Information Technology ITtopic4

Privacy Policy

2020-09-21T22:02:00.001+05:00

Privacy Policy for Information Technology:

At ITtopic4, accessible from https://www.ittopic4.xyz/, one of our main priorities is the privacy of our visitors. This Privacy Policy document contains types of information that is collected and recorded by ITtopic4 and how we use it.

If you have additional questions or require more information about our Privacy Policy, do not hesitate to contact us.

This Privacy Policy applies only to our online activities and is valid for visitors to our website with regards to the information that they shared and/or collect in ITtopic4.

CHILDREN’S PRIVACY POLICY:

Another part of our priority is adding protection for children while using the internet. We encourage parents and guardians to observe, participate in, and/or monitor and guide their online activity.

What Information We Collect and How We Use It:

We require children to be connected with any sort of information present on this Site. On occasion, however, we provide a complete and unique sort of information for having a proper and confined knowledge about the computer system, in accordance with ITtopic4, there must be some accessories taken by the children. For example:

Ø Complete Information:

We may collect and respond a complete information related to any of the hard and complicated topic which sometimes children do not get from any other websites in the complete manner. In order to respond to a one-time request from the child, such as if the child is seeking for any topic for his sacked topic

Ø Making an Assignment :

In the case of making assignment and having some research work related to computer or card, we only collect a child’s requirement and provide information according to it.

Ø Email:

We can go ahead with the emails of the children in to receive their emails related to any question if they want to ask about any configure assignment which is can’t be understood able by them in another websites.

ITtopic4 does not knowingly collect any Personal Identifiable Information from the children of all our world of any age. If you think that your child provided this kind of information on our website.

Sharing Information

2020-09-20T08:04:00.005+05:00

Sharing Information

Between two computers on same network.
Through USB etc.

Connect the two computers with an Ethernet cable.

Connect the two computers with an Ethernet cable

Sharing Internet from Windows

Make sure that you do this on the computer from which you're sharing Internet, not the one that you just connected.

Sharing Internet from Windows

Open Control Panel

Click Control Panel when it appears at the top of the Start window.

Open Control Panel

Network and Internet

You'll find this heading on the left side of the Control Panel window.

Network and Sharing Center

This will open a list of your current connections.

Change adapter settings

You'll find this option in the upper-left side of the window.

Change adapter settings

Select both the Wi-Fi connection and the Ethernet connection

Click the computer icon that has "Wi-Fi" under it, then hold down the Ctrl key and click the computer icon that has "Ethernet" under it.

Select both the Wi-Fi connection and the Ethernet connection

Right-click the Wi-Fi connection

Connecting with wifi.

Right-click the Wi-Fi connection

Bridge Connections

So you will be able to share a data.

Bridge Connections

Sharing Files from Windows to Windows

Connect the two computers with an Ethernet cable.

Sharing Files from Windows to Windows

Open Start

Make sure that you do this on the computer from which you're sharing files.

Open Start

Open Control Panel

Open Control Panel. Type in control panel, then click Control Panel when it appears at the top of the Start window.

Network and Internet

Select network and internet connection.

Network and Internet

Click Network and Sharing Center

Select network and sharing center.

Click Network and Sharing Center

Click Advanced sharing settings.

Turn on file sharing. Check the "Turn on file and printer sharing" box below the "File and printer sharing" heading in the middle of the page.

Share a folder. To do so Go to the folder's location in File Explorer. Click Done Select the folder that you want to share. Click the Share tab. Click Specific people... Select Everyone from the drop-down menu at the top of the window. Click Share

Open the other computer's File Explorer. Click the File Explorer icon, or open Start and click there.

Click your first computer's name. You'll find it below the Network heading on the left side of the File Explorer window. You may have to scroll down to find this option.

Copy the shared folder onto your second computer. Click the folder that you want to copy, press Ctrl+C, go to a folder in which you want to store it, and press Copy the shared folder onto your second computer. Click the folder that you want to copy, press Ctrl+C, go to a folder in which you want to store it, and press

File Management

2020-09-19T10:47:00.000+05:00

File Management

Hard disk drives have become very large in recent years and are capable of holding millions of data files created by computer applications installed on the computer

As a result, a method of organising these files is essential.

Windows uses folders to achieve this

Filenames are made up of two parts

Filenames are made up of two parts:

The document name - can be up to 256 characters long, including spaces

The file extension - determined by the application being used

Typical File Types

Organising Files

The management of computer files and paper files has much in common. If all the paper documents accrued in a house or business were stored in a single drawer without using paper folders, it would soon become impossible to find anything

A well organised house will have some filing system to segregate electric bills from telephone bills and from bank statements etc. Files on a computer should be managed in a similar fashion

A good practice is to use a Personal Folder to organise files

This is the equivalent of a filing cabinet in paper filing, it can be created in the My Documents folder or in the C: Drive of the computer

This folder is the Root Folder of the filing system

Subfolders can then be created for subject areas etc

Within these, further subfolders can be used to organise the files within each subject. An example is shown below:

Create a Root folder in My Document

Create Subfolders within the root folder for subject areas etc

Create further subfolders within the subject area folder

Continue the process until the required level of organisation achieved

This organisation will make files easier to find and backing up your files will involve copying the root folder to the backup device

Creating Folders

Folders can be created by a number of methods:

Creating Folders

Method 1:

Browse to where you want to create the folder

Click the File menu, choose New and then Folder.

The folder is created

Type a name for the folder and press Return or click away from the folder to complete

Method 2:

Browse to where you want to create the folder

Right-click within the window choose New and then Folder

Method 2 Creating Folders

Complete as for method 1

Method 3:

A folder can be created while saving a file in a computer application

In Word 2007, click the Office button and choose Save As and Word Document

Browse to the required folder and click the Create New Folder button

Name the folder and Double-click it to open it. Save the file in the new folder

Managing Files and Folders

Files and Folders can be Selected, Copied, Pasted, Moved, Renamed and Deleted

Managing Files and Folders

Selecting Files

To select a single file, just click it. It changes colour on selection

To select consecutive files, click the first file, hold down the Shift key and select the last file. The files in between are automatically selected

To select non-consecutive files, hold down the Alt key and select the files in turn

To select all the files in a folder, click the Edit command and choose Select All

Note: The above procedures apply equally to groups of folders.

Copy and Paste Files

First select the required file/s. Then right-click the files and choose Copy. The files are copied an area of memory called the Clipboard

Browse to the destination folder, right-click it and choose Paste

Copy and Paste Files

Moving Files

The procedure is similar to copy and paste except that instead of choosing Copy, you choose Cut

Rename Files

Files must be renamed individually

To rename a file, right-click it and choose Rename

Type the new name and press Return or click away from the file

Deleting Files

Select the files to be deleted. Right-click any selected file and choose delete from the menu. Click the Yes button in the dialog box

Deleting Files

The Recycle Bin

Files and folders deleted from the computer are placed in the recycle bin. They are not lost until the recycle bin is emptied

In the example below, the folder is right-clicked and Delete is chosen

The folder is sent to the recycle bin and the bin icon changes from empty to full

To Undelete the folder, right-click the recycle bin and choose Open

From the Edit menu, choose Undo Delete to restore the folder to it’s original location. The recycle bin icon changes back to empty

HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMANS

2020-09-11T08:48:00.001+05:00

HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMANS

•humans have highly developed systems for homeostasis.

•The following are the main organs which work for homeostasis:

•Lungs remove excess carbon dioxide and keep it in balance.

•Skin performs role in the maintenance of body temperature and also removes excess water and salts.

•The kidney filters excess water, salts, urea, uric acid etc. from the blood and forms urine.

Skin

•Epidermis is the outer protective layer without blood vessels while dermis is the inner layer containing blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, sweat and oil glands, hairs and fat cells.

• Metabolic wastes such as

excess water, salts, urea

and uric acid are also

removed in sweat.

Skin

Lungs

•lungs maintain the concentration of carbon dioxide in the blood. Our cells produce carbon dioxide when they perform cellular respiration. From cells, carbon dioxide diffuses into tissue fluid and from there into blood. Blood carries carbon dioxide to lungs from where it is removed in air.

THE URINARY SYSTEM OF HUMANS

•The excretory system of humans is also called the urinary system. It is formed of one pair of kidneys, a pair of ureters, a urinary bladder and a urethra. Kidneys filter blood to produce urine and the ureters carry urine from kidneys to urinary bladder. The bladder temporarily stores urine until it is released from body. Urethra is the tube that carries urine from urinary bladder to the outside of body.

THE URINARY SYSTEM OF HUMANS

Structure of Kidney

•Kidneys are dark-red, bean shaped organs.

•Each kidney is 10 cm long, 5 cm wide and 4 cm thick and weighs about 120 grams

Structure of Kidney

Functioning of Kidney

•The main function of kidney is urine formation, which takes place in three steps.

•Pressure filtration

•Selective re-absorption

•Tubular secretion

Water	95%
Urea	9.3 g/I
Chloride ions	1.87 g/I
Sodium ions	1.17 g/I
Potassium ions	0.750 g/I
Other ions and compounds	Variable amounts

Normal chemical composition of Urine

Osmoregulatory Function of Kidney

•“The regulation of the concentration of water and salts in blood and other body fluids.”

•hypotonic

•Hypertonic

This whole process is under hormonal control.

DISORDERS OF KIDNEY

•There are many different kidney disorders.

•Kidney Stones

•Kidney (Renal) failure

Dialysis (Dialysis means the cleaning of blood by artificial ways.) There are two methods of dialysis.

1.Peritoneal Dialysis

DISORDERS OF KIDNEY

Haemodialysis

•In haemodialysis, patient’s blood is pumped through an apparatus called dialyzer. The dialyzer contains long tubes, the walls of which act as semi-permeable membranes.

Kidney Transplant

• It is the replacement of patient’s damaged kidney with a donor healthy kidney.

•Kidney may be donated by a deceased-donor or living-donor. The donor may or may not be a relative of the patient. Before transplant, the tissue proteins of donor and patient are matched. The donor’s kidney is transplanted in patient’s body and is connected to the patient’s blood and urinary system. The average lifetime for a donated kidney is ten to fifteen years. When a transplant fails, the patient may be given a second kidney transplant. In this situation, the patient is treated through dialysis for some intermediary time. Problems after a transplant may include transplant rejection, infections, imbalances in body salts which can lead to bone problems and ulcers.

HOMEOSTASIS

2020-09-10T09:38:00.004+05:00

HOMEOSTASIS

“Maintenance of the internal conditions of body at equilibrium, despite changes in the external environment.”

•Human body remains at about 37°C

•The blood glucose level remains about 1g per liter.

•Osmoregulation: It is maintenance of the amounts of water and salts in body

•Thermoregulation: The maintenance of internal body temperature is called thermoregulation.

•Excretion : the metabolic wastes are eliminated from body to maintain the internal conditions at equilibrium.

HOMEOSTASIS IN PLANTS

•Plants respond to environmental changes and keep their internal conditions constant i.e. homeostasis. They apply different mechanisms for the homeostasis of water and other chemicals (oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogenous materials etc).

Removal of Extra Carbon dioxide and Oxygen

• It is removed from the tissue cells by diffusion. In leaves and young stems, carbon dioxide escapes out through stomata.

•In young roots, carbon dioxide diffuses through the general root surface, especially through root hairs.

Removal of Extra Water

•Plants store large amount of water in their cells for turgidity. Extra water is removed from plant body by transpiration.

•he appearance of drops of water on the tips or edges of leaves is called guttation

Removal of Extra Water

Removal of Other Metabolic Wastes

•Plants deposit many metabolic wastes in their bodies as harmless insoluble materials. For example, calcium oxalate is deposited in the form of crystals in the leaves and stems of many plants e.g. in tomato

•resins (by coniferous trees), gums (by keekar), latex (by rubber plant) and mucilage (by carnivorous plants and ladyfinger)

Osmotic Adjustments in Plants

•On the basis of the available amount of water and salts, plants are divided into three groups.

•Hydrophytes

•Xerophytes

•Halophytes

Osmotic Adjustments in Plants

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

2020-09-10T07:17:00.001+05:00

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Gaseous Exchange In Plants.

•Plants obtain the gases they need through their leaves.

•They require oxygen for cellular respiration and carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.

•Taking in O2and giving out CO2is termed as Gaseous Exchange..

Gaseous Exchange In Plants.

The Epidermis of a leaf.

The gases diffuse into the intercellular spaces of the leaf through pores, which are normally on the underside of the leaf – stomata. From these spaces they will diffuse into the cells that require them.

The Epidermis of a leaf

Lenticels – pores in the bark of stems

Gaseous Exchange In Humans

Gaseous Exchange In Humans is carried out by respiratory system.

It is divided into two parts:

1. The Air Passage Way.

2. The Lungs.

The air passage way consists of parts through which air

comes in lungs and after exchange of gases it goes out.

It consists of following:

Gaseous Exchange In Humans is carried out by respiratory system

•A pair of lungs are present in thoracic cavity, with 12pair of ribs,rib muscles also called as (Intercoastal muscles) and a thick muscular structure, called diaphragm, present below lungs.

•Left lungis smaller in size with two lobes, while Right lung having three lobes is larger.

•

•Lungs have blood vessels that are branches of pulmonary arteries and veins.

•Each lung encloses two membranes, the outer pleural membrane& inner pleural membrane.

Mechanism of Breathing:

•Inspiration:

Rib muscles contract and ribs are raised. Dome-Shape diaphragm contracts and is lowered, reducing the pressure on lungs, resulting in air flow in lungs from out side to equalize the pressure.

•

•Expiration:

The impure air is expelled out in exhalation. Rib muscles relax, raising the dome shape which increase pressure on lungs and air is expelled out.

•Humans breathe 16 - 20 times / min in normal (at rest). During Exercise up to 30 - 40times / min.

Mechanism of Breathing

Respiratory Disorders:

•Bronchitis:

It is inflammation of bronchi, resulted by excessive secretions of mucus into the tubes, leading to swelling and blocking of tubes. It is caused by Virus, Bacteria or exposure to chemical irritants (e.g. tobacco smoke).

There are two major types of bronchitis. Acuteand Chronic.

Symptoms:

Cough, mild wheezing, fever, chills and shortness of breath.

•Emphysema:

It is the destruction of walls of alveoli, resulting in larger sacs but with less surface area for gaseous exchange. Lung tissue breakdown, so air cannot be pushed out. Symptoms:

Shortness of breath, fatigue, recurrent respiratory infection and weight loss. Symptoms appear after 50-70% damage.

•Pneumonia:

It is a lung infection caused by a bacterium, Streptococcus pneumonia. Some viral (Influenza) or fungal infections may also lead to pneumonia.

•Asthma:

It is a form of allergy, with inflammation of bronchi, more mucous production and narrowing of airways.

Symptoms:

They vary from person to person. Major symptoms include shortness of breath, wheezing, cough and chest tightness.

•Lung Cancer:

It is a uncontrolled cell division in tissue of lungs, forming tumor. It is mostly caused by carcinogens (cigarette smoke), ionization radiation and viral infection.

Bad Effects of Smoking:

•Cigarette smoke effects the whole body.

•It may cause cancer in kidneys.

•It has effect on circulatory system.

•It may increase the risk of tuberculosis.

•It is responsible for weakening of teeth and bones.

•It may damage the air pathway, leading to respiratory disorders.

Symptoms

Types of Operating System

2020-09-09T08:51:00.002+05:00

Types of Operating System

1.Batch Operating System

2.Multitasking/Time Sharing OS

3.Multiprocessing OS

4.Real Time OS

5.Distributed OS

6.Network OS

7.Mobile OS

Types of Operating System

Batch Operating System
Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.

Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems
Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminals to use a single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is shared among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

Real time OS
In real time operating system, time interval to process and respond to inputs is very small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems.

Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very fast computation to its users.

Network Operating System
Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve, to manage data, user groups, security application, and other networking functions.

Mobile OS
Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially designed to power smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices.

Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others include BlackBerry, Web, and watch OS.

Instances of Operating Systems

PCs, tablets, and personal computers all run working frameworks that you've most likely known about. A few models incorporate variants of Microsoft Windows (like Windows 10, Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP), Apple's macOS (once OS X), Chrome OS, BlackBerry Tablet OS, and kinds of Linux, an open-source working framework.

Your cell phone runs a versatile working framework, likely either Apple's iOS or Google's Android. Both are easily recognized names however you might not have understood that they are the working frameworks running on those gadgets.

Workers, similar to those that have the sites you visit or serve the recordings you watch, ordinarily run specific working frameworks, planned and enhanced to run the uncommon programming needed to cause them to do what they do. A few models incorporate Windows Server, Linux, and FreeBSD.

What is an operating system?

2020-09-09T08:08:00.002+05:00

What is an operating system?

±An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer's memory and processes, as well as all of its software and hardware.

±It also allows you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer's language.

±Without an operating system, a computer is useless.

an operating system

Characteristics of Operating System

Memory Management − Keeps track of the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is in use by whom, what part is not in use, etc. and allocates the memory when a process or program requests it.

Processor Management − Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process and deallocates the processor when it is no longer required.

Device Management − Keeps track of all the devices. This is also called I/O controller that decides which process gets the device, when, and for how much time.

File Management − Allocates and de-allocates the resources and decides who gets the resources.

Security − Prevents unauthorized access to programs and data by means of passwords and other similar techniques.

Types of Operating Systems

±WINDOWS

±MAC OS

±Unix

±LINUX

±ANDROID

Types of Operating Systems

The advantages of using Operating System

±Allows you to hide details of hardware by creating an abstraction

±Easy to use with a GUI

±Offers an environment in which a user may execute programs/applications

±Operating System acts as an intermediary among applications and the hardware components

±It provides the computer system resources with easy to use format

Operating Systems Aren’t Just for PCs

When we say “computers” run operating systems, we don’t just mean traditional desktop PCs and laptops. Your smartphone is a computer, as are tablets, smart TVs, game consoles, smart watches, and Wi-Fi routers.

Operating Systems Aren’t Just for PCs

Solvation Reaction in liquid SO2, Precipitation Reaction in liquid SO2, Complex Formation Reactions in liquid SO2 And Conclusion

2020-09-08T11:04:00.003+05:00

Solvation Reaction in liquid SO2:

CuSO4 + 5H2O CuSO4 . 5H2O

In this reaction of solvation, the solvent is completely dissolved in the reaction. In this reaction CuSO4 and water undergoes in solvation in the presence of liq. SO2 and produce a product pentahydrate copper sulphate CuSO4 . 5H2O.

CuSO4 + 4NH3 CuSO4 . 4H2O

In this reaction the solvent is completely dissolved in the reaction. In this reaction CuSO4 is reacting with ammonia and undergoes in solvation in the presence of liq. SO2 and produce a product tetrahydrate copper sulphate CuSO4 . 4H2O.

NaI + 4SO2 NaI.4SO2

In this reaction process of solvation is occurring Sulphur dioxide undergoes in solvation to produce SO2. Solvation is the desolvation of solvent completely so four molecules of SO2 completely dissolved in to four molecules of SO2 in product. This reaction took place in the presence of liquid Sulphur dioxide.

Precipitation Reaction in liquid SO2:

When a substance which acts as an acid in liq.SO2 reacts with the metallic salts like KBr, KI, NH(SCN), Ag(CH3COO) etc. in liq.SO2, chloride of the metal is precipitated.

	Metallic Salt		Acid	Precipitations of Metallic Chlorides
1.	2KBr	+	SOCl2	2KCl	+	SOBr2
In this reaction potassium bromide react with thionyl chloride and is precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
2.	2KI	+	SOCl2	2KCl	+	SOI2
The halides on the reaction are precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
3.	NH4(SCN)	+	SOCl2	2NH4Cl	+	SO(SCN)2
The halides on the reaction are precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
4.	2Ag(CH3COO)	+	SOCl2	2AgCl	+	SO(CH3COO)2
In this reaction salt of silver nitrate react thionyl chloride and is precipitated out in the form of metal (silver chloride) sin the presence of liq. SO2.
5.	SbCl3	+	3LiI	SbI3	+	3LiCl
In this reaction antimony trichloride react with lithium iodide and is precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
6.	PbF2	+	Li2SO4	PbSO4	+	3LiCl
Same is in the case of lead fluoride and lithium sulphite, lead sluphite is precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
7.	AlCl3	+	3NI	AlI3	+	3NaCl
Same is in the case of Aluminum chloride and nitrogen iodide, Aluminum iodide is precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.
8.	BaI2	+	Zn(CNS)2	Ba(CN)2	+	ZnI2
The halides on the reaction are precipitated out in the reaction in the presence of liq. SO2.

Complex Formation Reactions in liquid SO2:

When Al(III) or Ga(III) salt (e.g., AlCl3, GaCl3) is treated with a compound containing SO2-3 ions (which act as base in liq. SO2) in liq. SO2 ppt. of Al2(SO3)3 in obtained. This ppt. dissolved in excess of the base due to the formation of soluble sulphito complexes of Al(III). Thus,

2AlCl3 + 3K2SO3(base) Al2(SO3)3(ppt.) + 6KCl

Al2(SO3)3(ppt.) + 3K2SO3(base) 2K3[Al(SO3)3] (soluble sulphito complex)

In the complex formation reaction the Coordination complexes are formed in the presence of liq. SO2. 2AlCl3 react with K2SO3 which is acting as a base, they both react to form Al2(SO3)3 which precipitate out in the reaction and also produce the 6KCl. The ppts. of Al2(SO3)3 react with base of K2SO3 to produce the soluble sulphito coordination complex 2K3[Al(SO3)3].

2. 2AlCl3 + 3[N(CH3)4]2SO3(base) Al2(SO3)3(ppt.) + 2[N(CH3)4]Cl

Al2(SO3)2(ppt.) + 3[N(CH3)4]2SO3(base) 2[N(CH3)4]3[Al(SO3)3] (soluble sulphito complex)

In this reaction in the presence of liq. SO2. 2AlCl3 react with [N(CH3)4]2SO3 which is acting as a base, they both react to form Al2(SO3)3 which precipitate out in the reaction and also produce the 6KCl. The ppts. of Al2(SO3)3 react with base of [N(CH3)4]2SO3 to produce the soluble sulphito coordination complex [N(CH3)4]3[Al(SO3)3].

Conclusion

Sulphur dioxide production from fuel combustion will result in its direct release to the environment. On a global basis, fossil fuel combustion for 75 to 85% msn made Sulphur dioxide emission, and industrial processes such as refining and smelting account for the remainder. Sulphur dioxide can react can react with other compounds in the atmosphere and form fine particles that result in haze that reduce visibility. Particulate matter pollution is the major cause of haze in parts of the US. Sulphur dioxides production and use in preserving fruits, vegetables; disinfectants in breweries and food factories; bleaching textile fibers, straw, wicker ware, gelatin, glue, beet sugars, solvent and reagent in inorganic synthesis may result in its release to the environment through various waste streams. Its use as a fungicide and acaridae in the wine industry will result in its release to the direct release to the environment. Sulphur dioxide is released to the air from volcanic activity and eruptions. It released to the air, a vapour pressure of 3.0X10+3 at 25 deg C indicates Sulphur dioxide will exist solely as a gas in the atmosphere. Gas phase Sulphur dioxide is oxidized rapidly by homogenous and heterogeneous reactions. The oxidation of Sulphur dioxide to sulfuric acid and sulfates in the atmosphere is an important contributor to air pollution, specifically producing acid rain.

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2, Solvolysis Reaction in liquid SO2 And Metathetical Reaction in liquid SO2

2020-09-08T10:58:00.006+05:00

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2:

Redox reaction is actually oxidation reaction of compound took place in a reaction.

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2

6KI + 3SbCl5 SbCl3 + 2K3[SbCl]

In this reaction six molecules of KI potassium iodide react with three molecules of SbCl5 antimony penta chloride (Sb = stibium) to produce the product SbCl3 antimony trichloride and a complex of potassium antimony hexa chloride and two molecules of I2.

In this reaction in reactant KI the oxidation number of Iodine I is (-1) and in product I2 (diatomic iodide) its oxidation number is (0) so here oxidation number increase from (-1 to 0) so oxidation took place in same in SbCl5 the oxidation of Sb is +5 in reactant and the oxidation of SbCl3 is Sb= +3 so here oxidation number decrease from (5 to 3) so reduction is redox place. This reaction is redox reaction in the presence of liquid SO2 and is reversible reaction in which Iodide undergoes in oxidation and antimony undergoes in reduction.

5R2SO3 + I2 R2SO4 + 2RI + SO2

(S= +4) (I= 0) (S= +6) (I= -1)

In this reaction the oxidation state of R2SO3 is increasing from (S= +4 to +6) and oxidation state of I2 iodine is decreasing from (I= 0 to -1), they both react to produce the product R2SO4 and a 2RI and a molecules of SO2 in the presence of liq. SO2.

5SbCl5 + 6KI 3I2 + SbCl3 + 2K3[SbCl6]
(Sb= +5) (I= 1) (I= 0) (Sb= +3) (Sb= +3)

This reaction the oxidation state of SbCl5 is decreasing from (Sb= +5 to +3) and oxidation state of KI2 potassium iodide is also decreasing from (KI= 1 to 0), they both react to produce the product SbCl3 and a 3I2 and a molecules of 2K3[SbCl6] in the presence of liq. SO2.

2FeCl3 + 2KI 2FeCl2 + I2 + 2KCl

(Fe= +3) (I= -1) (Fe= +2) (I= 0)

In this reaction the oxidation state of FeCl3 is decreasing from (Fe= +3 to +2) and oxidation state of KI potassium iodide is increasing from (KI= -1 to 0), they both react to produce the product FeCl2 and a I2 and a molecules of 2KCl in the presence of liq. SO2.

Solvolysis Reaction in liquid SO2:

Solvo means solvent and lysis means breakdown. It is a solvolytic reaction.

NaOH + 2NH3 NaNH2 + NH4OH

Here NH3 ammonia is breaking down because it is solvolysis (solvent breaking) reaction so NH3is breaking down to produce NaNH2 in product. Reaction produced in the presence of liquid SO2.

PCl5 + SO2 POCl3 + SOCl2

This reaction also shows the breaking down of SO2 in to SO in the presence of aqueous Sulphur dioxide.

AsCl5 + SO2 AsOCl3 + SOCl2

Here same the solvolysis of SO2 is occurring in the presence of liquid SO2 in which SO2 is solvolyzed into SOCl2.

Here are some covalent halides like PCl5, UCl6, WCl6 undergo solvolysis reactions in liq. SO2 and form oxyhalides. In all these reactions the concentration of SO2+ ion is increased.

PBr5 + SO2(liq) POBr3 + SOBr2
WCl6 + SO2(liq) WOCl4 +SOCl2
NbCl5 + 2SO2(liq.) NbOCl3 + SOCl2
Zn(C2H5)2 +2SO2(liq.) ZnSO3 + SO(C2H5)2
UCl6 + 2SO2(liq.) UO2Cl2 + 2SOCl2

Metathetical Reaction in liquid SO2:

2CH3COOAg + SOCl2 2AgCl + SO[CH3COOH]2

Siver salt of acetic acid CH3COOAg react with SOCl2 in the presence of liquid Sulphur dioxide to produce AgCl and SO[CH3COO]2 sulphate acetic acid. This reaction is called metathetical reaction because here AgCl is precipitated out because if we put AgCl what it will be soluble and same AgCl liquid SO2 it will be insoluble so it will precipitate out in the reaction.

2KBr + SOCl2 2KCl + SOBr2

In this reaction two molecules of potassium chloride KCl will precipitate out when KCl is dissolved in liquid Sulphur dioxide.

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide

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Preparation of Sulphur dioxide:

In the laboratory, Sulphur dioxide is prepared by the reaction of metallic sulphite or metallic bisulphite with dilute acid.

For example:

A reaction between the dilute sulphuric acid and sodium sulphite will result in the formation of SO2.

Na2SO3 +H2SO4 Na2SO4+H2O+SO2

Properties of Sulphur dioxide:

Physical properties
Chemical properties

Physical Properties:

Sulphur dioxide is a dull gas.
It has a very pungent smell. Its odour resembles smoulder Sulphur.
It is one of the most straightforward gases to melt. This is because it consolidates at room temperature under a pressure of 2 atm.

Chemical Properties of Sulphur Dioxide:

It is an acidic oxide.
It is readily dissolved in water.
Sulphur dioxide breaks up in water and gives out sulphurous acid.

SO2 + H2O2 SO3

It reacts vigorously with sodium hydroxide solution and forms sodium sulphite.

SO2 + 2NaOH Na2SO3 + H2O

In the cases that we pass more Sulphur dioxide into this arrangement, we get sodium hydrogen sulphite.

SO2 + Na2SO3 H2O + 2NaHSO3

Within the sight of vanadium pentoxide(V2O5) as an impetus, it gives Sulphur trioxide.
In the presence of moisture, it can start giving nascent oxygen, and, along these lines, go about as reducing agent. For example, it reduces ferric salts to ferrous salt, and halogen to halogen acid.

2Fe3+ + SO2 + 2H2O 2Fe2+ + 4H+
X2 + SO2 + 2H2O SO42- + 2X-+ 4H+

Reactions of Liquid Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):

Different types of reactions can occur in the presence of liquid Sulphur dioxide as medium and sometimes solvent. Some reactions also shows SO2 in a product, they are given below are;

Acid-base reactions
Redox reactions
Solvolysis reactions
Metathetical reactions
Solvation reactions
Precipitation reaction
Complex Formation reaction

Acid-Base Reactions:

In liq.SO2, acid-base reaction is that in which a compound containing or making available SO22+ as a byproduct combines with a compound containing or making available SO32- ion to form the salt and the solvent.

SOCl2(acid)+ Cs2SO3(base) 2CsCl(salt) + 2SO2(solvent)

Actually the reaction takes place through the following steps:

SOCl2(acid) SO2+ + 2Cl-

Cs2SO3(base) 2Cs + SO2+2

SOCl2+ Cs2SO3 2Cs Cl- + SO2++ SO2+3

SO(SCN)2(acid)+ K2SO3(base) 2K(SCN)(salt) + 2SO2(solvent)

In this reaction acid SO(SCN)2 and base K2SO3 react to form salt of K(SCN) and two molecules of Sulphur dioxide as a solvent.

SOBr2(acid) + [N(CH3)4]SO3(base)2[N(CH3)4]Br(salt) + 2SO2(solvent)

This is another acid base neutralization reaction taking place in between acid of SOBr2 and base of [N(CH3)4]SO3.

SOCl2+ Na2SO3 2NaCl +2SO2

This reaction is acid base. SO2 is an acid in SOCl2 and SO32- is acting as a base in Na2SO3. So when both react with each other in aqueous medium of SO2 it results the formation of two molecules of Sulphur dioxide SO2 and table salt.

HCl + NaOH NaCl + H2O

In this reaction HCl is an acid and NaOH is base. These strong acid and base react in the medium SO2 in aqueous condition to form liquid water and salt.

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide:

Reaction of liquid SO2

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Reaction of liquid SO2

Introduction of liquid SO2:

Liquid SO2 is non-protonic solvents, because it cannot give proton on self-ionization. Under normal temperature the pressure, Sulphur dioxide is a gas but can be liquefied. It has a wide liquid range from -10.0oC to -75.5oC and hence can be used as solvents. Its dielectric constant is low (=17.4 at -20oC) and hence it is a poor solvent for covalent compounds.

Definition of liquid SO2:

Sulphur dioxide is the chemical compound with the formula SO2. It is a toxic gas responsible for the smell of burnt matches. It is released naturally by volcanic activity and is produced as a byproduct of copper extraction and the burning of fossil fuels contaminated with Sulfur compounds.

Formula:

Formula of Sulphur dioxides is SO2.

IUPAC Name:

Its IUPAC name is Sulfur dioxide.

Boiling point:

Boiling point of Sulphur Dioxide is -10 o C

Melting point:

Melting point of Sulphur Dioxide is -75.5o C

Soluble in:

Sulphur dioxide is soluble in Water.

Solubility of various substances in liquid SO2:

Some compounds and substances are soluble in liquid Sulphur dioxide. Their reaction with liquid SO2 is given below;

Solubility of ionic compounds
Solubility of non-ionic compounds
Solubility of metals

Solubility of ionic compounds:

Iodides and thiocyanates are the most soluble. Sulphates, sulphides, oxides and hydroxides are practically insoluble. May of the ammonium, thallium and mercuric salts are soluble.

Solubility of non-ionic compounds:

Covalent halides like ammines, ether, alcohols, benzene, alkanes, pyridine, quinolone, halogen derivatives and acid chlorides are soluble. Alkanes are insoluble.

Solubility of Metals:

Metals are insoluble in liquid SO2.

Auto-ionization of liquid SO2:

When we compare the self-ionization of liq.SO2 with that of water and liq.NH3, we find that SO2 ion is analogous to NH4 ion while SO32-ion in analogous to OH- and NH2- ion is produce by the self-ionization of H2O and liq.NH3 respectively. Thus all those compounds which contain or make available SO2+ ions will act as acids in liq.SO2. Similarly all those compounds which contain or make available SO32- ions, will behave as bases in liq.SO2.

Self-ionization of liquid SO2 takes place as follows:

SO2 SO2+ + O2-

SO2 + O2- SO32-

SO2 + SO2 SO2++ SO32-

The SO2 give SO2+ ion in liq.SO2, they behave as acids in this solvent. On the other hand, the substances, SO2 and O2- which give SO32- ion in this solvent act as bases.

Structure of liquid Sulphur dioxide:

This compound is a bent molecule and has a bond order of 1.5. The resonance structure can be described using the valence bond theory using s and p orbitals.

Mossbauer Spectroscopy

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Mossbauer Spectroscopy:

*Isotope*	*Natural Abundance (%)*
⁵⁷Fe	2.2
⁹⁹Ru	12.0
¹¹⁹Sn	8.6
¹²⁵Te	57.3
¹²⁷I	7.0
¹²⁹Xe	26.2
¹⁹⁷Au	100.0

Just as there are ground and excited states of atoms and molecules (electronic, vibrational and the like), so too there exist both ground and excited states of nuclei-they have just been mentioned as sometimes providing a method of measuring NQR spectra. In decaying from an excited state a nucleus may emit light, just as an atom or molecule may. In the case of nuclei, this light is of very short wavelength, it is y radiation. If this γ radiation falls on another, identical, nucleus it may be absorbed, leaving the second nucleus in an excited state. Nuclei of any one element which are in different chemical environments will have slightly different energy levels, but the environment-induced changes are so small that it is possible to compensate for them with a Doppler shift of the γ radiation, achieved by moving the emitting nucleus either towards or away from the absorber.

In Mossbauer spectroscopy the absorption of·; rays by the sample is recorded as a function of the velocity of the source. Solid samples are used; the source may be moved by attaching it to the diaphragm of a loudspeaker driven by a suitable signal generator. The effect has been observed for relatively few nuclei at the concentrations at which they occur in most coordination compounds, of which ⁵⁷Fe and ¹¹⁹Snhave been the most widely studied.

The difference in absorption velocity and that of a suitable reference standard is called the isomer (or chemical) shift; it is denoted δ and is usually expressed in units of mm s-1 or cm s-1. The chemical environment affects the nuclear energy levels through those electrons which are in orbitals which allow them to make contact with the nucleus. This means that only s electrons can directly affect isomer shifts since for all other orbitals the nucleus is contained in a nodal plane (electrons in p, d or f orbitals can only influence isomer shifts through their incomplete shielding of the nucleus, leading to a change in effective nuclear charge which is felt by the s electrons. These general-ionizations find application in the observation that the isomer shift of Fe(C0)₅is greater than that of Fe(CO)₄^-2.

*COMPOUND*	*ISOMERS SHIFT (mm s^-1)*	*COMPOUND*	*ISOMERS SHIFT (mm s^-1)*
High Spin Fe^III	ca. 0.3-0.5	High Spin Fe^II	ca. 0.9-1.5
FeF₃(O_h)	0.49	FeF₂(O_h)	1.48
FeCl₃(O_h)	0.46	FeCl₂(O_h)	1.16
[FeF₄]^-(T_δ)	0.30	FeBr₂(O_h)	1.12
Low Spin Fe^III	ca. 0.3-0.5	[FeCl₂(H₂O)₄] (O_h)	1.36
[Fe(CN)₆]^3-(O_h)	-0.12	[FeCl₄]^4-(T_δ)	0.90
		Low Spin Fe^II	ca. 0.9-1.5
		[Fe(CN)₆]^4-(O_h)	-0.04

Indeed, a particular use of Mossbauer data has been to indicate the valence state of an atom empirical parameters are available which compensate for the effects of change of substituent and coordination number. So, isomer shift data have been used to conclude that the π bonding ability of ligands decreases in the order

NO⁺>CO> CN^- >SO₄^-2> PPh₃> N0₂^- > NH₃

An excellent example of the use of Mossbauer spectroscopy in structure determination is provided by Fe₃(C0)₁₂. Although the dark green crystals of this compound are easy to prepare dissolve Fe(C0)₅in aqueous alkali to give the Fe(CO)₄^-2anion and oxidize this with solid Mn0₂ to give Fe₃(C0)₁₂^-its structure was uncertain for over 30 years Although eight structures, all incorrect, had been proposed for Fe₃(C0)₁₂, it was the ninth, suggested on the basis of its Mossbauer spectrum, which eventually proved to be correct. The most evident thing is that it corresponds, approximately, to three peaks of equal intensity. It would be wrong to conclude that each corresponds to a different type of iron atom. If the iron atoms were all different then they could not all be in high symmetry environments and so quadrupole splitting would be expected on most of the peaks.

Given that the chemical nature of the three iron atoms is so similar and so similar isomer shifts are to be expected the only reasonable interpretation of the spectrum is that the outer two lines are the quadrupole split components arising from a peak of intensity two, centered at about the same position as the central peak (which itself has but a small quadrupole splitting and is of intensity one). So, it seems that there are two equivalent, low-symmetry, iron atoms and one of high symmetry. The high-symmetry iron atom is on the right (it has but two types of bond, one to terminal CO ligands, and the other to Fe atoms). The low-symmetry pair are on the left. The X-ray crystallographic work showed the bridging CO ligands to be asymmetric, off-center. This means that the low-symmetry iron atoms are each involved in four different bonds, two to bridging CO ligands one long, one short one to the terminal CO ligands and one to the unique iron atom. A more recent study of the Mossbauer spectrum over a temperature range has provided explanations for the asymmetries in the peak-intensity patterns entirely in accord with the accepted structure.

Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR)

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Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR):

Atoms which have nuclear spins greater than ½ behave as if the distribution of charge within the nucleus is non-spherical. The nucleus does not behave as a dipole because the nuclear charge distribution remains centrosymmetric. It does, however, possess an electrical quadrupole moment (C0₂, which is centrosymmetric and linear, is an example of a molecule which has an electric quadrupole moment).

Species	*Ionic character of the M-Cl* bond %**
[PtCI₆]^2-	44
[PdC₁₆]^2-	43
[lrCI₆]^2-	47
[0sCI₆]^2-	46
[ReCl₆]^2-	45
[WCl₆]^2-	43
[SnCI₆]^2-	66
[TeCl₆]^2-	68
[SeCI₆]^2-	59

In an applied non-uniform electrostatic field, the non-uniformly charged nucleus can take up at least two orientations, one of which is more stable than the others (the number of orientations depends on the magnitude of the nuclear quadrupole moment). It is possible to excite the nucleus from a lower to an upper state by application of suitable radio-frequency radiation. This is a classical description of the phenomenon, but the essentials are carried over into a quantum mechanical treatment. In practice, the non-uniform electrostatic field is generated by the charge distribution around, but very close to, the nucleus. Clearly, this is a phenomenon which is only applicable to atoms in a low-symmetry environment (but, note carefully, this does not automatically mean a low-symmetry complex). The most-studied of the nuclei which exhibit quadrupole resonance spectra are ³⁵Cl and ³⁷Cl. The method is inherently insensitive and the high concentrations of these isotopes in samples such as solid K₂[PtC₁₆]is a great advantage. Only solids can be studied, anyhow, because the molecular tumbling in a liquid or gas averages the effect to zero. The sensitivity of the method has increased in recent years by the advent of pulse (such as those used in NMR) and also, in suitable cases, by not looking at the NQRnucleus itself but, rather, at one which is energetically coupled to it and which is NMR-active.

It is likely that because of these developments the future will see a wider use of NQR spectroscopy. It is also likely that the interpretation of the data will become more sophisticated. Traditionally, the experimental data have been interpreted to give the percentage ionic character of a bond. This is because, for example, in the Cl^-ion all of the p orbitals are equally occupied whilst in Cl₂ the σbond, if composed of p orbitals only, corresponds to one electron in the p_σorbital of each chlorine atom, and so Cl^- and Cl₂differ in their resonant frequencies. Interpolation allows a value for the ionic character of a Cl-M bond to be determined from the chlorine resonance frequencies in Cl^- and Cl₂. Some correction may be applied to allow for the fact that a pure chlorine p orbital may not be involved in the M-Cl bond. When there are two non-equivalent NQR nuclei in the unit cell of a solid these give rise to separate resonances which may be resolvable. In this way NQR spectroscopy gives structural information. Both bromine, ⁷⁹Brand ⁸¹Br, and iodine, ¹²⁷I, but not fluorine, give NQR spectra, as too may ¹⁴N, ⁵⁵Mn, ⁵⁹Co, ⁶³Cu, ⁶⁵Cu, ⁷⁵As, ¹²¹Sb, ¹²³Sb, ²⁰¹Hg, and ^2o9Bi.

Techniques of studying Coordination Compounds And NMR

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Techniques of studying Coordination Compounds

There are many technique to study the coordination compounds;

 Vibrational spectroscopy

 Resonance Raman spectroscopy

 Spectroscopic methods unique to optically active molecules

 Nuclear spectroscopies

 Electron paramagnetic (spin) resonance spectroscopy (EPR, ESR)

 Photoelectron spectroscopy (PES)

 Evidence for covalency in transition metal complexes

 Molar conductivities

 Cyclic voltammetry

 X-ray crystallography

Nuclear Spectroscopies:

In this section three methods will be outlined which have been used to study the properties of nuclei in coordination compounds.

1. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)

2. Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR)

3. Mossbauer spectroscopy

Working of NMR:

None of the techniques. Is of universal application and they all suffer from the disadvantage that the connection between the spectra obtained and the molecular bonding is seldom simple so that in this application they are generally best used to compare two compounds rather than discuss either in isolation. However, the spectra can be outstandingly useful in obtaining details of molecular geometry and reactions.

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR):

Introduction:

The use of NMR in kinetic studies in particular the way that it is used to study intramolecular gymnastics (fluxionality). At this point, it has to be emphasized that spectra obtained at room temperature may be misleadingly simple because of dynamic exchange processes in which two (or more) nuclei interconvert their chemical environments so rapidly that they give an averaged spectrum. NMR has developed to the point at which it is the second most important technique in chemistry for determining molecular structure (the most important being X-ray diffraction).

The measurements such as the variety indicated above are available, they require a considerable amount of time and expertise in order to arrive at the optimum experimental pattern for a given measurement a fair amount of trial and error may be involved. Not surprisingly, the vast majority of NMR measurements remain of the relatively simple variety. Fortunately, too, much of the sophisticated work is aimed at taking complicated spectra and making them simple in the more general case, where such simplifications cannot be achieved by use of experimental ingenuity, use of computer programs to match observed and calculated spectra is normal. It is usually possible to be confident that such a match is unique and so the relevant molecular quantities number of nuclei of a particular type, chemical shifts and coupling constants are uniquely determined. Finally, mention should be made of the fact that it is becoming .increasingly possible to study solids by NMR.

Example of Tungsten and Fluorine:

Complexes of WF6, [WF6L] where L is a ligand, exist and in which the tungsten atom might be seven coordinate. A low-resolution 19F spectrum shows three lines of relative intensity, which does not appear to be consistent with a seven-coordinate structures. The most likely structure is [WF5L]+ F-, in which the tungsten atom is octahedrally coordinated by six ligands, five of which are fluorines. The four coplanar fluorines give rise to the largest peak and the axial fluorines to one of the others. The fluoride anion gives the final peak. The fine structure of the peaks confirms this assignment as does the conductivity of the compounds in liquid sulfur dioxide and, finally, X-ray crystallography. This example, as presented, depends on an interpretation of the number of observed peaks. In practice, empirical relationships between structure, chemical shifts and coupling constants would also be used in such structure determinations.

The opening out of spectra due to Paramagnetism is exploited by the use of so-called shift reagents. These are paramagnetic compounds, soluble in organic solvents, which have a through-space effect on the species in solution. By careful choice of shift reagent, chemical shift differences in the solute molecules are enormously increased, thus simplifying spectra, without any undue broadening of the peaks. The detailed mechanism of the effect is not fully known but it is likely that a small proportion of the solute molecules form a transient, weak, complex with the shift reagent, the effect perhaps affecting all solute molecules by a process akin to. For 1H spectra, a lanthanide complex of the ligand Me3 CCOCHCOCMe3 with an ion such as EIII or PII is frequently used. There has long been known a particularly good illustration of the origin of one contribution to such correlations in coordination compounds. This example concerns 59Co resonances, for which it has been predicted that the chemical shift by octahedral cobalt(III) complexes should inversely proportional to the energy separation between the 1A1g ground state and the lowest excited 1T1g, term, a separation which may, of course, be measured from the d--> d spectra. A plot of chemical shift against the wavelength of this transition (the wavelength is proportional to the inverse of the energy separation) for some octahedral cobalt(III) complexes. The amount of the (small) mixing of the 1T1g term into the 1A1g term by the magnetic field is inversely dependent on their energy separation, thus explaining the observation.

Techniques of studying Coordination Compounds

Techniques of Coordination Compounds

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Techniques of Coordination Compounds

Coordination Compounds

History of Coordination Compounds:

Coordination compounds have been known since the beginning of modern chemistry. Early well-known coordination complexes include dyes such as Prussian Blue. Their properties were first well understood in the late 1800s, following the 1869 work of Christian Wihelm Blomstrand. The Blomstrand theory claimed that the reason coordination complex form is because in solution, ions would be bound via ammonia chain.

Structure of Coordination Compounds:

The ion or molecule surrounding the central atom are called ligands. Ligands are classified as L or X depending on how many electrons they provide for the bond between ligand and central atom. L ligand provide two electron from a lone electron pair, resulting in a coordinate covalent bond. X ligand provide one electron with a central atom providing the other electron, thus forming a regular covalent bond. The ligands are said to be coordinated to atom.

Properties of Coordination Compounds:

Many of properties of the transition metal complexes are dictated by their electronic structure. The electronic structure can be described by a relatively ionic model that describes a formal charges to the metal and the ligands. This approach is the essence of CFT Crystal Field Theory. More sophisticated models embrace covalency, and this approach is described by Ligand Field Theory and MOT Molecular Orbital Theory. These theories treats all interactions in complex as ionic and assumes that the ligands can be approximated by negative point charges.

Coordinate complexes often have spectacular colors caused by electronic transition by the absorption of light.

Coordination compounds have been known since the beginning of modern chemistry.

Applications of Coordination Compounds:

The coordination compounds have several applications in many fields like;

Bioinorganic chemistry:

In Bioinorganic Chemistry and Bioorganometallic Chemistry, coordination compounds serve either structure or catalytic functions. As esteemed 30% of protein contains metal ions.

e.g: Vitamin B_12,the Hemo group In Hemoglobin, the Chlorine group in Chlorophyll as Cytochrome.

Ø Industry:

Homogenous catalysis is a major application of coordination compounds for the production of organic substances. Process includes hydrogenation, Hydroformylation, oxidation.

e.g: Titanium trichloride and triethylaluminium gives ride to Ziegler-Natta Catalyst used for polymerization of ethylene and propylene to give polymers of commercial importance as fiber, films and plastics.

Ø Analysis:

At one time coordination compounds were used to identify the presence of metals in a sample. Qualitative inorganic analysis has largely been suppressed by instrumental method of analysis such as;

e.g: Atomic absorption Spectroscopy (AAS), Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES)and Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS).

What Is An Organization...?

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What Is An Organization?

• An Organization Defined

Ø A deliberate arrangement of people to accomplish some specific purpose (that individuals independently could not accomplish alone).

• Common Characteristics of Organizations

Ø Have a distinct purpose (goal)

Ø Composed of people

Ø Have a deliberate structure

Exhibit 1–9 Characteristics of Organizations

Exhibit 1–10 The Changing Organization

Why Study Management?

• The Value of Studying Management

Ø The universality of management

v Good management is needed in all organizations.

Ø The reality of work

v Employees either manage or are managed.

Ø Rewards and challenges of being a manager

v Management offers challenging, exciting and creative opportunities for meaningful and fulfilling work.

v Successful managers receive significant monetary rewards for their efforts.

Exhibit 1–11 Universal Need for Management

Exhibit 1–12 Rewards and Challenges of Being A Manager

Challenges of Being A Manager

Terms to Know:

Elements of Culture

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Elements of Culture

Culture is a way of life spend by a specific group of people. Every culture is amalgamation of the following elements, norms, values, beliefs and language.

Culture is a way of life spend by a specific group of people.

Language

To live together in a group the most important part is communication amongst the individuals of the group.

Language contains set of symbols, gestures and sounds which vary in different culture. Learning language is of vital importance for an individual to become a part of society, indeed it is the first and fundamental thing that a child learn.

Moreover, it is important for a child to learn language of a given culture to acquire social skills. A child learn social skills via interacting with the members of society and language is the fundamental element for interaction.

Cont..

If an individual wants to become a part of new group or society he has have to learn the language of that group to interact with the other members of group.

For example if a person want to join a law firm, first he has to get a law degree, because lawyers have their own terminologies and sentence structure, which could not be understood without having a law degree.

Social Norms

Social Norms refer to established rules of conduct maintained by a society. That specify how individuals should behave and should not behave within a given society.

Social norms are the expectations of a culture from an individual to how to behave in a society in a specific situation.

For example if there is a line in fast food restaurant, for joining the line you have to stand behind the last person in the line, if you barge in middle or in front it will be against the norms.

Furthermore, norms are divided in to two components, mores and folkways.

Cont…

Folkways are the general standard behaviors followed by, individuals in a group. For example way of dressing, way of greeting guests and the way of preparing food.

Mores are the ethical and moral behaviors followed by individuals in a group. For example intrusion in someone home is unethical, steeling is not a moral behavior and in some cultures committing adultery is considered immoral behavior. Therefore, not following mores leads to punishment in a society, whereas, there is not any strict restriction on following folkways.

Formal Norms

Sociologists have categorized norms in to two types; “Formal norms” and “Informal norms”.

Formal norms refer to, written rules of conduct maintained by a society. These are written rules for those behaviors; which are collectively valued within a society.

They serve most of the people in a group or, society. State laws are formal norms; which are established in accordance to the social beliefs and values.

Informal Norms

Informal norms are conformed casual behaviors; they are understood but, not recorded. People learn informal norms via, socialization. When an individual interact within a society; he learns how to behave in different situations.

Informal norms are learned through, observation and imitation. Whereas, some informal norms are taught directly to children by parents or, family members like, greeting guests — respecting elders — avoiding abusive language.

What is Socialization...?

2020-08-31T09:02:00.001+05:00

What is Socialization

Have you ever wondered how did we obtain the ability to

communicate with other people and how did we learn to

differentiate between good or bad —- ethical or unethical —-moral

or immoral —

virtuous or vicious conducts?

Or how do we acquire the skills to participate in other social

activities?

In sociology the concept of learning social knowledge during the

course of life is called socialization.

Socializing and Socialization

However, there is difference between socialization and socializing.

Socializing refers to social interaction (social encounters with

friends, teachers, colleagues, siblings,

parents etc.…) it is the part of socialization process.

Whereas, socialization refers to the lifelong process of learning

social skills, it initiate since birth and

continues until death.

We learn new thing in different stages of our lives via socializing

with different people within distinct social groups.

Nature and Nurture
The famous debate of nature and nurture has been going on since classic Greek period. Plato believed that, formation of man personality depend on biological characteristics or genetics. Whereas, according to Aristotle, man personality is the product of social environment. However, in sociology we focus on the nurture part. Lee argued that, our personality is the product of habit formation. Habits refer to the repeated actions or conducts of individuals. The process of socialization also aid in development of people personalities in a given society

AGENT OF SOCIALIZATION
Socialization is the processes of learning social norms, values in order to become proficient members of society. We learn each and every social conduct such as, how to walk, talk, feed ourselves etc…
During the course of our lives we socialize with different people in distinct social groups such as, Family, schools, mass media, peers and religion.
These social groups are considered to be the essential agents of socialization through which we obtain the ability to learn social skills and knowledge.

Family
Family is the most important and fundamental source of socialization.
A newborn survival completely depend on family members especially, on parents — step parents or guardians.
While attending to the physical needs of newborn mother frequently interact with baby.
Changing diapers and feeding a baby creates opportunity of talking, smiling, hugging and cuddling.

Cont….

The warmth and nurture which a baby receive from such interactions is essential for the development of baby cognitive and motor abilities.

Our parents teach us how to take care of ourselves and function within a society, their teaching is not only limited to basic social skills such as, how to walk, talk, tie shoes — hold crayon or spoon etc.

however, they also instill societal or religious norms, values and beliefs in us that we may hold our entire lives for instance, socialization in Muslims and catholic families.

Cont….

Child learns most of the basic skills indirectly via social interaction. However, as the child grow older parents use direct approach to teach conformity and obedience in order to prepare him/her for the life outside the institution of family.

Though, the means of direct teaching approach differ from family to family for instance, some parents might spank or scold a child for misconduct to teach him or her socially acceptable ways to behave whereas, others may teach normative behavior in an affectionate manner through hugs and praise.

Cont…

Family is considered as the most important source of socialization because self-concept is developed in childhood which is the foundation on which an individual personality rest upon.

Our personalities are not completely formed in childhood but, it influence the later stages of personality development for instance, if a father beats his son in childhood he might have anger issues or some other issues in adulthood.

Schools

School serve as a central agent of socialization all over the world — for those individuals who have means to attend or can attend school.

School is the first source of socialization for a child outside the institution of family, which infuse technical skills and abilities that are necessary to function within given society.

The knowledge which a child acquire in school aid to improve his or her financial positions in adulthood.

Specialistic or Formalistic School

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Specialistic or Formalistic School:

Simmel’s view:

According to Simmel, the distinction between Sociology and other special sciences is that it deals with the same topics as they from a different angle—from the angle of different modes of social relationships.

Social relationships, such as competition, subordination, division of labour etc. are exemplified in different spheres of social life such as economic, the political and even the religious, moral or artistic but the business of Sociology is to disentangle these forms of social relationships and to study them in abstraction. Thus according to Simmel, Sociology is a specific social science which describes, classifies, analyses and delineates the forms of social relationships.

Small’s view:

According to Small, sociology does not undertake to study all the activities of society. Every science has a delimited scope. The scope of sociology is the study of the general forms of social relationships, behaviours and activities, etc.

Vierkandt’s view:

Similarly, Vierkandt, another leading sociologist maintains that Sociology is a special branch of knowledge concerned with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationships which link men to one another in society.

According to him, the actual historical societies, for example, the French society of the eighteenth century, or the Chinese family are of interest to a sociologist only as illustration of particular types of relationships.

He further maintains that similarly in dealing with culture sociology should not concern itself with the actual contents of cultural evolution but it should confine itself to only the discovery of the fundamental forces of change and persistence. It should abstain from a historical study of concrete societies.

Max Weber’s view:

Max Weber also makes out a definite field for Sociology. According to him, the aim of Sociology is to interpret or understand social behaviour. But social behaviour does not cover the whole field of human relations. Indeed not all human inter-actions are social.

For instance, a collision between two cyclists is in itself merely a natural phenomenon, but their efforts to avoid each other or the language they use after the event constitute true social behaviour. Sociology is thus, according to him, concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social relationships.

Von Wiese’s view:

According to Von Wiese, the scope of Sociology is the study of forms of social relationships. He has divided these social relationships into many kinds

Thus, according to the formalistic school, sociology studies one specific aspect of social relationships, i.e., their forms in their abstract nature, and not in any concrete situation. A comparison is drawn between the forms of social relationships and a bottle. A bottle may be either of plastic or any other material.

It may contain milk; water etc. but the contents of the bottle do not change the form of bottle. Similarly, the forms of social relationships do not change with the change in the content of social relationships, for example, the study of competition—a form of social relationship will not make any difference whether we study it in the political field or economic field.

Sociology has been compared with Geometry. Just as Geometry studies about the forms of physical things triangular, rectangular, square or circular etc., similarly Sociology studies about the forms of social relationships.

The relation of Sociology to other social sciences is similar to the relation of Geometry with other natural sciences. The formalistic school has limited the scope of Sociology to the abstract study of the forms of social relationships.

Criticism of formalistic school:

Synthetic School:

The synthetic school wants to make sociology a synthesis of the social sciences or a general science, Durkheim, Hob-house and Sorokin subscribe to this view.

Firstly, as a sociologist, he must pursue his studies in his particular part of the social field. But secondly, bearing in mind the interconnections of social relations he should try to interconnect the results arrived at by the different social sciences and, thirdly, he should interpret social life as a whole.

Sorokin’s view:

According to Sorokin, the subject matter of Sociology includes:

(i) The study of relationship between the different aspects of social phenomena;

(ii) The study of relationship between the social and non-social;

(iii) The study of general features of social phenomena.

Time for formatting

2020-08-28T08:26:00.001+05:00

Time for formatting;

Text editor like Microsoft word let you modify your text to make it more interesting and understandable.

To use Bold, italic, and underline;

Ø Select the text you wish to modify 1.

Ø On the Home tab, in the Font group, click Bold 2,

Bold 2,

Italic 3 or

Underline 4.

You can highlight some points in your text to make them stand out.

To highlight text;

Ø On the Home tab, in Font group, click to the Text Highlight Color button 1.

Ø In the list, click a highlight color 2.

Ø Select the text you wish to modify and highlighted 3.

Find text

If your document is very large and you want to find a word or text quickly, you can use Find.

As we have learned above excel time format code is hh:mm:ss. Let me explain this code in detail now.

hh: This time code represents the hour part of the time in double-digit value. For example in the above example, our time value showed as 06, if you mention single “h” then the hour part will be only 6, not 06.
mm: This code represents minute part of the time in double-digit value.
ss: This will represent the second part of the time.

DateTime date1 = new DateTime(2008,4, 10);

Console.WriteLine(date1.ToString("d", DateTimeFormatInfo.InvariantInfo));

Console.WriteLine(date1.ToString("d",

CultureInfo.CreateSpecificCulture("en-US")));

Console.WriteLine(date1.ToString("d",...

§ Move or copy a folder:

You can move a folder wherever you like in your computer and even to a connected device.

To move a folder [or file];

Ø Right-click the folder 1 and click Cut 2.

Ø Right –click the desired location you want to move it to 3 and click Paste 4.

Ø The folder will move to the new location 5

Put your files into folders, Folder name And Folder And SubFolders:

2020-08-26T13:15:00.001+05:00

Put your files into folders

A folder is a location on the hard disk of your computer where you can save and organize your files and programs.

To create a new folder;

Ø Right- clicks an empty area where you want to create a new folder 1.

Ø Click New 2 and click folder 3.

Ø Type a name for the new folder 4 and press Enter 5.

Folder name

The name of each folder should describe the contents of its files.

Ø To rename a folder;

Ø Right-click the folder 1.

Ø Click Rename 2.

Ø Type a new name 3 and press Enter.

Folder And Sub-folders:

Sometimes, you may have a lot of file in one folder. To organize your files, so that you can easily find them, you can create subfolders.

A Subfolder is folder inside a folder. For example, in the folder “My Coures”, You have created five new subfolder “Geography”, “Maths”, Reading”, “Science” and “writing”.

When you open a subfolder and you want to go back to the folder that contains It, use the Back Button, which is on the upper left corner of the Window.

How to Create a New Folder

You can store documents on your computer inside folders. To create a new folder, start by going to the folder or library that you want your new folder to be part of.

What is File, Filename, Open a file, Delete a file, Save your data.

2020-08-24T20:48:00.001+05:00

File, Filename, Open a file, Save your data.

v File

The main function of a computer is to manage data and information. The stored data and information on your computer are called files. There are many types of files. A file can be a text, a photo, a track, a presentation or a video.

The main function of a computer is to manage data and information. The stored data and information on your computer are called files.

v Filename

On your computer there are many files. In order to know which file is which, give them unique names. The name of the file is called filename.

To be able to find your files more easily, it’s a good idea to give them a filename that is related to its contents. Do not use filenames like File 1, File 2, File 3, etc.; but choose names that describe the file’s contents.

v Extension

A part from its icon and its name, each file has an extension which shows the type of the file.

v Open a file

You can open a file to edit it or, if you don’t want it anymore, you can delete it.

To open a file, locate it on your computer 1 and double-click it.

v Delete a file

If you don’t want a specific file any longer, you can delete it.

To delete a file;

· Right-click it 1

· Click Delete 2

· Click Yes 3 to

· Delete the file.

Save your data

Your computer stores data in an internal hard disk usually called ‘’C; drive’’.

If your data is too large, you can use an external data storage device.

What Is Microphone, Web Camera And Digital Camera?

2020-08-23T22:12:00.000+05:00

What Is Microphone?

Microphone is a sound capture device. It collects sound waves, such as your voice and converts them to a digital from so that your computer can understand them. You can connect a microphone to your computer and your voice recordings will be stored as audio files. This way, you can listen to these files at any time or email them to a friend.

Microphones have many applications, such as in telephone and smartphones, video recorders, karaoke system, movie production, radio and television broadcasting.

Microphone is a sound capture device. It collects sound waves

What Is Web Camera?

A web camera, or webcam, is a video capture device which feeds videos or images into a computer in real time. You can also record images or clips and save them on your computer, send them by email or upload them to the internet.

Webcams are now very popular because their video quality is much better than before. Most of them have an integrated microphone and some are also wireless. Nowadays, notebooks and desktop monitors have built-in webcams.

It is easy to make a video call using the webcam of your computer or your smartphone. To do this, you can use Skype or any other video calling programmer.

It is easy to make a video call using the webcam of your computer or your smartphone.

What Is Digital Camera?

A digital camera is an image capture device which you can use to take high-definition photos. This camera does not use film and can display photos on a screen the minute you take it. It uses a memory card to store the photos.

A digital camera is an image capture device which you can use to take high-definition photos.

Artificial Intelligence, Augmented Reality, And 5G

2020-08-21T08:32:00.002+05:00

Innovation Comes Together: Artificial Intelligence, Augmented Reality, And 5G Combine To Aid Surgeons

Artificial Intelligence, Augmented Reality, And 5G

Such a large number of individuals, both man-made reasoning (AI) masters and individuals who read about the force and capability of AI, commit a similar error many have made over past specialized advances – believing it's a panacea. Artificial intelligence isn't an answer; it is an instrument. It is a piece of a bigger, strong arrangement. I'm by all account not the only one to state that, yet it bears rehashing with consistency. I've as of late had a conversation that underlines that with a cool, genuine model.

There are many advances in healthcare, and I’ve covered a number of ways that AI can help, ranging from radiology to regulatory compliance and healthcare financial fraud. One area I’ve been watching is the operating theater. I began to talk with one company last year, but they wandered away. On the other hand, I had an interesting talk with Michael Freeman, CEO, Ocutrx Vision Technologies. They are working on improving surgery by combining AI, augmented reality (AR), 5G and other tools to improve both on location and remote (telemedicine) surgery.

In Surgery:

A working performance center is a mind boggling place. Perhaps the best proclamation of that multifaceted nature was made back in the mid 1980s, with Monty Python's "machine that goes 'ping'." There are numerous machines and different individuals attempting to keep the specialist educated. She should glance in different spots and at an intricate cluster of data. In reality specialists even have medical issues with stressing to see through machines and at different gadgets. A case of the need to disentangle that multifaceted nature is the current procedure of taking a gander at a MRI and afterward intellectually turn it to locate the correct part of a heart to chip away at. Misconception is a genuine security issue for the patient.

Introductory attacks into AR for specialists has utilized essential data showed in a heads-up show, demonstrating well being data, for example, heartbeat and oxygenation. What Ocutrx and others are attempting to do is more unpredictable.

The power of AI allows for 3D rendering of MRIs and the rotation necessary to overlay that image upon the actual heart. The problem is that most AI is still in the cloud, being performed at data centers. For surgery, the connectivity can be too slow. “A surgeon needs to have less than a 10 millisecond delay in response during an operation,” said Michael Freeman. “with the multiple people in an operating theater, all requiring additional information, relying on resources in the cloud is not realistic.”

The organization is taking a shot at two specialized arrangements. To begin with, they are moving figuring to the edge, to the emergency clinic. Private mists, or nearby workers, can give the scale-out important to cutting edge processing while at the same time living near activities. Second, 5G is an answer for altogether increment data transfer capacity, permitting that register to work during medical procedure with the short idleness required.

"The cloud has been extraordinary for growing all the more impressive figuring, however the requirement for low idleness implies that on-premises registering isn't disappearing," said Mr. Freeman. "Exercises gained from the cloud would now be able to be moved to the edge, including joining AI, AR and different advances to give a further developed at this point more secure working theater."

Information Technology ITtopic4

Privacy Policy

Privacy Policy for Information Technology:

CHILDREN’S PRIVACY POLICY:

Sharing Information

File Management

HOMEOSTASIS IN HUMANS

HOMEOSTASIS

GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Types of Operating System

What is an operating system?

Solvation Reaction in liquid SO2, Precipitation Reaction in liquid SO2, Complex Formation Reactions in liquid SO2 And Conclusion

Solvation Reaction in liquid SO2:

Precipitation Reaction in liquid SO2:

Complex Formation Reactions in liquid SO2:

Conclusion

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2, Solvolysis Reaction in liquid SO2 And Metathetical Reaction in liquid SO2

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2:

Redox Reactions in liquid SO2

Solvolysis Reaction in liquid SO2:

Metathetical Reaction in liquid SO2:

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide:

Properties of Sulphur dioxide:

Physical Properties:

Chemical Properties of Sulphur Dioxide:

Reactions of Liquid Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):

Acid-Base Reactions:

Preparation of Sulphur dioxide:

Reaction of liquid SO2

Introduction of liquid SO2:

Definition of liquid SO2:

Formula:

IUPAC Name:

Boiling point:

Melting point:

Soluble in:

Solubility of various substances in liquid SO2:

Solubility of ionic compounds:

Solubility of non-ionic compounds:

Solubility of Metals:

Auto-ionization of liquid SO2:

Structure of liquid Sulphur dioxide:

Mossbauer Spectroscopy

Mossbauer Spectroscopy:

Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR)

Nuclear Quadrupole Resonance (NQR):

Techniques of studying Coordination Compounds And NMR

Techniques of Coordination Compounds

Coordination Compounds

History of Coordination Compounds:

Ø Industry:

Ø Analysis:

What Is An Organization...?

Elements of Culture

What is Socialization...?

Specialistic or Formalistic School

Time for formatting

Put your files into folders, Folder name And Folder And SubFolders:

How to Create a New Folder

What is File, Filename, Open a file, Delete a file, Save your data.

What Is Microphone, Web Camera And Digital Camera?

Artificial Intelligence, Augmented Reality, And 5G