” See: Exodus 30:18-21. “Bring Aaron and his sons to the entrance to the Tent of Meeting and wash them with water… He placed the basin between the Tent of Meeting and the altar and put water in it for washing. And Moses and Aaron and his sons washed their hands and feet with water from it. Whenever they entered the Tent of Meeting or approached the altar, they washed as the Lord commanded Moses…” (Exodus: 40:12, 30-32) The washing described here is most likely related to the ablution required before worship. It instructs that hands and feet should be washed before entering the Tent of Meeting. However, there is no mention of washing the face and head. The text indicates that the actions within the Tent of Meeting are related to worship. What is important for us is that feet washing is required. In a YouTube video titled “Jews Performing Ablution and Praying”, a Jewish person’s ablution is nearly identical to the ablution we perform. This form of ablution has been passed down through established practice rather than learned from the Qur’an. Notably, while the person washes his face with running water, he washes his feet and hands with a brass ewer. The Torah says, “Make a bronze basin for washing. The stand should also be of bronze. Aaron and his sons shall wash their hands and (their) feet there”. The Jewish practice of using a brass ewer for ablution shows a connection with this passage from the Torah.

[145] Abu’l-Hasan Ali b. Omar b. Ahmad al-Daraqutni, Sunan al-Daraqutni, edited by Shu’ayb Arna’ut, Hasan Abdulmun’im Shalabi, Abdullatif Hirzullah, Ahmed Berhum, 6 vols., Beirut, Mu’assasat al-Risalah, 2004, Vol. I, p. 357.

[146] Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Musnad, XXXI, 551.

[147] Abdurrazzaq ibn Hammam, al-Musannaf, I, 195.

[148] Bayhaqi, Sunan al-Kubrâ, Volume 1, Page 272.

[149] Daraqutni, The Sunan of al-Daraqutni, I, 365.

[150] Ibn Abi Shaybah, al-Musannaf, II, 239.

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1.    God Is Worthy of the Utmost Reverence

One of the hadiths often cited today as evidence pertains to the notion that even when alone at home, one should live with the awareness that God sees us, and He is the most worthy of reverence. However, this narration has no connection to head coverings or any matter specific to women:

Behz bin Hakim narrates on the authority of his grandfather (Mu’awiyah bin Haydah, may God be pleased with him):
“I asked, ‘O Messenger of God, before whom should we cover our private parts?’ The Prophet replied, ‘Cover your private parts except in front of your wife or those whom your right hands possess.’ I then asked, ‘O Messenger of God, what if people live together or mix freely?’ He replied, ‘Then strive to conceal your private parts as much as possible.’ I then asked, ‘O Messenger of God, what if one of us is alone?’ The Prophet said, ‘God is the most deserving of one’s modesty and reverence.'”  (Ibn Majah, Nikah 28 [1920]).^[1]

As evident, this narration addresses a man’s question about awrah (private parts) and the extent of covering required among people. The response advises living with the awareness that God sees us at all times. Even when alone, avoiding complete nakedness and covering the awrah (the area between the navel and the knees) aligns with our inherent nature. When Satan caused Adam and his wife to remove their garments, they immediately sought something to cover themselves. This instinctual behavior is not gender-specific.

The hadith concerns avoiding nudity, and not covering the hair. Hence, interpreting it as a directive about women’s hair is a deviation from its intended meaning.

2.    Angels Are Present Around Humans

Another narration that emphasizes a similar concept explicitly mentions the presence of angels:

“Avoid nudity, for there are angels with you who only leave when you enter the restroom or when a man approaches his wife. So, be modest and respectful towards them.” (Tirmidhi, Adab 42).^[2]

It should be noted that in both cases where it is said that the angels of mercy leave, the person’s awrah—the area between the navel and the knees—is not covered. Due to the weakness in its chain of transmission, this narration has been classified as “weak.” Tirmidhi labelled the hadith as ghareeb. Nevertheless, the content of the narration aligns with other hadiths discussed.

Narrations Mentioning the Headscarf

The hadiths often linked to the issue of head coverings involve narrations of Khadijah (RA) and Aisha (RA), where it is said that Gabriel refrained from entering the house because of their uncovered heads. However, these incidents are not directly related to having uncovered hair. Instead, they appear to address broader principles of modesty and reverence in specific contexts, without making the issue of a woman’s uncovered head the primary focus.

3.    The Testing of Our Mother Khadijah (RA) the Nature of Revelation

The narration regarding Our Mother Khadijah, as described, pertains to an incident at the beginning of the revelation timeline. According to the narration, Khadijah conducted a test to discern whether the entity appearing to the Prophet (PBUH) was an angel or otherwise.

Ibn Ishaq narrates:
Khadijah (RA) asked the Prophet (PBUH), “Can you inform me when your companion appears to you?” The Prophet agreed. When Gabriel visited him again, the Prophet informed her. Khadijah said, “Stand up, the son of my uncle^[3], and sit on my left thigh.” He complied, and she asked, “Do you see him?” He replied, “Yes.” She then asked him to sit on her right thigh, and the same exchange occurred. Lastly, she asked him to sit in her lap. When he did, she asked, “Do you still see him?” He replied affirmatively. Then, Khadijah uncovered herself, removed her head covering and asked again, “Do you still see him?” The Prophet replied, “No.” At this, Khadijah declared, “Rejoice, the son of my uncle, for by Allah, he is an angel, not a devil.” (Ibn Hisham, as-Sirah I.257; Haythami, Majma’ al-Zawa’id VIII.256; Tabari, at-Tarikh I.208; Dhahabi, Siyar A’lam al-Nubala II.116.)^[4]

This incident, narrated in varying versions by Ibn Ishaq, Tabari, and others, has been evaluated differently by scholars. Tabari considered its chain of transmission hasan, while al-Dhahabi noted it as munqati’ (interrupted). Even if a judgment were made based on this narration without examining its transmission chain, the conclusion could not be that angels distance themselves solely because the hair is uncovered; rather, it could be concluded that angels distance themselves due to nudity or marital relations. Ibn Hisham adds a supporting note “It was her clear thinking that led her to try this method, realizing that an angel would not stay in a room where a man and his wife were in a closely intimate position.”

4.    The Topic of Prayers to Be Recited in the Cemetery

Another narration pertains to our mother Aisha (RA) sleeping at night with her clothes removed, during which Gabriel came to the Prophet (PBUH) and took him to pray for the people in the cemetery. The relevant part of the narration is as follows:
… Muhammad (peace be upon him) said to our mother Aisha: “… “Gabriel came to me and called out, but concealed his voice from you. I responded, but I, too, kept my reply hidden from you. He would not enter while you were undressed. I assumed you were asleep and did not wish to disturb you, fearing you might become frightened.”” … (Muslim, Janaiz 103 [974]; Nasa’i, Janaiz 103, Ishrat al-Nisa 4)^[5]

Here, Gabriel’s reluctance to enter is clearly linked to Aisha being undressed, not to her hair being exposed. Nasā’i deemed this narration authentic.

The narration in Nasa’i is deemed saheeh.

Conclusion:

There are various narrations stating that angels of mercy do not enter houses containing a dog, a figurine, a picture, ringing bells or chimes, a foul smell, or someone in a state of major ritual impurity (junub). However, the aspect relevant to our discussion is whether angels leave a person because a woman’s hair is uncovered. On this matter, the narration cautioning against nudity and suggesting that angels depart under such circumstances is weak. The narrations cited as evidence regarding uncovered hair specifically refer to Gabriel (AS) rather than the angels of mercy. Even if the angels of mercy were equated with Gabriel simply because he is also an angel, the narrations indicate that the instances in which angels depart are when a person’s private parts are exposed. The idea that angels of mercy avoid entering a house due to women having their hair uncovered has no basis.

Comment:

Based on the points mentioned above, some propose that women should remain as covered as possible inside their homes, both during the day and at night. However, it is important to note that during the life of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), our mother Aisha -the teacher of believing women, and the wife of the Prophet- could sleep in a manner where Gabriel would not enter. Yet, she was not reprimanded or covered by him. Instead, she was allowed to rest naturally, with her husband even concerned about waking her or causing her distress. This reflects the inherent principle that one should feel comfortable in their own home.

Expecting a woman who already observes veiling outside or in the presence of non-mahram men to remain fully veiled within her own home when no strangers are present imposes a rule that Allah has not commanded. It also forbids something that Allah has made lawful. Allah perfected His religion (Surah Al-Ma’idah 5:3) and revealed Surah An-Nur 24:30-31 regarding veiling before completing the Qur’an. Verse 31 explicitly outlines the individuals before whom a woman may uncover her hair. No one has the authority to add to Allah’s rulings, even under the guise of saying “it is recommended” or “it is better.” Any excessiveness in religious matters inevitably leads to other problems. A woman who feels compelled to cover her head even within her own home may become burdened by this unnatural expectation, potentially leading her to abandon veiling entirely—a scenario frequently observed today. In religious matters, all believers should strive to make things easier, not more difficult, and to inspire love for the faith, not aversion. Therefore, to avoid making veiling unnecessarily burdensome, it is most appropriate to refrain from introducing “recommendations” that Allah has not prescribed.

A. Zeynep Arslanoğlu Dönmez

^[1]  “حَدَّثَنَا أَبُو بَكْرِ بْنُ أَبِي شَيْبَةَ، حَدَّثَنَا يَزِيدُ بْنُ هَارُونَ، وَأَبُو أُسَامَةَ قَالاَ حَدَّثَنَا بَهْزُ بْنُ حَكِيمٍ، عَنْ أَبِيهِ، عَنْ جَدِّهِ، قَالَ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ عَوْرَاتُنَا مَا نَأْتِي مِنْهَا وَمَا نَذَرُ قَالَ ‏”‏ احْفَظْ عَوْرَتَكَ إِلاَّ مِنْ زَوْجَتِكَ أَوْ مَا مَلَكَتْ يَمِينُكَ ‏”‏ ‏.‏ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ أَرَأَيْتَ إِنْ كَانَ الْقَوْمُ بَعْضُهُمْ فِي بَعْضٍ قَالَ ‏”‏ إِنِ اسْتَطَعْتَ أَنْ لاَ تُرِيَهَا أَحَدًا فَلاَ تُرِيَنَّهَا ‏”‏ ‏.‏ قُلْتُ يَا رَسُولَ اللَّهِ فَإِنْ كَانَ أَحَدُنَا خَالِيًا قَالَ ‏”‏ فَاللَّهُ أَحَقُّ أَنْ يُسْتَحْيَى مِنْهُ مِنَ النَّاسِ ‏”‏ ‏.”

^[2]  “إِيَّاكُمْ وَالتَّعَرِّي فَإِنَّ مَعَكُمْ مَنْ لاَ يُفَارِقُكُمْ إِلاَّ عِنْدَ الْغَائِطِ وَحِينَ يُفْضِي الرَّجُلُ إِلَى أَهْلِهِ فَاسْتَحْيُوهُمْ وَأَكْرِمُوهُمْ”

^[3] Because our mother, Khadija (RA), was from the same tribe as Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), she sometimes addressed him as ”the son of my uncle” to express her love, respect, and closeness, feeling as if he were a part of her own life.

^[4]  “ما رواه ابن إسحاق قال: “حدثني إسماعيل بن أبي حكيم مولى آل الزبير أنه حُدِّث عن خديجة – رضي الله عنها – أنها قالت لرسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم -: أي ابن عم، أتستطيع أن تخبرني بصاحبك هذا الذى يأتيك إذا جاءك؟ قال: نعم. قالت: فإذا جاءك فأخبرني به، فجاءه جبريل – عليه السلام – كما كان يصنع، فقال رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم -: لخديجة: يا خديجة، هذا جبريل قد جاءني، قالت: قم يا ابن عم فاجلس على فخذي اليسرى. قال: فقام رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم – فجلس عليها: قالت: هل تراه؟ قال: نعم: قالت: فتحول فاجلس على فخذي اليمنى، قالت: فتحول رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم – فجلس على فخذها اليمنى، فقالت: هل تراه؟ قال: نعم. قالت: فتحول فاجلس في حجري، قالت فتحوّل رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم – فجلس في حجرها، قالت: هل تراه؟ قال: نعم: قال: فتحسّرتْ وألقت خمارها، ورسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم – جالس في حجرها، ثم قالت له: هل تراه؟ قال: لا، فقالت: يا ابن عم، أثبت وأبشر، فوالله إنه لملَك وما هذا بشيطان.

قال ابن إسحاق: وقد حدثت عبد الله بن حسن هذا الحديث، فقال: قد سمعت أمي فاطمة بنت حسين تُحدِّث بهذا الحديث عن خديجة إلا أني سمعتها تقول: أدخلتْ رسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم – بينها وبين درعها، فذهب عند ذلك جبريل، فقالت لرسول الله – صلى الله عليه وسلم -: إن هذا لملك وما هو بشيطان”

^[5]  “ قَالَ ‏”‏ فَإِنَّ جِبْرِيلَ أَتَانِي حِينَ رَأَيْتِ فَنَادَانِي فَأَخْفَاهُ مِنْكِ فَأَجَبْتُهُ فَأَخْفَيْتُهُ مِنْكِ وَلَمْ يَكُنْ يَدْخُلُ عَلَيْكِ وَقَدْ وَضَعْتِ ثِيَابَكِ وَظَنَنْتُ أَنْ قَدْ رَقَدْتِ فَكَرِهْتُ أَنْ أُوقِظَكِ وَخَشِيتُ أَنْ تَسْتَوْحِشِي”

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THE WORD ROOT

The root of the word “Islam,”  means “submission (to God).” Therefore, we should describe “Islam” as the name for “the lifestyle in which people voluntarily and unconditionally submit to God’s rulings.” In Arabic, someone who submits to God is called a “muslim.”

THE DEFINITION OF MUSLIM

According to the Qur’an, all prophets -from Adam to Muhammad (peace be upon them)- submitted to God.

“Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian. He was an upright person who submitted to God. “ (Al-e Imran 3:67)

“Do you say that Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants were Jews or Christians? Say (to them): “Do you know better, or does God?” Who is more wrong-doing than he who conceals a truth which has been shown to him by God? God is never heedless of what you are doing.” (Al-Baqarah 2:140)

From the information above we can conclude that Islam (submission to God) is the only religion that God has ever established on earth. This is confirmed in the Quran:
“The religion in the sight of God is submission to God (Islam).” (Al-e Imran 3:19)

That means since the creation of humankind, all believers who have lived by God’s laws have ever been Muslims. Notably, the words “believer” and  “those who believe” are mentioned in the Quran at least seven times more than the word Muslim.

THE DEFINITION OF RELIGION

God describes the religion as “the fitrah – natural order” in the Quran:
“So set your face duly and steadily to this religion, the natural order (fitra) set by God. He has created humankind in compliance with it. There is nothing to substitute for what God creates. That is the upright religion, but most people do not know.” (Ar-Rum 30:30)

So, anything that harms God’s creation, disrupts the natural order or contradicts human nature also opposes the principles of religion. Oppression, injustice (16:90), modifying genetics, and deteriorating the environment (2:205) are just a few examples.

A MUSLIM IS FREE

A person who submits to God refrains from wrongdoing by following God’s rules and lives their life in the best possible way. This requires a subtle amount of effort but God promises in the Quran that He will rightly guide those who strive for God’s path (29:69).  People who submit to God do their best to achieve good outcomes, and always place their trust in God (33:3) who ensures the best results (18:44).  This leads to self-confidence, inner peace, and harmony with society. As a result of these efforts, believers fear nothing but God and do not grieve. God says about such people:

“Nay! Whoever submits themselves to God while they are in a kind manner, their reward resides in the presence of their Master. They neither fear nor grieve.” (al-Baqarah 2:112)

Such people attain true freedom because they prioritize God’s commands over their own desires and the expectations of others, thereby liberating themselves from the constraints of worldly authority. That is the zenith of freedom in this world and will surely lead to eternal salvation.

***************

Those who avoid wrongdoing by following God’s rules live their lives best. They fear nothing but God and do not grieve because they have done their best to achieve good outcomes and then submitted to God, who ensures the best results (al-Kahf 18:44).  God says about such people:

“Nay! Whoever submits themselves to God while acting kindly, their reward resides in the presence of their Master. They neither fear nor grieve.” (Quran 2:112)

In the verse above, the verb “to submit oneself (to God)” is the root of the word “Islam,” which means “submission (to God).” Therefore, “Islam” is the name for “the lifestyle in which people voluntarily and unconditionally submit to God’s rulings”. In return, they gain inner peace and confidence, not giving in to fear or hopelessness.  In Arabic, someone who submits to God is called a “Muslim.” According to the Qur’an, all prophets, from Adam to Muhammad (peace be upon them), were “people who submitted to God”.

“Abraham was neither a Jew nor a Christian. He was an upright person who submitted himself to God. “ (Quran 3:67)

“Do you say that Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, and their descendants were Jews or Christians? (O Muhammad) Say (to them): “Do you know better, or does God?” Who is more wrong-doing than he who conceals a truth which has been shown to him by God? God is never heedless of what you are doing.” (Quran 2:140)

From the information above, we can conclude that all the religions we now call by different names were specific forms of Islam sent down by God through His prophets in the relevant era. This is confirmed in the Quran:
“The religion in the sight of God is Islam (submission to God).” (Quran 3:19)

That also means, since the creation of humankind, all believers who have ever lived by God’s laws have been Muslims. Notably, the words “believer” and  “those who believe” are mentioned in the Quran at least seven times more than the word “Muslim“.

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Being charitable and supporting someone in need is, of course, a sign and requirement of being a good person. However, Islam is not a faith that leaves charity to individual choice as it emphasizes that social equality can only be achieved if people care for one another. In this article, we will explain how Muslims should approach those in need, based on principles from the Qur’an.

In Islam, helping and caring are expressions of faith; therefore, engaging in charitable activities should not be perceived merely as a personal choice. There are powerful core values of social justice in Islam such as zakat and sadaqah. Zakat is one of the Five Pillar of Islam, and it is a fundamental practice that involves giving a portion of one’s wealth to those in need whereas sadaqah refers to voluntary charity given with the intention of helping others and pleasing God. Unlike zakat, which is a mandatory act of charity with specific rules, sadaqah is entirely voluntary and can be given at any time and any amount. These moral principles are meant to uplift those in need, alleviate poverty, and ensure that wealth circulates within the community.

The Qur’an strongly emphasizes and encourages helping those in need, making it a core aspect of Islamic ethics. Therefore, a Muslim’s charitable and generous attitude to those in need is directly related not only to being a good person and a good Muslim but also to fulfilling the command of the Qur’an, as it addresses the importance of caring for the vulnerable—including the poor, orphans, the oppressed, and those in distress—as a fundamental duty.

Key Qur’anic Verses on Helping Those in Need

• “And establish prayer and give zakat (obligatory charity), and whatever good you put forward for yourselves – you will find it with Allah. Allah is watching everything you do.” (Qur’an 2:110) – Here, giving zakat, a fixed percentage of one’s wealth to those in need, is mentioned alongside prayer, showing its significance as a pillar of Islam.
• ‘’Those who spend their wealth in Allah’s way by night and by day, secretly and publicly – they will have their reward with their Lord. And no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve.” (Qur’an 2:274) – This verse highlights the value of giving freely and generously, encouraging Muslims to give not just obligatory zakat but also voluntary charity (sadaqah), in both private and public ways.
• “Have you seen the one who denies the Recompense? For that is the one who drives away the orphan and does not encourage the feeding of the poor.” (Qur’an 107:1-3) This verse condemns those who ignore or mistreat the needy, linking compassion for others with faith. Neglecting the needy is equated with a denial of accountability to God.
• “And what is [the matter] with you that you fight not in the cause of Allah and for the oppressed among men, women, and children who say, ‘Our Lord, take us out of this city of oppressive people and appoint for us from Yourself a protector and appoint for us from Yourself a helper’?” (Qur’an 4:75) This verse calls upon believers to take an active stance in supporting and defending the oppressed and disadvantaged, presenting it as a noble and necessary cause.
• “Take, [O Muhammad], from their wealth a charity by which you purify them and cause them increase, and invoke [Allah’s blessings] upon them.” (Qur’an 9:103) In this verse, charity purifies both the giver’s wealth and heart, highlighting the spiritual benefit of aiding others.

Conclusion:

The emphasis on generosity, social responsibility, and justice is deeply woven into Islamic teachings, making it both a moral and spiritual duty for Muslims to help those in need. The Qur’an links this duty with faith, accountability, and personal growth, making it clear that a truly faithful person cannot be indifferent to the suffering of others.

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God does not directly characterize human feelings as sinful and does not punish them. However, He holds the individual responsible for his/her words and actions based on his/her feelings and thoughts. In this article, we will discuss how religion approaches homosexuality, and present a perspective on individual and social approaches to the issue.

HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE QURAN

Homosexuality is described in the Qur’an as ‘an ugly deed’ and ‘excess’:

And We sent Lot as a messenger, and one day he said to his people: ‘Are you doing that ugly deed (having homosexual intercourse)? No people has gone as far as you^[1] in this ugly deed!  You put women in second place and approach men with lust. Indeed, you are a people who have gone to extremes.’ (al-A’raf, 7:80-81)

Homosexual intercourse, as well as unmarried intercourse between a man and a woman, is a form of sexual immorality^[2] and is forbidden:

‘Say: ‘My Master has forbidden only these things: Sexual immoralities -whether openly or secretly-, sins/behavior that leads one away from righteousness, unjust aggression, associating with God that for which God has not sent down a clear proof, and attributing to God what you say without knowledge.’ (al-A’raf, 7:33).

HOMOSEXUALITY IN THE BIBLE

Similar to the Qur’an, Leviticus 18:22 states that homosexual relation is an ‘abomination’ and forbids it:

‘Do not lie with a man as with a woman. It is an abomination.’ (Leviticus 18:22)

‘If a man has sexual intercourse with another man, they both commit an abomination. They will surely be put to death. They deserve death.’ (Leviticus 20:13) 

The Bible also states that homosexual relations are unnatural, shameful behavior and perversion:

‘So God gave them over to shameful passions. Even their women preferred unnatural to natural intercourse. In the same way, men also forsook natural relations with women and lusted after one another. Men had shameful relations with men and received in their own bodies the reward for their perversion.’ (Romans 1:26-27)

The behavior of the people of Lot and their consequent destruction due to the excesses they committed in homosexual relations are narrated in Genesis 19:1-29 in detail.

PERSPECTIVES ON SAME-SEX SEXUALITY

Nowadays, an increasing number of people claim to be emotionally and/or sexually attracted to their fellow human beings. According to the founders of psychology such as Freud, Jung, and Adler, emotional and sexual orientation towards one’s own same sex is a psychosexual disorder^[3] and even a psychosexual immaturity; however, current psychiatry, based on the decision of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1973 and under the influence of political pressures, approaches the situation differently.^[4]

Some homosexual individuals are aware that they are mentally distressed by their situation and want to return to normal and seek help in this regard. However, because those who form the LGBTIQ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Intersex, Queer) movement today emphasize the perception that these feelings are not unusual but normal, some people are not aware of the wrongness of the situation and therefore do not demand a change or help. Religious views towards individuals who exhibit different behaviors will of course differ from one another.

WHAT SHOULD HOMOSEXUAL INDIVIDUALS DO ACCORDING TO THE SCRIPTURES?

God has said, that He created human beings from male and female (al-Hujurat, 49:13, Bible/Genesis 1:27). Therefore, the claims of those who define themselves outside these two genders are completely invalid according to the Qur’an and other divine books.

When a human being lives in harmony with his/her biological sex, he/she complies with his/her “fitrat”, that is, his/her codes from creation, and therefore finds peace. If there is any obstacle to this, medical or psychological treatment methods should be used. 

ISSUES TO BE CONSIDERED IN RELATIONSHIPS WITH HOMOSEXUAL INDIVIDUALS

It is not a sin to be in friendship with homosexuals, because they certainly need friends who will tell them the wrong and support them in the right path. However, if a believer befriends them in a way that approves of their sinful behavior, he too will be sinning, for God says:

‘Help one another in righteousness and piety, but do not help one another in sin and transgression. Beware of doing wrong against God. God’s punishment is severe.’ (al-Ma’idah, 5:2)

It is not possible for a believer to favor a deed that God calls ugly (al-Baqarah, 2:285, al-Ahzab, 33:36, al-Qalam, 68:9). For this reason, they should explain to those they know who have this orientation that the path these individuals take is wrong both in nature and religion, that what they are doing is a great sin, and if there is any support they can give to help them recover, they should do so. 

A believer cannot treat an LGBT individual whom he/she does not know and who lives his/her daily life in society without emphasizing his/her sexuality any differently than he/she treats other people. God has not given such a right or duty to anyone. In fact, no one has the right to follow a person’s behavior in his/her home or in his/her private area, not in public. It is forbidden to investigate people’s secrets (al-Hujurat, 49:12).

People who live their homosexual personality and behavior visibly in public, who promote and praise this forbidden relationship or its advertisement in public, should do everything in their power to prevent these behaviors from being seen and set a bad example.

ATTITUDE TOWARD LGBT SUPPORTERS

Even if LGBT is presented as an organization that protects the feelings of LGBTIQ+ people, it is more than that. Homosexuality became a social movement in the USA  and from there, it spread to other countries.  Today, efforts are being made to perceive this psychosexual disorder as a normal way of life, and the biggest support in this regard is provided by social media, various politicians, and capital owners. Therefore, those who want to protect the human generation and the social fabric should be careful about what they support. Because God has said about those who work for the degeneration of progeny (either human or plant or animal):

‘There are some people whose words about the life of this world amaze you. And he holds God as a witness to what is in his heart. In fact, he is the worst enemy. Whenever he prevails, he endeavors to disturb the order of the earth and destroy its resources and progeny. God does not want the order to be disturbed.” (al-Baqarah, 2:204-205)

Believers absolutely cannot support LGBT, because God has clearly stated that those who support evil will also be responsible for that evil (an-Nisa, 4:85).

There is a serious warning in the Qur’an about those who want to spread an immoral way of life, which is both physiologically and psychologically contrary to human creation, certain to disrupt the natural order, and which God defines as an ugly deed/immorality:

‘For those who wish to spread immorality among the believers, there is a painful punishment in this world and in the Hereafter. God knows, but you do not know.’ (an-Noor, 24:19)

It is necessary to raise public awareness and warn people about the depressing world and afterlife that these individuals are dragged into. It is also the duty of believers, especially the experts on these issues, and those who witness these events, to provide medical or psychological information about the difficulties that LGBT individuals have experienced and will experience. 

IMPORTANT WARNING

Other mistakes should not be committed while trying to prevent the spread of one vice. It should never be forgotten that no one has the right to harm anyone’s life or property, to humiliate, insult, or use violence. It should be kept in mind that the aim is to prevent a collective wrong action,  raise people’s awareness, and set an example of good morals. 

WHAT WOULD BE THE PUNISHMENT FOR HOMOSEXUALITY AND TRYING TO SPREAD IT IN A SOCIETY GOVERNED BY THE QUR’AN

The Quran, unlike the Bible, does not prescribe capital punishment for non-heterosexual individuals but condemns homosexuality and other sexual transgressions.
In the Qur’an, the disruption of the natural order established by God is called ‘fasad’ and the attempt to disrupt the order is called ‘ifsad’, i.e. corruption. God has stated that He does not want the natural order disrupted (al-Baqarah 2:205). 

As it is known, the men of the people of Lot (as), where homosexuality was widespread, were turning towards other men with lust even though they had wives (an-Naml, 27:54-55). However, the crime that led the people of Lot to destruction was not only the fact that they were homosexual. They even detained foreign visitors for this purpose (Hud, 11:78; al-Qamar, 54:37), cut the roads and committed fornication in public places, in front of the eyes, and in clubs gathered for this purpose (al-Ankabut, 29:30). Despite all the warnings, they did not listen to God’s messenger and continued their ugly deeds, going to an unprecedented extent (al-A’raf, 7:80, al-Ankabut, 29:28). Thus, they collectively and persistently committed acts that disrupted the natural order in that land, that is, they caused mischief. That is why God rained stones on them and turned their city upside down (Hud, 11:82). Otherwise, they were not subjected to collective destruction because they individually committed this act in their private sphere. 

In the Qur’an, God has prescribed various punishments to prevent such corruptions, which are gradually spreading in violation of the order in the world:

‘The punishment of those who fight against God and His Messenger and endeavor to make mischief in the land is that they should be killed or hanged or their hands and feet should be cut off crosswise or they should be exiled from their homes. This is their disgrace in this world. And what they deserve in the Hereafter is a great torment.’ (al-Ma’idah, 5:33)

This verse also includes punishments for organized crime and terrorism. In such collective offenses, the only sentence that can be meted out to those who have not committed murder, robbery, rape, or other acts of physical harm, but who have nevertheless worked to disrupt God’s natural order, i.e. to create mischief, can only be “exile”.

Accordingly, in a society governed by the Qur’an, groups working for the spread of homosexuality deserve to be expelled from the land they live in, unless they correct their behavior. 

CONCLUSION:

Under today’s conditions where societies are not governed according to the Qur’an, what can be done against mass LGBT propaganda can be to make organized or individual efforts to explain the wrongness of this, to try to stop their advertisements, and if it is not possible to intervene personally, to condemn them with the tongue or heart.

It is among the duties of believers towards each other to call haram as haram, sin as sin, and show the truth (at-Tawbah, 9:71). The fact that these warnings are called ‘homophobia’ by LGBT groups and claimed to constitute a discrimination offense just like racism does not matter for a Muslim, because a believer fears the condemnation of God, rather than others (al-Ma’idah, 5:54). 

In both the Qur’an and the previous divine books there is no gender definition other than male and female. Homosexuality is forbidden in all of them, but no individual’s human rights, such as the security of life and property, can be taken away on this ground.

^[1]The verb “sabaqa (سبق)”, which is translated in many translations as “to do something for the first time”, actually means to take the lead in marching. In the verses where it is used in its literal meaning, it is used in the form of competition (Yusuf 12:17) and running (Yusuf 12:25). This word is used metaphorically for other forms of getting ahead (Mufradat al-Fadl al-Quran). It is figurative in the sense of being ahead of others in something (Ahqaf 46:11), or being ahead of others in the order of time (Taha 20:129). It is described in the Qur’an that the people of Lot practiced homosexuality in public, by force and in an organized manner. Basing on this evidence, it is appropriate to assign the verb “sabaqa” the meaning of “going further than ever before in that deviant behavior”, rather than the meaning of “doing it for the first time”.

^[2] The word “fawahish”, translated as “sexual immoralities”, is plural. In Arabic, the plural form refers to at least three entities. Of these, adultery (al-Isra 17:32) and male-male intercourse (al-Araf 7:80, al-Ankabut 29:28) are explicitly mentioned in the Qur’an. The third is female-female intercourse.

^[3] Nicolosi, Joseph (2001). The Removal of Homosexuality from the Psychiatric Manual. Catholic Social Science Review 6:71(-77).
https://www.pdcnet.org/cssr/content/cssr_2001_0006_0071_0077

^[4] Nicolosi, Op cit, 6:72.

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We can deduce from this verse that people who do not ponder over the end of affairs also prioritize the things that will yield quick results, chase fleeting pleasures, and postpone dealing with issues that are difficult or require long-term effort. That is another description of procrastination. 

The Qur’an does not consider the concept of procrastination in isolation. It presents a broad perspective that includes the causes and solutions to this problem. From this point of view, we see that the Qur’an emphasizes a strong will, time consciousness, self-discipline, and responsibility in human life:

Self-Discipline: 

 One of the principles laid down by the Qur’an in this regard is self-discipline, primarily keeping one’s promises to oneself and others (Isra 17:34, Mu’minoon 23:8).

Self-Criticism and Self-Monitoring: 

Being aware of one’s own actions in carrying out any work and what one has postponed or not done when one should have done it, and being self-critical (Qiyamat 75:14-15) instead of making excuses to exonerate oneself (Najm 53:32) will be important steps in getting rid of procrastination.

Time Management: 

Time management is, of course, the most important factor against procrastination. For this reason, God swears upon time and it is revealed in Surah Asr that anyone who does not utilize his time for good deeds is at a loss every moment.

In addition, God commands everyone to prepare for tomorrow in this life and the Hereafter while in this world, and to check on what they do (Hashr 59:18).  

Planning:

To spend life as efficiently as possible, one should plan and prepare to achieve their goals. In Tawbah 9:46, while criticizing those who claim they want to go to war, God says, ‘If they wanted to go to war, they would certainly have made a preparation.’ Once the goal is set and preparations are made, people work on their tasks. When one step is completed or they tire of that work, they change tasks to take steps they had planned for another goal (Inshirah 94:7).

Motivation: 

Many people today suffer from a life without purpose. However, God created life and death to test which of us will do the best deeds (Mu’minoon 23:115, Anqabut 29:2, Mulk 67:2, Qiyamah 75:36). This means that the purpose of life is to do good deeds and to face the difficulties encountered along the way by following God’s path. Therefore, one should set good goals for oneself (Baqarah 2:148) and be motivated to work towards them by encouraging good deeds, working and competing for the good (Al-e Imran 3:114, Mu’minoon 23:61).

Distractions: 

Those who try to do good deeds will always be confronted with distractions because the primary purpose of the Devil and his followers is to prevent good. Today, instead of facing their problems and working to overcome them, people prefer to postpone them and spend their free time “blowing off steam” through pleasurable games and entertainment, illegitimate relationships, betting, gambling, etc. The end of such people is clearly described in the Qur’an (Muddaththir 74:45, Tur 52:12). On the other hand, the believers are emphasized to stay away from vain things (Mu’minoon 23:3).

An Example:

In the Qur’an, Surat al-Tawbah, there is an example of three people – one of whom, according to the narrations, was named Ka’b bin Malik – who intended to join the expedition to Tabuk but kept postponing their preparations. Despite the approaching expedition, they did not make any preparations and kept stalling, thinking “I will start tomorrow”, and in the end, they could not join the troops and were left behind. After the expedition, they were forgiven for their righteousness and honesty, but in the process, they were subjected to temporary social exclusion. This example is a powerful lesson of the consequences of procrastination, delay, and failure to act on time. 

Conclusion:

The Qur’an provides solutions for those who want to overcome procrastination. The combination of responsibility, self-discipline, time management, and avoiding distractions is the way to overcome this problem. 

Ayşe BEKDEMİR

A. Zeynep DÖNMEZ

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Are Human Beings Sinful At Birth?

• The story of Adam and Eve is also present in Islam (surah 2:35-39), but unlike in Christianity, their disobedience is not seen as a sin that taints all of humanity. Instead, they are forgiven by Allah after repenting, and their mistake does not pass on to their descendants.
• Tawbah (repentance) is highly emphasized in Islam, and anyone who sincerely repents and corrects their behavior can be forgiven for their sins by Allah, regardless of their past actions.

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The Qur’an itself does not prescribe the death penalty for blasphemy. Neither did Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) ever inflict any punishment on blasphemers in his lifetime.
The harsh penalties for apostasy and blasphemy became formalized in the centuries after the Prophet’s pass-away through so-called “Islamic” legal schools (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi’i, Hanbali). They developed rigid interpretations, often influenced by political and social conditions, where apostasy and blasphemy were seen as threats to the unity and stability of the state. The punishments in later history are post-prophetic developments rooted in political and legal contexts that evolved long after the Prophet.

Muslim Response to Blasphemy According to the Quran

The Qur’an teaches patience and ignoring those who insult Islam:

“It is for sure that; you will be put to a hard test in the matters of your possessions and lives, and you will frequently hear discomforting words from those who were granted the Book before you and from those who interpose others between themselves and God. If you persevere by refraining from doing wrong (they can’t hurt you). Yet, this is a matter of strong determination.”(Al-e Imran 3:186)

That means blasphemy is inevitable and therefore God has already told us what type of attitude we must have in such cases. Below are other commands of God about how we should behave against blasphemers:

“And when you hear the ignorant speak against Our revelations, withdraw from them until they turn to a different topic.” (al-An’am 6:68)

“And bear patiently what they say, and avoid them with gracious avoidance.” (al-Muzzammil 73:10)

“Good and evil are not equal. Repel evil with good, and the person who was your enemy becomes like an intimate friend.
But none is granted this (achievement) except those who persevere, and none is granted this (achievement) except those who have a great portion (of goodness). And if there comes to you from Satan an evil suggestion, then seek refuge in God. Indeed, He is the Hearing, the Knowing. ”(Fussilat 41:34-36)

The Example of Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) on Blasphemy

During his lifetime, Prophet Muhammad was often personally insulted and ridiculed by his opponents. Yet, he responded with forbearance and mercy, based on the Qur’anic teachings of freedom of belief and patience in the face of insults. There are several examples of the Prophet showing forgiveness:

• When the people of Ta’if pelted him with stones and mocked him, he prayed for their guidance rather than seeking vengeance.
• The Prophet forgave Abdullah ibn Ubayy, a known hypocrite who spread slander and blasphemy against him.

Conclusion

• Blasphemy is not punishable by death based on Qur’anic principles.
• During the Prophet Muhammad’s era, Qur’anic principles were upheld and nobody was killed for blasphemy.
• The penalties emerged from later developments, influenced by the need for political unity or societal control, opposing the Qur’an.
• The Prophet’s practice was one of forgiveness and patience. These examples are in line with the messages of the Qur’an.

Our Mission

We must uphold the rulings in the Quran, thus promoting Islam as the source of solutions for humanity. Here is how we can achieve this goal: “Invite to the way of your Master with wisdom and good advice and debate with them in the most dignified manner. Your Master is aware of those who stray from His path, and He is aware of those who are guided. If you were to retaliate, retaliate to the same degree as what is done to you. But if you resort to patience—it is better for the patient. So be patient. Your patience is solely with the help of God. And do not grieve over them, and do not be stressed over what they conspire. Indeed, God is with those who fear Him and those who are doers of good.”(Ash-Shuara 26:125-128)

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