ABOUT SCIENCE

Ethnobotany | About Ethnobotany

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Wed, 13 Jun 2012 09:59:00 -0700

Ethnobotany | About Ethnobotany - Human societies use plants in many different ways for food, medicine, shelter, clothing, tools, ceremonial functions, and other purposes. Ethnobotany is the study of how people use plants, and ethnobotanists generally conduct their work by interviewing local peoples and studying their traditions and habits. Paleoethnobotanists focus on plant use in prehistoric times by examining seeds, pollen, wood, and other plant remains found at archaeological sites. Although ethnobotanists are interested in all types of plant use, the study of medicinal plants, with its potential for social and economic beneﬁt, has always been of particular interest. In fact, ethnobotanical investigations have led to the development of numerous important medicines. Quinine, the ﬁrst antimalarial drug, comes from the bark of cinchona trees, long used in native Peruvian medicine to treat fever, digestive ailments, and malaria. Aspirin originally came from willow bark, which has been used for thousands of years to relieve pain. More recently, Madagascar periwinkle, a plant used by several native peoples for diabetes and other conditions, provided two new cancer drugs.

Ethnobotanists are interested in how different peoples use plants. Here, a Matses Indian shaman points out a medicinal plant in the rainforest surrounding his village in the Galvez River area, Amazon Basin, Peru.

Scientists pursuing drug development have traditionally relied on the knowledge of local healers in their search for promising plants. However, the development of modern drugs from medicinal plant compounds leads to a difﬁcult ethical issue. What are the rights of indigenous peoples, and how can these be protected?

Critics are quick to point to the fact that cancer drugs developed from Madagascar periwinkle produced over a billion dollars in proﬁt for the pharmaceutical giant Eli Lilly, but nothing for traditional societies in Madagascar. Some drug developers now attempt to ensure that local peoples also beneﬁt. For example, when the AIDS Research Alliance found an anti-HIV compound in a Samoan medicinal tree, the group made direct contributions to the village where the tree was known and also promised 20 percent of the proﬁts from drugs that are eventually developed. Unfortunately, because of the ongoing loss of native cultures and the extinction of plant species through deforestation and habitat destruction, it is all too likely that many medically useful species will never be known.

The Placebo Effect | about Effect of Placebo

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Tue, 12 Jun 2012 00:39:00 -0700

The Placebo Effect | about Effect of Placebo - A patient with knee pain goes in for surgery. He receives anesthesia, and cuts are made around his knee where the surgical instruments will be inserted. Afterwards, the surgery appears to be successful both pain and swelling are greatly diminished. What’s unusual about this story? Nothing, except that the operation was a sham. Cuts were made around the patient’s knee, but nothing happened after that.

Why does the patient feel so much better? Because of a phenomenon known as the placebo effect.*

Placebo is Latin for “I shall please.” It refers to the once regular practice in which doctors prescribed sugar pills to patients whom they otherwise couldn’t help. Although this is now considered unethical, it doesn’t change the fact that sugar pills did often help. The placebo effect is defined as the improvement patients experience when they are given a treatment with no relevance to their medical problem.

Placebos appear to work for a wide variety of conditions and are usually far better than no treatment at all. In a study of patients with Parkinson’s disease, for example, a placebo worked just as well as medication in inducing the release of dopamine by the brain. Placebos have also been found to work as well as modern antidepressants in the treatment of depression. The placebo effect is certainly real, though placebos work better for some maladies than others.

Placebos appear to be particularly effective for conditions related to the nervous system, including pain, depression, anxiety, headaches, fatigue, and gastrointestinal symptoms. For most of these conditions, placebos have about 30–50 percent effectiveness nearly as good as “real” treatments in some cases. Placebos are also believed to account for the “success” of certain alternative remedies with no medical basis.

The placebo effect is one of the oddest phenomena in medicine.

What causes it? This question has not been fully answered and is the object of continued study. However, several possible mechanisms have been suggested. One idea is that the placebo effect operate through the release of endorphins. Release of the body’s natural opiates would explain why placebos are so good at treating pain. Further evidence comes from the fact that placebos become much less effective as painkillers when patients are given a drug that blocks the opiate receptors. However, because the placebo effect works for many symptoms other than pain, this can’t be the whole story. Another idea is that receiving a placebo reduces stress, allowing the immune system to function more effectively. Numerous studies have shown that stress reduces the immune system’s capabilities consequently, stress relief would be expected to improve its function.

Still, there must be more to it than this because the placebo effect is very speciﬁc it doesn’t help with all your ailments, only the one you think you’re being treated for. There is no getting around the fact that a person’s expectations somehow lie at the crux of the placebo effect. Some scientists have argued that the placebo effect is a conditioned reﬂex. The patient has, through numerous experiences with doctors, pills, injections, and so on, been conditioned to expect a positive effect after medical treatment. And somehow, the nervous

system has become wired to comply.

Interestingly, studies have also demonstrated a “nocebo effect,” sometimes called the placebo effect’s “evil twin.” Expectations of negative effects are realized too. For example, people on placebos often develop negative “side effects” from their treatments. Side effects of real medications may sometimes be caused by the nocebo effect as well. For example, studies have repeatedly shown that patients who were warned of speciﬁc side effects tend to experience them much more often than patients who weren’t warned. The nocebo effect can be even more serious. One study showed that women who believed they were vulnerable to heart disease were four times as likely to die of it as women who didn’t believe they were vulnerable, but had similar risk factors. The nocebo effect may also account for the effectiveness of voodoo death curses. Never underes timate the power of the mind.

Bacteria Power - About Bacteria Power

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Mon, 11 Jun 2012 05:21:00 -0700

Bacteria Power - About Bacteria Power | Power Of bacteria - Will our cars run on bacteria power one day? Mud-dwelling bacteria of the genus Geobacter release electrons as they consume organic pollutants and decaying plant and animal matter. (Humans and other organisms also produce electrons during cellular respiration, but these combine with oxygen and hydrogen atoms to form water (Chapter 15). Geobacter, on the other hand, releases its electrons directly.) By designing a simple system for catching these electrons, biologist Derek Lovley and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, were able to create a battery that runs on pure bacteria power. Lovley collected polluted mud and seawater from Boston Harbor and placed them in a ﬁsh tank. He then stuck an electrode in the mud and connected it with copper wire to a second electrode in the seawater. Over time, Geobacter bacteria gathered on the mud-embedded electrode and passed electrons out their cell membranes as they ate. These electrons moved up the copper wire, producing an electric current.

A series of Geobacter “batteries” (the tubes in the background) are powering this calculator.

The next challenge will be to make Geobacter energy generation more efﬁcient. At present, it would take many square miles of muddy seaﬂoor to generate 60 watts, the amount of power required to run a household light-bulban unrealistic proposition. Scientists are tackling this problem now and have taken the ﬁrst step of sequencing the Geobacter genome. Studying Geobacter’s genes may just help them ﬁgure out how to get the bacteria to eat faster. In fact, it appears that Geobacter has more than 100 genes that are related to its ability to transfer electrons. If scientists are successful at manipulating these, we may soon have microbial fuel cells

that run on garbage and other organic wastes. In the meantime, Geobacter is already making itself useful running weather sensors and deep-sea mapping instruments, devices that require only 1watt of power.

Cell Theory | Theory of Cell | The Cell

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Wed, 6 Jun 2012 06:59:00 -0700

Cell Theory | Theory of Cell | The Cell. About Cell Theory - Cell theory, the idea that the cell is the basic unit of life, was several centuries in the making

In 1665, Robert Hooke, an English scientist, coined the term cell and published the first description of cells in his book Micrographia.

Hooke examined a piece of cork under a micro scope and saw a series of small boxlike chambers. He called these chambers “cells” because they reminded him of monks’ cells. We now know that what Hooke saw were not actually living cells but the cell walls that remain in dried plant tissue.

Robert Hooke examined cork tissue under a microscope and called
the small chambers he saw “cells.” This is Hooke’s original drawing of what he saw.

In the late 1600s, the Dutch naturalist Antovan Leeuwenhoek became the ﬁrst person to describe many types of living cells, including bacteria, sperm cells, and blood cells. After examining plaque scraped from his teeth under a microscope, van Leeuwenhoek wrote, in a 1683 letter to the Royal Society of London, about the amazing “animalcules” he saw: “I then most always saw, with great wonder, that in the said matter there were many very little living animalcules, very prettily a-moving. The biggest sort . .had a very strong and swift motion, and shot through the water (or spittle) like a pike does through the water. The second sort . . .

oft-times spun round like a top.”*

We now know that these animalcules were actually bacteria. It was not until the 1800s that the central importance of the cell was established. In 1838, careful studies of plants led German scientist Matthias Schleiden to conclude that all plants were made of cells. The following year, another German sci-

entist, Theodor Schwann, came to the same conclusion about animals.

The cell theory was finally completed in 1855 with German scientist Rudolph Virchow’s observation that all living cells come from other living cells. In summary, the cell theory states:

1. All living things are made up of one or more cells.

2. All cells come from other cells.

* Dobell, Clifford, Antony van Leeuwenhoek and His “Little Animals.” Dover Publications, New York, 1960.

key word : theory of cell, history cell, cell history, the first cell, kind of cell, all about cell

Mapping the Brain in Action : Functional magnetic resonance imaging

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sat, 12 May 2012 11:14:00 -0700

Mapping the Brain in Action : Functional magnetic resonance imaging, about Mapping the Brain in Action : Functional magnetic resonance imaging - Traditional lie-detector tests are not always dependable. Relying as they do on pulse, blood pressure, breathing rate, and skin conductance (sweating), they incriminate the nervously innocent while exonerating liars who keep their cool. But tellers of tall tales may ﬁnd a new technique harder to fool. Functionalmagnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) reveals which parts of the brain are activated during different types of activity and it shows that the brains of liars are doing different things from those of truth-tellers.

How does fMRI work? fMRI builds on the earlier technology of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). MRI makes use of the fact that every hydrogen atom in the body and there are two in every single water molecule inside us is a tiny magnet. (This is because, as we learned in Chapter 7, every accelerating charged particle, including the spinning proton in the nucleus of a hydrogen atom, produces a magnetic ﬁeld.) Because of this, when living tissue is placed in the ﬁeld of a very strong magnet typically one that is over 10,000 times more powerful than Earth’s magnetic ﬁeld all the hydrogen atoms line up

in the ﬁeld much the way a compass lines up with Earth’s magnetic ﬁeld. A radio wave is then used to perturb the atoms, knocking them slightly out of line. As the atoms bounce back to their natural alignment within the ﬁeld, they release a small amount of energy that can be detected and recorded. Because body tissues vary in water concentration, different tissues release different amounts of energy, allowing a very detailed image to be constructed. Like MRI, fMRI constructs images based on different concentrations of water molecules in different parts the body. With fMRI, however, the focus is on blood oxygen levels. Like all cells, neurons in the brain require more energy when they’re active, and so require more oxygen for cellular respiration. In order to accommodate this need, blood ﬂow to active areas of the brain is increased. This increased ﬂow is always in excess of what the active tissue requires, resulting in high local blood oxygen levels that can be detected and converted to an image of active brain areas.

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows scientists to compare activity levels in different parts of the brain during different activities. This image shows the areas of the brain that are activated during lying.

So what happens in the brain when people lie? In one study, volunteers were given a playing card the ﬁve of clubs and a $20 bill. They were told they could keep the money if they managed to fool the computer into thinking they had a different card. fMRI maps were made of the brain while volunteers deceitfully denied having the ﬁve of clubs and while they truthfully denied having other cards. The maps were then compared. Lying caused increased activity in several areas of the brain (see ﬁgure), including those responsible for attention, inhibiting actions, and monitoring errors.

This suggests that lying requires the inhibition of a natural tendency toward truth-telling as well as increased effort and attention. Interestingly, truth-telling did not increase activity in any part of the brain. Lying appears, overall, to be much harder work than telling the truth. fMRI is much too costly to be used regularly for lie detection. However, it has proven invaluable in studies that look at the areas of the brain responsible for different sensations, emotions, and activities. fMRI has already contributed to our understanding of how we remember information, feel love, gamble, recognize faces, and respond to pain.

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blog : http://krisscience.blogspot.com/

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sat, 12 May 2012 10:32:00 -0700

AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) about AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) - Since the start of the AIDS epidemic in the 1980s, the disease has claimed over 20 million lives worldwide. Today, the number of people with HIV continues to increase in every part of the world. The World Health Organization estimates that about 39.4 million people were living with HIV at the end of 2004. Of this number, about 4.9 million—one of eight—had contracted the virus within the last year. Globally, 3.1 million people died of AIDS in 2004. Although sub-Saharan Africa remains the area hardest hit by HIV and AIDS, the virus is now spreading most rapidly in East Asia, Eastern Europe, and Central Asia.

This map shows the number of adults and children estimated to be living with HIV in different parts of the world,
as of December 2004. It is adapted from the World Health Organization’s “AIDS Epidemic Update 2004.”

In many countries, the impact of AIDS goes far beyond the death toll. AIDS has always hit young adults particularly hard about half the new adult HIV infections occur in people between the ages of 15 and 24, with young women becoming infected more often than young men. The loss of large numbers of people in the prime of life means that fewer adults are available to take care of children and the elderly. About 15 million children have already been orphaned by AIDS, most of them in sub-Saharan Africa. The loss of working-age adults also affects the workforce, with important economic consequences in countries where HIV and AIDS are most prevalent. Recent surveys have also found that women are increasingly affected by HIV and AIDS. Women now make up almost half the total cases of HIV and AIDS worldwide and represent well over half the cases in some of the hardest-hit areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Gender inequality is one underlying cause. In many places, women have less access than men to education, testing, counseling, and treatment. A UNICEF study showed that as many as half the women in countries where HIV and AIDS present the greatest danger lack basic information about the disease, such as how it is transmitted and what they can do to protect themselves. In addition, many women contract HIV not through their own high-risk behavior, but through the high-risk behavior of their partners.

In the past few years, increased international funding has helped to address some aspects of the global HIV epidemic. Education, testing, and counseling are now more widely available in some parts of the world, as are anti-HIV medications. Anti-HIV drugs are crucial both for decreasing the incidence of mother-to-child HIV transmission during childbirth and for allowing those with HIV to live longer, more productive lives. Nonetheless, international funding for AIDS still falls far short of what is required. Overall, it is estimated that prevention programs reach less than 20 percent of the people most at risk and that only 7 percent of individuals who need anti-HIV drugs have access to them. The “3 by 5” AIDS initiative, begun in 2003 by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), was an ambitious venture with the goal of providing the infrastructure and drugs necessary to treat 3 million people in developing countries with life-prolonging anti-HIV therapy by the end of 2005. Although this goal ultimately was not met, there were many local success stories. In addition, the initiative succeeded in bringing global attention to the need to expand HIV treatment access and helped to mobilize support. WHO and UNAIDS continue to work towards their goal of universal access to treatment by 2010.

In the United States, testing HIV-positive is not the death sentence it was two decades ago, largely because of the anti-HIV drugs now available. Although this is certainly good news, it has unfortunately also led to complacency and the return of high-risk behaviors in some quarters. No current anti-HIV therapy is a cure—treatments can only delay the onset of illness. Inevitably, drug-resistant strains of HIV have evolved in some people receiving treatment. Drug-resistant strains can then be transmitted to other individuals. In 2005, public health ofﬁcials were alarmed to ﬁnd in a New York City patient an aggressive strain of HIV that was resistant to 19 of the 20 licensed anti-HIV medications. It is almost inevitable that eventually, a transmissible strain of HIV will appear that can’t be treated with current drugs.

Biography and Profile of Dimitri Mendeleev

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Tue, 1 May 2012 07:25:00 -0700

Biography and Profile of Dimitri Mendeleev - The mid-nineteenth century was an exciting time in the history of chemistry. New elements were being discovered almost every year and innovative laboratory apparatus and techniques enabled chemists to look at matter in more detail than ever before. The most decisive moment in the history of chemistry occurred during this period of intellectual ferment. The discovery of unexpected patterns in nature the realization that order exists where none was previously seen is pivotal in the progress of science. Thus, when Dimitri Mendeleev developed the ﬁrst periodic table and revealed the underlying order of the elements, he brought the science of chemistry into a new era of understanding.

Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907) was a popular chemistry professor at the Technological Institute of St. Petersburg in Russia. In 1869, he wrote the properties of the 63 known elements along with their atomic weights on small paper cards. He arranged the cards in various ways to see if he could ﬁnd order among them; some say Mendeleev was inspired by the card game known as solitaire. By arranging the cards in order of increasing atomic mass as well as by their properties, he found a way to reveal one set of relationships when the cards were read up and down and another set of relationships when the cards were read side-to-side. Elements in the same column had similar properties for example copper, gold, and silver are all metals while helium, argon, and neon are all nonreactive gases. Across each horizontal row, were elements of repeating properties. Medeleev found however, that in order to align elements properly in a column, he had to shift elements right or left occasionally. This left gaps blank spaces that could not be ﬁlled in by any element. Instead of looking at the gaps as defects, Mendeleev predicted the existence of elements that had not yet been discovered.

An early draft of Mendeleev’s periodic table.

In the years after the periodic table was published, more elements were discovered and gaps in Mendeleev’s table were ﬁlled in according to his predictions. The newly discovered elements had just the masses and properties anticipated. Of course, as more has been learned about atomic structure, Mendeleev’s original table has been modiﬁed and improved. But because it laid the groundwork for our understanding of atomic behavior in such a fundamental way, the periodic table is recognized as one of the most important achievements of modern science.

Conceptual Integrated Science

Electron Shells and Chemical Bonding

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Tue, 1 May 2012 07:07:00 -0700

figure 1 The shell model of the atom.
The numbers indicate
the maximum number of electrons in each shell.

Electron Shells and Chemical Bonding : We know from our previous study of atoms that an atom consists of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by moving, negatively charged electrons. According to the shell model of atom, electrons behave as if they were arranged in concentric shells around the nucleus. As shown in Figure 1, there are at least seven shells available to the electrons in any atom.

Each of these shells has a limited capacity for the number of electrons it can hold. The ﬁrst shell can hold up to 2 electrons, while the second and third shells can each hold up to 8 electrons. The fourth and ﬁfth shells can each hold 18 electrons, and the sixth and seventh shells can each hold 32 electrons. Figure 2 shows how this model applies to the ﬁrst four elements of group 18, the noble gases. Electrons, being negatively charged, are attracted to the positively charged nucleus. They occupy the innermost shells ﬁrst, where they are closest to the nucleus and possess minimum potential energy.

Figure 2 Occupied shells
in the group 18 elements
helium through krypton.
Each of these elements has
a filled outermost occupied shell.

Outer shells only get ﬁlled once the inner shells have reached their capacity for electrons. It is the exposed electrons in the outermost occupied shell that are the ones most responsible for an atom’s chemical properties, including its ability to form bonds with other atoms.a chemical bond is an electrostatic force of attraction between atoms that holds them together. To indicate their importance, an atom’s outer-shell electrons are called valence electrons and they are said to occupy the atom’s valence shell.

If we are going to keep track of the bonding behavior of an atom, we need to keep track of its valence electrons. We do this by depicting valence electrons as a series of dots surrounding an atomic symbol. The atomic symbol represents the nucleus and the atom’s inner-shell electrons. This notation is called the electrondot structure or, sometimes, a Lewis dot symbol in honor of the American chemist G. N. Lewis who ﬁrst proposed the concept of shells. Figure 3 shows the electrondot structures for the representative elements of the periodic table. When you look at the electron-dot structure of an atom, you immediately know two important things about that element that relate to its bonding behavior. You know how many valence electrons it has and how many of these are paired. Chlorine, for example, has three sets of paired electrons and one unpaired electron, and carbon has four unpaired electrons:

Paired valence electrons are relatively stable, or resistant to change. They sually do not form chemical bonds with other atoms. For this reason, electron pairs in an electron-dot structure are called nonbonding pairs. Valence electrons that are unpaired, by contrast, have a strong tendency to participate in chemical bonding. By doing so, they become paired with an electron from another atom. The most stable electron arrangement for an atom is reached when all its valence electrons are paired so that its outermost occupied shell is filled to capacity. How can an atom with an unﬁlled valence shell attain a completely ﬁlled valence shell? It can share electrons with another atom or transfer electrons to another atom through bonding. The three types of chemical bonds discussed in this chapter ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds all result from either a transfer or a sharing of unpaired valence electrons. The noble gases are referred to as the inert gases because they are chemically nonreactive they almost never bond with other atoms. What is the reason for this? The valence shells of all noble gases are already ﬁlled to capacity, so they do not increase their stability by bonding. Atoms tend to bond with one another so that they achieve the same type of electron conﬁguration as the noble gases. This tendency is called the octet rule:

Atoms tend to form chemical bonds so that they each have eight electrons in their valence shells, similar to the electron conﬁguration of a noble gas.

Figure 3 The valence electrons of an atom are shown in its electron-dot structure.

Other arrangements of electrons can also increase an atom’s stability, especially for the transition metals. Nevertheless, the octet rule is the best indicator of stability for the main-block elements of the periodic table. Consider the bonding behavior of sodium, Na, as an example of the octet rule. We can see from Figure 3 that sodium, being a group 1 element, has one valence electron. If an atom has only one or only a few electrons in its valence shell, it will tend to lose its outer-shell electrons so that the next shell inward, which is ﬁlled, becomes the outermost occupied shell. Then, the atom will have a ﬁlled valence shell. Sodium readily gives up the single electron in its third shell. This makes the second shell, which is already ﬁlled to capacity, the outermost occupied shell.

Conceptual Integrated Science

Regional Earth Science Topics for California

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Tue, 1 May 2012 00:38:00 -0700

Regional Earth Science Topics for California about Regional Earth Science Topics for California - California is a perfect place to study the various branches of earth science in an integrated way. The geology, meteorology, plate tectonics, mineralogy, and hydrology of the Golden State all contribute to the quality of life of California.

Tectonic Activity and Earthquakes

Figure 1

Consider ﬁrst the impact of plate tectonics on California. The state is marked by the great San Andreas fault, a transform plate boundary that extends nearly the length of the state from north east to southwest. California residents know that the San Andreas fault and its many branches are the major source of the state’s infamous earthquakes. The San Andreas fault is located where the Paciﬁc and North American plates meet. As these plates shift relative to one another, they stick and slip. To mitigate the hazards posed by the geological features of particular locations, the United States Geologic Survey publishes geologic hazard maps. Geologic hazard maps indicate what the geologic risks of various regions are, from radon exposure to ﬂooding. The California Geologic Survey publishes seismic hazard zone maps which target seismic hazards speciﬁcally, including earthquakes, landslides, and liquefaction. City planners and builders use the maps to identify regions where risk-reduction measures need to be employed prior to development. However, geologic hazard maps are useful to all Californians. If you live in California, knowing where to get geologic hazard maps and how to interpret them is one step you can take towards being earthquake prepared. Figure 1 is a geologic hazard map for eastern San Jose. On this map, areaswith a liquefaction hazard are shown in green. These are places where liquefaction has occurred in the past or where there is an elevated risk of it in the future. Areas colored blue are places where earthquake-induced landslides have occurred in the past or where they pose a signiﬁcant risk in the future. Keep in mind that such a map cannot be interpreted as indicating all the areas susceptible to the denoted risks. Also, all areas designated as at risk don’t necessarily share the same level of risk. Though useful, geologic hazard maps are not perfect risk indicators because geologic hazard prediction isn’t an exact science at this time.

Californian Topography

Figure 2

The tectonic forces that produce California’s destructive earth quakes have an upside—they also have created California’s beautiful mountainous terrain. California’s coastal mountains extend 800 miles from the northwest corner of Del Norte County to the U.S.–Mexican border. This mountain chain breaks in the California’s mountains have also been shaped by Ice Age glaciers and modiﬁed by erosion from wind and rain. California’s coastal mountains form a barrier, trapping moisture in the air that blows in from the Paciﬁc Ocean with the prevailing westerly winds. As discussed in Chapter 24, moist air is forced up the windward side of the mountains, cools as it rises, becomes saturated, and produces precipitation. Air blowing down the leeward side of the mountains is depleted of much of its water content, which keeps the eastern slopes of California’s mountains relatively dry. This wet-dry climate gives rise to many of California’s agricultural resources. The evergreen trees of the north coast grow in the rainy climate there. The extensive forests of evergreens provide habitats for a number of native species and are the basis of the north coast timber industry. Likewise, fruit and nut trees and cool weather vegetables grow in the cool coastal climates found from San Mateo to San Diego. The Sierra Nevada mountains range in height from about 9000 feet (2700 m) to over 14,505 feet (4421 m) at Mt. Whitney. Thus, the Sierra Nevada trap moisture in the air that has blown over the coastal mountains. As a result, locations such as Death Valley which lie on the east side of the Sierra are some of the driest in the state. vicinity of San Francisco, but otherwise forms a nearly continu ous series of smaller ranges and valleys (Figure.2). The other prominent mountain range inCalifornia is the Sierra Nevada (Spanish for “snowy range”). The Sierra Nevada stretches 400 miles from Freydonyer Pass in the north to Tahachapi Pass in the south. It is bounded on the west by the Central Valley and on the east by the Great Basin. How, exactly, were California’s majestic mountains built?

The coastal mountains began to form about 250 million years ago when the Paciﬁc Plate and North American Plate collided. Although these plates form a transform boundary today, the plates were actually converging 250 million years ago. When they collided, the Paciﬁc Plate subducted beneath the North American Plate, creating an ocean trench in the subduction zone. As oceanic crust sank deeper into the mantle, it formed molten rock (or magma). Eventually, magma erupted as lava and accumulated, forming a volcanic island arc as described in Chapter 22. Over time, the volcanic arc gave rise to the Sierra Nevada. The coastal range formed in the vicinity of the trench. As the Paciﬁc Plate subducted at the trench, magma generated by the subduction process gradually rose through the mantle and crust deforming overlying rock strata. The deformed strata plus accumulating sediment from the land, as well as rock scraped off the subducting plates, eventually aggregated to form an accretionary wedge. This wedge of accreted rock and deformed strata gradually rose to great heights as the coastal mountains. Thus, the coastal and Sierra Nevada ranges both substantially formed about 150 million years ago as a result of processes associated with the convergence of the Paciﬁc and North American Plates.

Natural Resources

California’s mountains are less famous for their geologic history and climactic effects than for their cultural signiﬁcance. After all, it was in the Sierra Nevada range that gold was famously discovered. Up until about 200 years ago, gold was both plen tiful and easy to ﬁnd in alluvial deposits in the Sierra Nevada. (An alluvial deposit is an accumulation of gravels, rocks, clay, silt, etc., which has been transported by streams.) Because gold has a high speciﬁc gravity and is very durable, it collects in stream beds after weathering and erosion of the primary source. Thus gold could be prospected along stream beds by anyone with a simple gold pan and some patience. The California Gold Rush began when James Marshall discovered pieces of the shiny metal at Sutter’s Mill on the American River, about 50 miles from Sacramento in Coloma. By 1849, prospectors were ﬂocking to the area and by 1865, $750,000,000 in gold had been mined. The California Gold Rush was an event of worldwide sig niﬁcance. Hopeful gold prospectors came to the Sierra Nevada from all over the globe, particularly Mexico, China, Germany, France, and Turkey. Some traveled over land along the Ore gon–California trail while others journeyed by ship around the tip of South America. Either way, the trip was ultimately fruitless for most latecomers. Alluvial deposits, at ﬁrst so easy to tap, soon became depleted. Today, mining for gold continues. Hobbyists enjoy panning for gold while large-scale operations employ costly mining methods to obtain and process large bodies of ore. California’s most important gold deposits are thought to be in the Sierra Nevada, Klamath Mountains, and Mohave Desert though large deposits have been discovered in the Peninsular and Transverse Ranges and in the Northern Great Valley. Low-grade, unmined deposits are scattered throughout the state. In 2001, California ranked fourth in the United States in gold production. That year alone, California produced 449,000 troy ounces with a value of about $122 million. Besides gold, fossil fuels and rich soil are two of California’s other natural resources that relate to its geology. Cali fornia obtains about half of its crude oil supply from oilﬁelds in state. According to the U.S. Department ofEnergy, California ranked third in the nation in its production of crude oil. In recent years, California ranked second in the total amount of energy produced but 48th in the amount consumed per person. Thus, Californians can proudly claim to be some of the nation’s best energy conservationists. Oil is found off shore as well as underground in 18 of the 58 counties in California. For this, Californians can thank multitudes of marine organisms that died and anaerobically decayed millions of years ago,

Agriculture and Water Supply

The rich soil of California’s Central Valley is another one of th state’s resources derived from its geologic past. The Central Valley is about 50 miles wide and 450 miles long and lies between the coastal mountains and the Sierra Nevada. The Central Valley is a broad, fertile plain and the most productive agricultural area west of the Rocky Mountains; about 60 percent of California’s productive farmland is located in the Central Valley. During the time that the California landmasses were forming, the Central Valley existed as an ocean trench and seabed. Over time, sediments from surrounding landmasses were deposited into the sea bed forming the valley ﬂoor. Despite its rich soil, the Central Valley could not have become the “fruit bowl of the world” without water for crop irrigation. No resource is more vital to California than water, and throughout California’s history many battles have been waged to obtain access to it. Advocates for agriculture vie with others representing industry, urban centers, recreation, and environmental conservation. There is a regional character to the water rights controversy as well because some 75 percent of California’s water originates in the northern third of the state, but 80 percent of the demand comes from the southern two-thirds of the state.

However, potential fresh water shortages in California have largely been addressed by California’s dams and water transport system. California has the most sophisticated water storage and transport network in the entire world system of dams, reservoirs, pumping plants, and aqueducts transports about halfof the state’s water supply for distances up to hundreds of miles. San Francisco, for example, derives much of its public water supply over 100 miles to the east from the Hetch Hetchy Dam and Reservoir in Yosemite National Park. The hub of the California water supply system is the Sacramento–San Joaquin Delta. The delta is a region where two of California’s largest rivers meet. The rivers mingle with the San Francisco Bay to form the largest estuary in the world, an aerial photograph shows that the delta is a maze of winding channels. The delta has a total length of about 700 miles. Small town communities, bustling ship ports, marinas, industries, and historical sites are found along its shores while water sports enthusiasts and some 500 species of wildlife can be found immersed in delta waters. The delta itself receives runoff from over 40 percent of the state’s land area. This runoff is principally in the form of streams that are fed by melting snow in the high Sierra Nevada. Since two-thirds of the state’s residents receive at least a portion of their drinking water from the delta, and millions of acres of irrigated farmland rely on it, this is a critical water resource for all regions of the state northern, central, and southern. The two major water projects that divert water directly from the delta are the State Water Project and the Federal Central Valley Project. The State Water Project is a water distribution system that delivers water to agricultural and urban areas in the Bay Area, Silicon Valley, the San Joaquin Valley, the Central Coast, and Southern California. The Federal Central Valley Project serves farms, homes, and industry in the Central Valley, urban centers in the San Francisco Bay Area, and is the primary source of water for much of California’s wetlands. These projects serve multiple purposes in that they produce hydroelectric power and provide ﬂood protection, navigation, and water puriﬁcation including salinity control.

Regional Climates

Besides good soil and a steady water supply, California crops need something else to thrive—a favorable climate. Many people come to California expecting a warm and uniform climate. They are surprised to ﬁnd out that California actually has varying regional climates, from the cool, moist, and foggy North Coast to the hot, arid, southern California deserts. At one measuring station in California, annual precipitation has exceeded 161 inches; others have gone for more than a year with no measurable rain. Much of the variability of California’s climate relates to its topography. As previously mentioned, the coastal mountains and Sierra Nevada greatly affect precipitation patterns by creating areas of rain shadow. Also, proximity to the ocean has a large effect on California climate. As discussed in Chapter 25, any area near a large body of water tends to have a moderate climate due to the high speciﬁc heat capacity of water. So the coastal regions of California generally have maritime climates with warm winters and cool summers, small daily and seasonal temperature variation, and high humidity. As distance from the ocean increases, so do maritime inﬂuences. Eastern parts of California experience a continental climate warmer summers, colder winters, greater daily and seasonal temperature ranges, and generally lower humidities.

A third important factor in California’s climate is the effect of atmospheric and ocean circulation patterns. There is a semipermanent high-pressure air mass above the Northern Paciﬁc Ocean. In the summer, the pressure center moves toward the north, and blocks storm systems moving toward the coast. As a result, California receives little rainfall from this source during the summer. In the winter, the high-pressure zone moves southward, permitting storm systems to move across California. The Paciﬁc high-pressure zone also affects ocean circulation. Remember that air ﬂows along a pressure gradient from high to low pressure. This means that air ﬂows southward out of the North Paciﬁc high, which sets up ocean currents moving southward along the coast. Since this current is slightly offshore, there is a zone of upwelling and cold water temperatures adjacent to the coast as water from deeper layers is drawn into circulation.

El Niño and Weather Patterns

Ocean and atmospheric circulation patterns in California are affected by El Niño. You may have heard of El Niño in the news, but not really know much about it. El Niño is a cyclical weather disturbance that affects many parts of the globe, but impacts California particularly strongly. Under normal conditions, trade winds blow from areas of high to low pressure along the equator, dragging the warm equatorial surface waters along with them. As warm surface waters move westward, deeper, colder waters to the east rise upward to occupy the space left vacant by the warm surface water as previously mentioned. The upwelling cold waters, rich in nutrients, attract a variety of sea life. Upwelling of these cold waters has been especially important to the ﬁshing industry along the west coast of South America where people earn their living catching anchovies that come to feed in the nutrient-rich waters. Fishing is not good during October when the trade winds slacken, reversing the normal westward ﬂow of warm tropical surface waters. As the warm surface waters drift eastward, upwelling diminishes and so does the ﬁshing industry. People along the South American coast refer to this occurrence as El Niño because it appears to begin each year around the traditional December celebration of Christmas (in Spanish el niño is the Christ child). Under normal conditions, the trade winds pick up again in early spring, the surface waters are again blown westward across the ocean, and everything returns to normal. There are some years, however, in which the trade winds fail to strengthen, and the warm surface waters remain off the coast of South America for a year or longer. During these abnormal conditions, upwelling of cold water ceases, and South American ﬁshing industries fail. Although a small El Niño occurs each year, it is this extended El Niño that is referred to as the El Niño condition.

The El Niño condition inﬂuences climate on both sides of the tropical Paciﬁc Ocean. Under normal conditions, upwelling cold water on the eastern side of the Paciﬁc coincides with dry and cool air, high pressures, and clear skies. On the western side of the Paciﬁc, surface waters warm the surrounding air. As the warm and moist air rises, low pressures and storms develop on the warm western side of the Paciﬁc. During an extended El Niño condition, the pattern is reversed. Warm water, rising warm and moist air, low pressures, and storms are found on the eastern side of the Paciﬁc rather than the western side. This exchange of pressure systems and weather patterns between east and west upsets the climate on the west coast of the United States California in particular. El Niño varies in intensity, but it has been known to deliver great storms to northern and southern California along with ﬂoods and mudslides. Temperature-sensitive crops and animal species are impacted. For example, sea lion populations on San Miguel Island have declined in El Niño years because ocean temperatures are too warm to sustain the ﬁsh sea lions eat. Yet, El Niño is cyclical. Recovery comes after the storms have passed. El Niño, earthquakes, mountain building, gold, rich soil, and varied topography are but a few of the physical factors that shape life in California. To understand this place, or any other, it is important to know the underlying science!

Conceptual Integrated Science

Momentum | Physics

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Mon, 30 Apr 2012 23:59:00 -0700

Momentum | Physics about Momentum | Physics

Figure 1 The boulder, unfortunately,
has more momentum than the runner.

Momentum Moving objects have a quantity that objects at rest don’t have. More than a hundred years ago, this quantity was called impedo. A boulder at rest had no impedo, while the same boulder rolling down a steep incline possessed impedo. The faster it moved, the greater the impedo. The change in impedo depended on force and, more importantly, on how long the force acted. Apply a force to a cart and you give it impedo. Apply a long force and you give it more impedo. But what do we mean by “long?” Does “long” refer to time or distance?

When this distinction was made, the term impedo gave way to two more precise ideas momentum and kinetic energy. And these two ideas are related to a cluster of other concepts including work, power, efﬁciency, potential energy, and impulse. What are the distinctions and relationships among these quantities?

How can they be used to analyze matter in motion, the workings of machines, and even such complex phenomena as the energy sources that power modern industry and the “machinery” of living organisms?

We all know that a heavy truck is more difﬁcult to stop than a small car moving at the same speed. We state this fact by saying that the truck has more momentum than the car. By momentum, we mean inertia in motion or, more speciﬁcally, the product of the mass of an object and its velocity; that is,

Momentum = mv

Or, in shorthand notation,

Momentum = mass x velocity

When direction is not an important factor, we can say momentum = mass x speed, which we still abbreviate mv. We can see from the deﬁnition that a moving object can have a large momentum if either its mass or its velocity is large or both its mass and its velocity are large. A truck has more momentum than a car moving at the same velocity because it has a greater mass. We can see that a huge ship moving at a small velocity can have a large momentum, as can a small bullet moving at a high velocity. A massive truck moving down a steep hill with no brakes has a large momentum, whereas the same truck at rest has no momentum at all.

IMPULS

Changes in momentum may occur when there is a change in the mass of an object, or a change in its velocity, or both. If momentum changes while the mass remains unchanged, as is most often the case, then the velocity changes. Acceleration occurs. And what produces acceleration? The answer is force. The greater the force acting on an object, the greater will be the change in velocity and, hence, the change in momentum.

But something else is important also: time how long the force acts. Apply a force briefly to a stalled automobile and you produce a small change in its momentum. Apply the same force over an extended period of time, and a greater momentum change results (Figure4.2). A long sustained force produces

more change in momentum than the same force applied briefly. So, for changing an object’s momentum, both force and the time interval during which the

force acts are important. impulse. The quantity “force x time interval” is called impuls

Increasing Momentum

If you wish to produce the maximum increase in the momentum of something, you not only apply the greatest force, you also extend the time of application as

much as possible (hence the different results obtained by pushing brieﬂy on a stalled automobile and by giving it a sustained push).

Long-range cannons have long barrels. The longer the barrel, the greater the velocity of the emerging cannonball or shell. Why? The force of exploding gunpowder in a long barrel acts on the cannonball for a longer time, increasing the impulse on it, which increases its momentum. Of course, the force that acts on the cannonball is not steady it is strong at ﬁrst and weaker as the gases expand.

Most often the forces involved in impulses vary over time. The force that acts on the golf ball in Figure 4.3, for example, increases rapidly as the ball is distorted and then decreases as the ball comes up to speed and returns to its original shape. When we speak of any force that makes up impulse in this chapter, we mean the average force.

Decreasing Momentum

Imagine that you are in a car that is out of control, and you’re faced with a choice of slamming either into a concrete wall or into a haystack. You don’t need much physics knowledge to make the better decision, but knowing some physics aids you in knowing why hitting something soft is entirely different from hitting something hard. Whether you hit the wall or the haystack, your momentum will be decreased by the same amount, and this means that the impulse required to stop you is the same. The same impulse means the same product of force and time, not the same force or the same time. You have a choice. By hitting the haystack instead of the wall, you extend the time of impact you extend the time during which your momentum is brought to zero. The longer time is compensated for by a lesser force. If you extend the time of impact 100 times, you reduce the force of impact to a hundredth of what it might have been. So, whenever you wish the force of an impact to be small, extend the time of the impact. And, conversely, if the time over which the force acts is short, the force itself will be comparatively large, for a given change in momentum. Going back to the example of the car, you can see why you are in much more trouble if you hit the concrete wall rather than the haystack. Your time of impact is short, so the force on you is large, as your momentum decreases to zero.

Conceptual Integrated Science
Paul G. Hewitt, City College of San Francisco
Suzanne A Lyons, California State University, Sacramento
John A. Suchocki, St.Michael''s College
Jennifer Yeh, University of California, San Francisco

Key word : momentum, about impuls, similar momentum, Increasing Momentum, decreasing Momentum

Elements and the Periodic Table | CHEMISTRY

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 22:39:00 -0700

Figure 1 The periodic table provides a variety
of information about the elements.

Elements and the Periodic Table - The terms element and atom are often used in a similar context. You might hear, for example, that gold is an element made of gold atoms. Generally, element is used in reference to an entire macroscopic or microscopic sample, and atom is used when speaking of the submicroscopic particles in the sample. The important distinction is that elements are made of atoms and not the other way around. How many atoms are bound together in an element is shown by an elemental formula. For elements in which the basic units are individual atoms, the elemental formula is simply the chemical symbol: Au is the elemental formula for gold, and Li is the elemental formula for lithium, to name just two examples. For elements in which the basic units are two or more atoms bonded into molecules, the elemental formula is the chemical symbol followed by a sub script indicating the number of atoms in each molecule. For example, elemental nitrogen, commonly consists of molecules containing two nitrogen atoms per molecule. Thus N2 is the usual elemental formula given for nitrogen. Similarly, O2 is the elemental formula for oxygen (two oxygen atoms per molecule), and S8 is the elemental formula for sulfur (eight atoms per molecule).

The periodic table is a listing of all the known elements with their atomic masses, atomic numbers, and chemical symbols. Recall from our introduction to the atom in Chapter 9that the total mass of an atom is called its atomicmass. This is the sum of the masses of all the atom’s components (electrons, protons, and neutrons). A special unit is used for atomic masses. This is the atomic mass unit, amu, where 1 atomic mass unit is equal to 1.661 x 10-24 g , which is slightly less than the mass of a single proton. Also recall from Chapter 9that the atomic number of an element is the number of protons in an atom of that element. It is also equal to the number of electrons in the neutral atom. Besides atomic numbers, atomic masses, and chemical symbols, there is much more information about the elements in the periodic table (Figure 1). The way the table is organized in groups tells you a lot about the elements’ structures and how they behave. Look carefully at Figure 2. It shows that metals make up most elements.

Figure 2

Metals are deﬁned as those elements that are shiny, opaque, and good conductors of electricity and heat. Metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered into different shapes or bent without breaking. They are also ductile, which means they can be drawn into wires. All but a few metals are solid atroom temperature. The exceptions include mercury, Hg; gallium, Ga; cesium, Cs; and francium, Fr. These metals are all liquids at a warm room temperature of 30°C (86°F). Another interesting exception is hydrogen, H. Hydrogen acquires the properties of a liquid metal only at very high pressures (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Geoplanetary models suggest that hydrogen exists as a liquid metal deep beneath the surfaces of Jupiter (shown here) and Saturn. These planets are composed mostly of hydrogen. Interior pressures exceed 3 million times the Earth’s atmospheric pressure. At this tremendously high pressure, hydrogen is pressed to a liquid-metal phase. Back here on Earth, at our relatively low atmospheric pressure, hydrogen exists as a non metallic gas.

Under normal conditions, hydrogen behaves as a nonmetallic gas. The nonmetallic elements, with the exception of hydrogen, are on the right of the periodic table. Nonmetals are very poor conductors of electricity and heat, and they may also be transparent. Solid nonmetals are neither malleable nor ductile. Rather, they are brittle and shatter when hammered. At 30°C (86°F), some nonmetals are solid (such as carbon, C). Other nonmetallic elements are liquid (such as bromine, Br). Still other nonmetals are gaseous (like helium, He).

Six elements are classiﬁed as metalloids: boron, B; silicon, Si; germanium, Ge; arsenic, As; tin, Sn; and antimony, Sb. You’ll see them between the metals and the nonmetals in the periodic table. The metalloids have both metallic and nonmetallic characteristics. For example, they are weak conductors of electricity. This makes them useful as semiconductors in the integrated circuits of computers. Note in the periodic table how germanium, Ge (number 32), is closer to the metals than to the nonmetals. Because of this positioning, we can tell that germanium has more metallic properties than silicon, Si (number 14), and is a slightly better conductor of electricity. So we ﬁnd that integrated circuits fabricated with germanium operate faster than those fabricated with silicon. Because silicon is much more abundant and less expensive to obtain, however, silicon computer chips remain the industry standard.

References and Further Reading

Conceptual Integrated Science

The Moving Earth | Nicolaus Copernicus

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 22:06:00 -0700

The Moving Earth | Nicolaus Copernicus - In 1543, the Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus caused a great controversy when he published a book proposing that the Earth revolved around the Sun.* This idea conﬂicted with the popular view that the Earth was the center of the universe. Copernicus’s concept of a Sun centered solar system was the result of years of studying the planets. He had kept his theory from the public for two reasons. The ﬁrst reason was that he feared persecution:

a theory so completely different from common opinion would surely be taken as an attack on the established order. The second reason was that he had reservations about it himself: he could not reconcile the idea of a moving Earth with the prevailing ideas of motion. The concept of inertia was unknown to him and to others of his time. In the ﬁnal days of his life, at the urging of close friends, he sent his manuscript, De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, to the printer. The ﬁnal copy of his famous exposition reached him on the day he died May 24, 1543.

The idea of a moving Earth was much debated. Europeans thought about the universe much as Aristotle had, and the existence of a force big enough to keep the Earth moving was beyond their imagination. They had no concept of inertia. One of the arguments against a moving Earth was the following:

Consider a bird sitting at rest on a branch of a tall tree. On the ground below is a fat, juicy worm. The bird sees the worm and drops vertically below and catches it. It was argued that this would be impossible if the Earth were moving. A moving Earth would have to travel at an enormous speed to circle the Sun in one year. While the bird would be in the air descending from its branch to the ground below, the worm would bswept far away along with the moving Earth. It seemed that catchin a worm on a moving Earth would be an impossible task. The fact that birds do catch worms from tree branches seemed to be clear evi dence that the Earth must be at rest. Can you see the mistake in this argument? You can if you use the concept of inertia. You see, not only is the Earth moving at a great speed, but so are the tree, the branch of the tree, the bird that sits on it, the worm below, and even the air in between. Things in motion remain in motion if no unbalanced forces are acting on them So when the bird drops from the branch, its initial sideways motion remains unchanged. It catches the worm quite unaffected by the motion of its total environment. We live on a moving Earth. If you stand next to a wall and jump up so that your feet are no longer in contact with the ﬂoor, does the moving wall slam into you? Why not? It doesn’t because you are also traveling at the same speed, before, during, and after your jump. The speed of the Earth relative to the Sun is not the speed of the wall relative to you. Four hundred years ago, people had difﬁculty with ideas like these. One reason is that they didn’t yet travel in high-speed vehicles. Rather, they experienced slow, bumpy rides in horse-drawn carts. People were less aware of the effects of inertia. Today, we can ﬂip a coin in a high-speed car, bus, or plane and catch the vertically moving coin as easily as we could if the vehicle were at rest. We see evidence of the law of inertia when the horizontal motion of the coin before, during, and after the catch is the same. The coin always keeps up with us.

Copernicus was certainly not the ﬁrst to think of a Sun-centered solar system. In the ﬁfth century, for example, the Indian astronomer Aryabhatta taught that the Earth circles the Sun, not the other way around (as the rest of the world believed). The Latin title means “On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres.”

Thanks for join your time.

References and Further Reading

Conceptual Integrated Science

Paul G. Hewitt, City College of San Francisco

Suzanne A Lyons, California State University, Sacramento

John A. Suchocki, St.Michael''s College

Jennifer Yeh, University of California, San Francisco

Overview of the Solar System | ASTRONOMY

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 21:43:00 -0700

Overview of the Solar System - The solar system is the collection of objects gravitationally bound to our Sun. In addition to the Sun itself, the solar system contains at least nine planets, their approximately 150 moons, a large number of asteroids (small, rocky bodies), and comets (small, icy bodies). These objects exist in the interplanetary medium, a sparse blend of dust and gas particles. The Sun is at the center of the solar system and contains most of its mass—a whopping 99.86 percent.

Figure 1 The layout of our solar system as it would appear from beyond recently demoted Pluto if we could magnify the sizes of the planets by about a million times. Notice that all the planets orbit the Sun in the same direction. The tilt of each planet’s rotation axis is also shown, with a circling arrow to designate the direction of rotation. This illustration shows the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter but not the remote regions where comets are concentrated the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud. (Courtesy of Bennett, Donahue, Schneider, Voit, The Essential Cosmic Perspective, 3e, © 2005.)

Moving outward from the Sun are, in order, the inner planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. Next is the main asteroid belt, which lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Then, there are the outer planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and, as we shall see, controversial Pluto. Beyond Neptune, containing Pluto, lies the disk-shaped Kuiper Belt (pronounced “koy-per”) of comets and assorted objects. Far beyond the Kuiper Belt is the Oort Cloud (rhymes with short), a giant cometary sphere completely surrounding the solar system. The planets exhibit a high degree of orderliness in their motions and in theirpositioning. For example, all the planets travel in elliptical orbits around the Sun.

And except for Pluto, all the planets and their larger moons follow orbits that lieroughly in the same plane. This plane, called the ecliptic, is deﬁned as the plane of Earth’s orbit. Further, all the planets and almost all of their moons orbit in the same direction counterclockwise (when viewed from the Sun’s north pole).

This is also the direction in which the Sun and almost all of the planets and their moons spin or rotate. Also, the planets are neatly divided such that the inner planets are small, solid, and rocky while the outer planets are large and gaseous. The solar system, like the interior of an atom, is mostly empty space. Figure 1 gives a hint of this but no illustration can be to scale because the planets are so tiny in comparison to the distances between them. To appreciate the true relative sizes of objects in the solar system, try this mental exercise. Imagine reducing the size of everything by a factor of a billion (Figure 2). Now Earth is 1.3 centimeters (cm) in diameter (the size of a grape). The Moon, the size of a pea, is a distance of 30 cm about a foot from Earth. The Sun is about 1.5 meters in diameter, the size of a Sumo wrestler. The distance between the Sun and Earth is 150 meters the length of one-and-a-half football ﬁelds. Jupiter is 15 cm in diameter, the size of a large grapefruit, and at a distance of about 12 football ﬁelds away from the Sun. Saturn, the size of an apple, is 15 football ﬁelds away from the Sun.

Figure 2. This illustration shows the order and relative sizes of planets. Moving away from the Sun (not shown to the left), we have in order: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and recently demoted Pluto. The planets range greatly in size, but the Sun dwarfs them all—containing over 99 percent of the mass in the solar system.

Tiny outermost “almost-a-planet” Pluto is about the size of an apple seed and is located at a distance of about 60 football ﬁelds from the Sun. Because distances in the solar system are so great, astronomers use the astronomical unit to measure them. One astronomical unit (AU) is about kilometers (about ) or the distance from Earth to the Sun. Table 1 gives the distances of planets from the Sun in kilometers (km) as well as in AU. The data in Table 1 also shows the division of the planets into two groups with similar properties. The inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars are solid and relatively small and dense. For this reason they are often called the “terrestrial planets.” The outer planets are large, have many rings and satellites, and are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium gas. The outer planets are often referred to as the “Jovian planets” because they resemble Jupiter in terms of their large sizes and gaseous compositions. 9.3 x 107 mi 1.5 x 108

Table 1 Planetary Data

The Scale of the Solar System

Astronomical distances are mind-boggling. Try the following problems to better appreciate the sizes of bodies in the solar system and distances between them. (Use the distance formula: 27.1.) distance = speed x time and data from Table

Problems

1. The distance between Earth and the Moon is 384,401 km. How many Earth-diameters would ﬁt between Earth and the Moon?

2. How long would it take to drive from Earth to the Moon if you drive at 55 miles per hour? State your answer in hours and in years.

3. If you could ﬂy to the Sun on a jet that moves at 1000 km/h, how long would it take? State your answer in years.

4. The diameter of the Sun is 1,390,000 km. What is its diameter stated in units of AU? How many times greater is the mean distance between Earth and the Sun compared to the diameter of the Sun?

Solutions

May be useful.

References and Further Reading

Conceptual Integrated Science

Paul G. Hewitt, City College of San Francisco

Suzanne A Lyons, California State University, Sacramento

John A. Suchocki, St.Michael''s College

Jennifer Yeh, University of California, San Francisco

DISCOVERY OF THE DOUBLE HELIX

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 09:21:00 -0700

Rosalind Franklin’s X-ray photo may look like a blurry “X” to you,
but to Watson and Crick it showed that DNA is a double helix.

DISCOVERY OF THE DOUBLE HELIX - By the early 1950s, scientists knew that the genetic material of eukaryotic organisms was contained in their chromosomes. Scientists also knew that, of the two types of molecules found in chromosomes, proteins and DNA, the genetic material was DNA. The structure of DNA was still a mystery, however, and it represented the biggest unsolved problem in biology. In 1951, Francis Crick and James D. Watson began tackling the problem at Cambridge University in England. Their strategy was to build a model of DNA that would be consistent with available experimental evidence. Meanwhile, both Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins of King’s College in London were taking X-ray photos of DNA.

By early 1951, Franklin had gathered data on two forms of DNA. These differed in their water content there was a dry form, A, and a wet form, B. Franklin photographed the B form, and the photograph very clearly revealed a helix. However, she did not publish this ﬁnding and chose instead to concentrate on the A form. Later in 1951, Watson attended a seminar in which Franklin spoke about her ﬁndings. He and Crick used what they learned there to develop their ﬁrst model of DNA, a triple helix that turned out to be incorrect. The real breakthrough, which came in January 1953, was sparked by two key events Wilkins shared Franklin’s photograph of the B form of DNA with Watson, and a copy of a report on Franklin’s experimental ﬁndings on DNA made its way to Watson and Crick. Watson and Crick began to build DNA models and to test them against Franklin’s photographs and data. Within a few weeks, they and thymine, and guanine and cytosine, paired up between the strands.

(a) James D. Watson and Francis Crick figured out the structure of DNA in 1953. (b) Rosalind Franklin took the famous X-ray photo that led Watson and Crick to the structure of DNA.

The Watson Crick model of DNA was published in April 1953, along with two papers offering supporting evidence, one by Wilkins and his collaborators and one by Franklin and her assistant. Acceptance of the Watson–Crick model was immediate and widespread. For their discovery of the double helix, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins were awarded the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Franklin had died by then, of ovarian cancer that probably resulted from radiation exposure related to her work. She never knew how important her results had been in allowing Watson and Crick to develop their model. fact, Franklin’s importance to the discovery of DNA’s structure was unknown until Watson told the story in his memoir The Double Helix.

The Structure of DNA

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 09:09:00 -0700

The Structure of DNA

Figure 1 (a) DNA is shaped like a spiraling ladder with two sugar-phosphate strands as the “sides” of the ladder and paired bases as the “rungs.” (b) This photograph of DNA shows that it is a double helix. (Adapted from Campbell, Reece, Simon, Essential Biology with Physiology, © 2004.)

Now that we know where the genes are, let’s look more closely at what genes aremade of, at DNA it self. What does DNA look like? A molecule of deoxy ribonucleic acid, or DNA, consists of two strands that, when put together, resemble a spiraling ladder with two “sides” and a series of regularly spaced “rungs” (Figure 1). Because DNA consists of two strands twisted into a spiral or helix, it is often described as a double helix. Let’s examine a single strand of DNA, and then consider how the two strands ﬁt together.

Each DNA strand has a backbone (or a “side” of the ladder) that is made up of alternating molecules of deoxyribose sugar and phosphate. Attached to this backbone is a series of nitrogenous bases (each represents one half of a “rung”). Only four different nitrogenous bases are used in DNA—adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), and thymine (T). A single nitrogenous base bound to a single molecule of sugar and a single phosphate is called a nucleotide. So, a strand of DNA can also be described as a string of nucleotides.

Now let’s put the two strands of DNA together. Each base binds with a base on the opposite strand using hydrogen bonds. The binding occurs in a very speciﬁc way—adenine always pairs with thymine (A–T), and guanine always pairs with cytosine (G–C).

What Is a Gene? | Genetics

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 09:01:00 -0700

What Is a Gene? | Genetics - Genes determine all sorts of traits in organisms the colors of an orchid’s ﬂowers, the length of a cat’s tail, the substances that make up a crab’s carapace or a bacterium’s cell wall. In humans, genes affect what color eyes we have, whether we are tall or short, and whether our hair is straight or curly. Genes are even believed to inﬂuence human personality traits at least to some degree. But what is a gene, and how does it determine a trait? It may surprise you to learn that a gene is simply a section of DNA that contains the instructions for making a protein. The genetic makeup of an organism, contained in its DNA, is known as the organism’s genotype. The observable physical and biochemical characteristics, or traits, of an organism are known as the organism’s phenotype. How genotype becomes phenotype how genes become traits is one of the subjects of this chapter.

But why do so many of an organism’s traits depend on genes and therefore, presumably, on proteins? Because, as we learned in the previous chapter, proteins play a huge variety of roles in living organisms they provide structure, they act

as hormones, they transport molecules, they function in cell signaling, and they protect organisms from disease. In addition, the all-important enzymes, required for practically every chemical reaction that occurs in cells, are proteins as well.

Chromosomes: Packages of Genetic Information

Let’s begin by asking where the genes are. In eukaryotic organisms, DNA is found in the cell nucleus, where it is packaged in linear structures known as chromosomes (Figure 1). Each chromosome consists of a single long piece of DNA as well as small proteins called histones. DNA is wrapped around histone “spools” like thread. Because the DNA in each chromosome is so long a single human cell contains 7 feet of DNA the histones help to keep it from becoming hopelessly tangled.

Figure 1 (a) Chromosomes are linear structures containing DNA as well as proteins called histones. Histones keep DNA packed in an orderly way. Chromosomes are loosely packed most of the time but become condensed during cell division. (b) These chromosomes are condensed in preparation for cell division. Recall that each consists of two identical sister chromatids attached at the centromere.(Adapted from Campbell, Reece, Simon, Essential Biology with Physiology, © 2004.)

Most cells have two of each kind of chromosome, like a pair of matched shoes. These cells are referred to as diploid, and their matched chromosomes are known as homologous chromosomes. Some cells such as sperm and egg cells have only one of each kind of chromosome these cells are referred to as haploid. Different organisms have different numbers of chromosomes. Chickens have 78 (39 pairs), mosquitoes have 6 (3 pairs), lettuces have 18 (9 pairs), and yeast have 32 (16 pairs). In humans, there are 46 chromosomes, or 23 pairs, as shown in Figure 2. One pair of sex chromosomes determines sex.

Figure 2 Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes. These are the chromosomes of a human male.

Females have two X sex chromosomes, whereas males have one X and one Y sex chromosome. The other chromosomes are known as autosomal chromosomes.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 08:40:00 -0700

Newton’s Laws of Motion - A heavy parachutist falls faster than a lighter one and, there fore, has a rougher landing but why? Have you tried the party trick where you pull a tablecloth out from under place settings and the dishes stay put? How does this “trick” work, and what law of motion does it demonstrate? Have you heard the expression “You can’t touch without being touched”? Does this statement about the objective world of physics have a corollary in the world of human emotions? How did Newton’s laws get us to the Moon? How do birds ﬂy, rockets take off, and people walk? How do Newton’s laws of motion interface with modern discoveries about motion gained from relativity and quantum mechanics?

Newton’s First Law of Motion

Galileo’s work set the stage for Isaac Newton, who was born shortly after Galileo’s death in 1642. By the time Newton was 23, he had developed his famous three laws of motion, which completed the overthrow of Aristotelian ideas about motion. These three laws ﬁrst appeared in one of the most famous books of all time, Newton’s PhilosophiaeNaturalisPrincipiaMathematica,*often simply known as the Principia.

The ﬁrst law is a restatement of Galileo’s concept of inertia;

the second law relates acceleration to its cause—force; and the third is the

law of action and reaction. Newton’s ﬁrst law is:

Every object continues in its state of rest, or a uniform speed in a straight line, unless acted on by a nonzero force. The key word in this law is continues; an object continues to do whatever it happens to be doing unless a force is exerted upon it. If the object is at rest, it continues in a state of rest. This is nicely demonstrated when a tablecloth is skill fully whipped from beneath dishes sitting on a tabletop, leaving the dishes in their initial state of rest (Figure 1).

On the other hand, if an object is moving, it continues to move without changing its speed or direction, as evidenced by space probes that continually move in outer space. This property of objects to resist changes in motion is called inertia (Figures1 and 2).

Figure 1. Inertia in action.

Figure 2. Rapid deceleration is sensed by the driver,who lurches forward inertia in action!

CHECK YOURSELF

When a space shuttle travels in a nearly circular orbit around the Earth, is a force required to maintain its high speed? If the force of gravity were suddenly cut off, what type of path would the shuttle follow?

CHECK YOUR ANSWER

There is no force in the direction of the shuttle’s motion, which is why it coasts at a constant speed by its own inertia. The only force acting on it is the force of gravity, which acts at right angles to its motion (toward the Earth’s center). We’ll see later that this right-angled force holds the shuttle in a circular path. If it were cut off, the shuttle

would ﬂy off in a straight line at a constant velocity.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Isaac Newton was the ﬁrst to recognize the connection between force and mass in producing acceleration, which is one of the most central rules of nature, as expressed in his second law of motion. Newton’s second law states:
The acceleration produced by a net force on an object is directly proportional to the net force, is in the same direction as the net force, and is inversely proportional to the mass of the object.

Figure 3. When you accelerate in the direction of your velocity, you speed up; when you accelerate against your velocity, you slow down; when you accelerate at an angle to your velocity, your direction changes.

Acceleration equals the net force divided by the mass. If the net force acting on an object is doubled, the object’s acceleration will be doubled. Suppose instead that the mass is doubled. Then the acceleration will be halved. If both the net force and the mass are doubled, then the acceleration will be unchanged.

An object accelerates in the direction of the net force acting upon it. Speed changes when the net force acts in the direction of the object’s motion. When the net force acts at right angles to the object’s motion, then the direction of the object changes. A net force acting in any other direction results in a combination of

speed change and deﬂection (Figure 3).

Galileo’s Concept of Inertia | Describing Motion

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 07:25:00 -0700

Figure 1 Galileo’s famous
demonstration.

Galileo’s Concept of Inertia | Describing Motion - Aristotle’s ideas were accepted as fact for nearly 2,000 years. Then, in the early 1500s, the Italian scientist Galileo demolished Aristotle’s belief that heavy objects fall faster than light ones. According to legend, Galileo dropped both heavy and light objects from the Leaning Tower of Pisa (Figure 1). He showed that, except for the effects of air friction, objects of different weights fell to the ground in the same amount of time.

Figure 2. Motion of balls on various planes.

Galileo made another discovery. He showed that Aristotle was wrong about forces being necessary to keep objects in motion. Although a force is needed to start an object moving, Galileo showed that, once it is moving, no force is needed to keep it moving except for the force needed to overcome friction. When friction is absent, a moving object needs no force to keep it moving. It will remain in motion all by it self. Rather than philosophizing about ideas, Galileo did something that was quite remarkable at the time.

Figure 3. A ball rolling down an incline on the left tends to roll up to its initial height on the right. The ball must roll a greater distance as the angle of incline on the right is reduced.

Galileo tested his revolutionary idea by experiment. This was the beginning of modern science. He rolled balls down inclined planes and observed and recorded the gain in speed as rolling continued (Figure 2). On downward-sloping planes, the force of gravity increases a ball’s speed. On an upward slope, the force of gravity decreases a ball’s speed. What about a ball rolling on a level surface? While rolling on a level surface, the ball neither rolls with nor against the vertical force of gravity it neither speeds up nor slows down. The rolling ball maintains a constant speed. Galileo reasoned that a ball moving horizontally would move forever, if friction were entirely absent (Figure 3). Such a ball would move all by itself of its own inertia.

References and Further Reading
Conceptual Integrated Science, San Francisco, 2007

Aristotle on Motion | Describing Motion

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 06:54:00 -0700

Aristotle on Motion | Describing Motion | Physics - Some two thousand years ago, Greek scientists understood some of the physics we understand today. They had a good grasp of the physics of ﬂoating objects and of some of the properties of light, but they were confused about motion.

One of the ﬁrst to study motion seriously was Aristotle, the most outstanding philosopher-scientist in ancient Greece. Aristotle attempted to clarify motion by classiﬁcation.

He classiﬁed all motion into two kinds of motion: natural motion and violent motion. We shall brieﬂy consider each, not as study material but as a background to modern ideas about motion.

In Aristotle’s view, natural motion proceeds from the “nature” of an object. He believed that all objects were some combination of four elements—earth, water, air, and ﬁre and he asserted that motion depends on the particular combination of elements an object contains. He taught that every object in the universe has a proper place, which is determined by its “nature”; any object not in its proper place will “strive” to get there. For example, an unsupported lump of clay, being of the earth, properly falls to the ground; an unimpeded puff of smoke, being of the air, properly rises; a feather properly falls to the ground, but not as rapidly as a lump of clay, because it is a mixture of air and earth. Aristotle stated that heavier objects would strive harder and fall faster than lighter ones.

Natural motion was understood to be either straight up or straight down, as in the case of all things on Earth. Natural motion beyond Earth, such as the motion of celestial objects, was circular. Both the Sun and Moon continually circle the Earth in paths without beginning or end. Aristotle taught thatdifferent rules apply in the heavens and that celestial bodies are perfect spheres made of a perfect and unchanging substance, which he called quintessence.*

Violent motion, Aristotle’s other class of motion, is produced by pushes and pulls. Violent motion is imposed motion. A person pushing a cart or lifting a heavy boulder imposes motion, as does someone hurling a stone or winning a tug-of-war. The wind imposes motion on ships. Floodwaters impose it on boulders and tree trunks. Violent motion is externally caused and is imparted to objects, which move not of themselves, not by their nature, but because of impressed forcespushes or pulls.

References and Further Reading
Aristotle, Metaphysics, Joe Sachs (trans.), Green Lion Press, 1999.
Aristotle on Motion, Conceptual Integrated Science, San Francisco, 2007

ABOUT SCIENCE

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 06:32:00 -0700

ABOUT SCIENCE - Modern civilization is built on science. Nearly all forms of technology from medicine to space travel are applications of science. But what exactly is science? Where did it originate? How should science be used? What would everyday life be like without it?

OM Kris on http://www.kris-smile.blogspot.com/

Science is an organized body of knowledge about nature. It is the product of observations, common sense, rational thinking, and (sometimes) brilliant insights. People usually do science with other people it is very much a communal human endeavor. It has been built up over thousands of years and gathered from all parts of the world. Science is an enormous gift to us today, the legacy of countless thinkers and experimenters of the past. Yet science is more than a body of knowledge. It is also a method, a way ofexploring nature and discovering the order within it. While some people have a natural aptitude for scientiﬁc work, doing science is a skill that must be learned. Importantly, science is also a tool for solving physical problems. The beginnings of science go back before recorded history, when people ﬁrst discovered repeating patterns in nature. They noted star patterns in the night sky, patterns in the weather, and patterns in animal migration. From these patterns, people learned to make predictions that gave them some control over their surroundings.

Hay my name is krisnanto, I live in Indonesia. Thanks for join your time.
CONTACT ME

Biography and Profile of Plato

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sun, 29 Apr 2012 01:49:00 -0700

Biography and Profile of Plato - To increase our science also motivated to take the Positive side of a world leader Plato was born in Athens in 427 BC and died there in 347 S.M. the age of 80 years. He came from a hereditary aristocracy who held political importance in Athenian politics.

He also aspires to be a person since his young country. But political developments in his time did not allow him to follow the path of life he wanted it. His name is Aristokles started. Name of the plateau is given by the teacher. He gained that name in connection with his broad shoulders. Commensurate with a body that tall and straight look on his face, cut his body and his face is beautiful with the corresponding true classic creation of a beautiful human being. Good and harmony over the whole stature.

In a large and healthy body is lodged too deep and penetrating mind. Pointed to his eyes as if he would fill the world who were born with ideals. Future lessons gained little, apart from the general lessons in drawing and painting is connected with the study of music and poetry. he was good at making rhyming essay before adult. As is usual with young people well in the plateau was received instruction from teachers of philosophy. Philosophy of the early lessons gained from kratylos.

Kratylos herakleitos former student who teaches "all gone" like water. Apparently no such doctrine in the heart perched on a tertpengaruh aristocrat by family tradition. Since the age of 20 years following the lessons of Socrates Plato. The lesson that is what gives him satisfaction.

Socrates influence her increasingly profound. He became a faithful disciple of Socrates. Until the end of his life Socrates remains a hero. In all karangann yes dialog shaped, cross swords, Socrates kedudukannay as a leading poet. In this way the teachings of Plato drawn out through the mouth of Socrates. After much distorted view of his philosophy and have been further from the view of his teacher, he continues to do so. Socrates describes as an interpreter in the hearts of the people of Athens are oppressed because of the power to change each other. The overwhelming power of democracy to anarchy and arbitrary replaced respectively by the power of a tyrant and the oligarchy, which finally brought Athens lost to foreign rule. Plato has a privileged position as a philosopher. He was good at poetry and science together., Art and philosophy. The views expressed in the abstract and can even he describes a style that is beautiful. No one can match the previous philosophers in this respect.

There was also afterwards. It considers the penalty imposed an unjust act of drinking poison immense influence on the world view of the plateau. Socrates is a man in his eyes honestly and fairly as possible, people who never make mistakes. Hukumn who inflicted it sees as an unjust act solely, by the people who are not morally responsible.

He was very upset and called himself the father of a child who loses. He was sad but it froze in the establishment of Socrates who refused to be given the opportunity to escape from prison, to warn his teaching "better to suffer injustice than do wrong". Shortly after Socrates died, Plato left Athens. That was the beginning of 12 years he wandered from the year 399 BC at first he went to Megara, where Euclid teaches philosophy. For some time he did not know very well there. There is a story that said that there he made up some dialogue, which of the various terms in a matter of life, based on the teachings of Socrates. Of Megara he went to kyrena, where he deepened his knowledge in a mathematical pliers science teacher was named Theodoros. There he also taught philosophy and authored books.

Then he went to southern Italy and on to Syracuse sisiria island, which at that time was ruled by a tyrant, who was named Dionysios. Dionysios took plato live in his palace. He was proud that among people who are poets from around the world Grik the famous name. Learning plateau there are familiar with the law Dionysios young king named Dion, who eventually became her best friend. Among them there is an agreement, so that plateau affect Dionysios with the teachings of philosophy., In order to achieve a social improvement. As if it came for him to carry out his theory of good government in practice. Has long been embedded in his heart, that the misery in the world will not end before the philosophers become kings or kings become philosophers. But the teachings of Plato who stressed on the moral sense in all his works, gradually dull Dianysios. In the year 367 S.M. plateau after 20 years living in the academia, the receipt of the invitation and urging of Dion to come to Syracuse. Dianysios evil dead. He was succeeded as king by his son by the name of Dionysios II. Dion hopes that the plateau can educate and teach the young king's "view of the philosophy of government liabilities in the opinion of the plateau". attracted by the ideals of government to implement theory in practice, the plateau off to Syracuse. He was greeted with joy by the king. But for the king's, philosophy is not so attractive. Finally intrige, slander, and incitement is rampant in the palace. Dion finally hated by the king and thrown out of Sicily. Any effort to defend plateau unsuccessful. He himself with a new struggle to return to Athens. But six years later in 361 S.M. again captivated the hearts plateau for the third time coming to Syracuse. Dionysios II king with his friend Dion and tried, so he can go back to Syracuse. But the point was not successful. And hope to try once again carry out his ideals tang about good governance in practice fail completely. With patience, the heart of a philosopher he returned to Athens. Since then he focused his attention on Akademi9a as a teacher and author. A philosopher wrote about him szebai pliers following: "do good plateau. He can learn to teach such as Solon and Socrates. He was good at educating young people who want to learn and be able to captivate the hearts and attention on her friends. His students once saying to him like he was dear to them. He was to them is a friend, teacher and guidance ". When a student celebrating her marriage, plato 80-year-old came to the banquet that evening. He also cheerful and happy after a bit late at night, he retired to a quiet corner in the house. there he fell asleep and slept for ever with no back up. The next day the whole of Athens drove him to the grave. Plato was never married and no children. Nephew replacing SPEUSIPPOS Akademia care. The thought that triggered PLATO: The essence of the philosophy of Plato is his opinion about the idea. That is a very difficult teaching memahamkannya. One reason is that the respective ideologies are always evolving ideas about pliers. Beginning with the idea put forward as a theory of logic. Later expanded into a philosophy of life, a common basis for political and social sciences and include religious views. Plato separates the visible reality in the natural birth, where the prevailing view Herakleitos, and understanding the abstract nature where the prevailing view of Parmenides. In the first field are only estimates. Because if everything is flowing with no stop-stop, every item for every person at all times only be imagined as dimukanya. Then the man becomes the size of everything, as said by Protagoras. But knowledge can give you what it is, the idea. Applicability idea that does not depend on the views and opinions of the people. It arises solely due to the intelligence of thinking. Ith the understanding that the mind is to look for ideas. Idea on hakikatnay already there, just looking to live. Principal review the philosophy of Plato is to seek knowledge about knowledge pliers. He departed from the teachings of his teacher Socrates who said "mind is to know". Budi is based on knowledge requires a doctrine of knowledge as the basis of philosophy. The contradiction between the mind and outlook to the size of the plateau. Understanding of the knowledge contained therein, and mind, he was looking for along with Socrates, the nature and origin entirely different from the scene. Its character is not derived from experience. Landscape only reason to go to understanding. He obtained the reasonable efforts itself. Idea plateau notion, not only understanding the type, but also the shape of the real situation. Idea is not a thought, but a reality. Parmenides opinion about the existence of an eternal and unchanging. But a new plateau in the teachings of pliers is his opinion about a world that does not stature. Grik philosophy before he did not know such a world picture of the world. also in the mind of Parmenides, who fills the fullest, so that in the next existence is no longer an empty place, there is something that stature. Bodied world is a world which can be determined by the views and experiences. In all it's all moving and constantly changing, nothing is permanent and eternal. Of views and experience alone will never achieve the sense of knowledge. Dealing ith the world there is no stature of the idea, the higher level and that the object of knowledge of understanding the intended meaning when it gained the right shape, it does not change again and place in the world of ideas. Idea that's what gave birth to the actual knowledge. On the plateau of the world picture that there are two levels which unite the ideas of the old philosophy. Herakleitos teachings about tang all flow where there is nothing in the world still can fit the stature of the plateau. The visible world contains entities that stature. The visible world contains bodied bodies, which are the object of the opposite view and experience art and constantly changing disebutnyadunia herakleitos always preformance events. There was found on-meneris arise and disappear with no one remained. Parmeides mind is jointed at the one and eliminate the visible remains are numerous and changeable plateau can be placed in a discarnate world, the world of ideas. Plateau in the conception of a world stature and world stature who do not separate at all. This is a continuation rather than his opinion about the difference between the mind and tang sight. Knowledge with the understanding that there are only familiar with the world and not be. Views and experiences about the world that has always been. But the world who was not solely his own. Everywhere have something to do with a discarnate world, the world's idea, which gives meaning and purpose to the world is born. Menurur plateau sense as it shows the wide variety of ideas. Of three terms corresponding to the goods, properties, relationships, there are ideas that coincide. But the idea that the world is a unity in which there are pertingkatan degrees. Idea is the supreme idea of goodness, as God is shaping the world. Plato equates with the sun shining on it. Good idea not only for the purpose of knowledge in the world timblnya born, but also because the growth and development of everything. Idea dalah basic goodness. Because the idea of the world arranged according to the system teleology "an orderly arrangement that is appropriate according to a specific purpose. Because the rays emanating from the idea of goodness, all interested in him and because he was so because the purpose of everything. In a world that he is the cause of the origin daripengetahuan. But because it is in fact none other than the destination ". In a hierarchical system under the idea that goodness is a discarnate spirit world and the world masukke move. Then the idea of beauty that meeting to do with the ultimate idea. He is primarily a form of shadow than good in the real world. Light of the beautiful is what makes life tajub and miss going back to the origin of the world. Wonderful to be a strong liaison work between the invisible world and the world is born. A beautiful soul who incarnated in deeds held adab, the arts, and sciences, education and political effort, eventually rising to the top in the form of beautiful and pure, his native place in a world that no-bodied. Thus the idea so arranged in a row in the sequence covered by the union. In teaching there is a plateau about kosepsi idea that seems odd, but keep his seat, when viewed from the way he thinks. Between the world and the world who was not bodied dibentangkannya a neutral area of separation. Area is the area of mathematical painting: figures and building geometry. The painting is different dengab changing world and a while because he applies it for ever. Its the same idea. He is different from the idea, because the building could be seen and repeatedly described. In this respect it is similar to the goods-bodied. The painting was no mathematical meaning. Plato describes with it in a way, how the soul rises to the top, from the birth dnia look into the world idea. That high can not be achieved simultaneously with a single jump. Mathematics is a good tool to increase gradually, angsr with the proper sequence. Guidance to the world of ideas as well according to the plateau, so that above the entrance to the Academy he sent rekamkan sentence: "people who do not know math do not go here". Plato's Ethics: opinion on ethical jointed plateau beyond existing doctrine of ideas. The duality of the world in theoretical knowledge into practice the continuation of life. Therefore depend on the willingness of an opinion, the value of his will were determined also by that opinion. of actual knowledge that achieved by dialectical reason arises which is higher than that presented by the knowledge of the view. And so, on the plateau there are 2 kinds of reason. First, the philosophy of mind arising from knowledge to understanding. Second, the usual reason that many people get carried away by the habit. Attitude to life that is used not rise from the conviction, but tailored to the moral people in everyday life. Ideal State: The view of the state and extent of the plateau is still adrift in his time. He is more backward looking than the prominent. Grik country at that time was the city. The population is no more than two or three thousand souls. City dwellers are independent people, who have owned land located outside the city is done by the slaves. Among them were merchants, artisans, good art and state officials. According to the custom at that time the rough work done by slaves.

They were not considered a resident for not independent. Plato berpemdapat that in every country all classes and all the people one is merely a tool for the good of all. Well-being of all that is the actual goal. And that's precisely what determines the division of labor. In an ideal state that employers glongan produce, but do not govern. Guards protecting group, but not govern.

Class intellectuals, fed and protected, and they govern. The third kind of mind that are owned by their masinggolongan, the wise, courageous and self-control can be organized with the cooperation of the fourth reason for the community, namely justice.

Donations for the development of logic: First, the essays he wrote in his youth is the time of Socrates were alive until shortly before he died. The books which he wrote at that time in the Apologie, Kriton, Ion, Protagoras, Laches, Politeia Book I, lysis, and Euthyphron Charmides. In Plato's dialogue the whole adhered to the founding of his teacher Socrates. In the books there is no plateau thoughts that arise then the style philosophies., The doctrine of the idea.

Ideals expressed in the writings of the period was the establishment of understanding in the area of ethics. Second, the handicraft of which he wrote the famous preformance as a "transitional period". That time period is also called Megara, the plateau time staying there temporarily. Dialogues allegedly wrote in those days was Gorgias, Kratylos, Menon, Hippias and several others. Development of the mind of Socrates plateau off the line. At vajaran Socrates, who seeks to understand the philosophy of the previous opinion mainly connected orfisisme establishment and Pythagoras. In the opinion of some of the dialogue envisaged tang plateau about life before birth into the world and the soul that lives forever. Here lies the beginning of his mind towards the idea, which later became the center of view of philosophy.

Third, the fruit is prepared in the hands of immaturity. Famous writings of that time and famous of all time is Phaidros, Symposion, and Politeia Phaidon Books II-X. teaching on the subject of mind plato idea and became the basis for the theory of knowledge, metaphysics, physics, psychology, ethics, politics, and aesthetics. Especially in a development Phaidros bright mind. Based on religious views are influenced by the teachings orfisme and Pythagoras, he describes the nature and destiny of the human soul.

In his book politea (republic) are created from time to time reflected in the development of his philosophy of looking for the sense determination about pliers to pad the hang of things in the world are born to eternal idea of majors. Fourth, the fruit is hand written on the day tuanay. Dialogues had written at that time often called Theaitetos, Parmenides, Sophistos, Politicos, Philibos, Timaios, Kritias, and nomoi.

But there are experts who witnessed the authenticity of some of the dialogue. whether the dialog no.2, 3.4 and 5 in this sequence actually written by a plateau?. Perhaps the dialogues were written by students based on the description and the lessons it provided. There is a marked change in the description of the time. idea, which usually includes the whole, is a little backward.

Logic is more prominent position. Attention to circumstances that were born and grew events in history. To understand fully the contents Timaios must have prior knowledge about the sciences special pliers, especially the natural sciences and health sciences. With a description of the plateau lies in the dialogue that brings the reader into the area of cosmology and natural philosophy. The dialogue indicates that the plateau was not only a philosopher who controlled the whole philosophy of the previous Grik, but also learn the various special sciences known in his time. In all it's made up his mind toward one goal ..

Timaios virtually a theological doctrine of the birth of the world and rule the world. Understand about tang plateau formation is based on the opinion of the world Empedocles, that the mini-style composed of four elements of origin, namely fire, air, water, and soil. But about the development process so berlanan pliers opinion. According platop God is the builder of the four elements of nature along by it in various forms into a single unit. Into a form that the soul is God memasaukjkan world to world domination. Therefore, the construction of the world as well as determining the attitude of human life in this world.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PLATO WORKS

Be the Socratic

In the works written in his youth, Plato always show personality and a bouquet of Socrates as the main topic of his essay.

Shaped dialog

Almost all of Plato's dialogues are written in the tone. In Letter VII, Plato argues that the pen and ink to freeze real thought written in the silent letters. Therefore, he argues, if it thought it should be written, then the most suitable is written in the form of dialogue.

The existence of myths

Plato used myths to explain the doctrine of abstract and adiduniawi

Verhaak characterize the writings of Plato into the literature rather than to the scientific work systematically for the last two characteristics, namely, in his writings and myths contained in the form of dialogue.

VIEWS OF PLATO IDEAS, IDEAS AND WORLD sensory world

Ideas

Plato's most important contribution is his view of the idea. Plato's view of the ideas influenced by Socrates' view of the definition. Idea is meant by Plato is not the idea intended by modern people. Modern people think the idea is an idea or a response that is in the mind alone. In Plato's ideas are not created by human thought. Idea is not dependent on human thought, but the human mind which depends on the idea. Idea is the image of the subject and the premiere of the reality, nonmaterial, eternal, and unchanging. Idea already exists outside and independent of our thinking. These ideas are related to each other. For example, the idea of two paintings can not be separated from the idea of two, two ideas alone can not separate the idea even. However, in the end there is the highest peak in the relationship between these ideas. This peak is called the idea of "beautiful". This idea goes beyond any existing idea.

Sensory world

Sensory world is a world that includes physical objects are concrete, which can be perceived by our senses. Sensory world is nothing but the reflection or shadow than ideal world. Always there is a change in this sensory world. Everything contained in this mortal physical world, can be damaged, and may die.

Idea world

World of ideas is the world's only open to our reason. In this world nothing changes, all ideas are eternal and unchangeable. There is only one idea "good", "beautiful". In the world of ideas everything is perfect. This not only refers to the rough stuff that can be held, but also the concepts of mind, the intellectual fruit. Let's say that the concept of "virtue" and "truth".

VIEWS OF PLATO WORKS ART AND BEAUTY

Plato's view of Art

Plato's view of art is influenced by his views on the idea. His attitude toward art is very clear in his Politeia (Republic). Plato's negative view of art. He considered works of art as mimesis mimesos. According to Plato, art is just a clone of the existing reality. Reality that there is an imitation (mimesis) of the original. The original is contained in the idea. The idea is far superior, better, and more beautiful than the real thing.

Plato's view of beauty

Plato's understanding of beauty is influenced his understanding of the sensory world, contained in the Philebus. Plato argues that the real beauty lies in the world of ideas. He argues that simplicity is the hallmark of beauty, both in the universe and in the artwork. But, still, beauty is in the universe is merely superficial beauty and beauty is in the lower tiers.

Biography and Profile of Michael Faraday

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sat, 28 Apr 2012 22:35:00 -0700

Biography and Profile of Michael Faraday - Michael Faraday was born in 1791 in Newington, England. Originating in the family dispossessed and generally learn on their own. At the age of fourteen he was an apprentice carpenter so volumes and selling books, and he used this opportunity many people read books like crazy.

When he turned twenty-year-old, he visited the lectures given by renowned British scientist Sir Humphry Davy. Faraday was fascinated and gaped open. Davy wrote to lady luck and a short story accepted as his assistant.

Within a few years, Faraday was able to make new discoveries on his own creation. Although he did not have adequate background in mathematics, as a natural scientist he was unchallenged.

Faraday's first important discovery in the field of electricity occurred in 1821. Oersted two years earlier had found that the magnetic compass needle usually can be moved if an electric current flowed in the wire are not far apart. These make Faraday concluded, if the magnet diketatkan, which moves precisely wire.

Work on the basis of this allegation, he managed to make a clear scheme where the wire will spin continuous contact with the magnet along the electrical power is applied to the wire. Indeed in this case Faraday had discovered the first electric motor, a first scheme using electrical current to make something moving objects. No matter how primitive, is the discovery of Faraday's "ancestor" of all electric motors are used today's world.

This is an incredible trailblazer. However, its practical usefulness is limited avail, as long as there is no method to move the electric current from the battery than simple chemical at the time.

Faraday believes, there should be a way of using the magnet to move the power, and he's constantly looking for a way how to find the method. Now, the magnet is not moving does not affect the electric current which is adjacent to the wire. But in 1831, Faraday discovered that when the magnet passed through a wire, current will flow in the wire while the magnet moves. This situation is called "electro-magnetic influence," and this discovery is called "Faraday's Law" and is generally considered the most important invention of Faraday and greatest.

This is a monumental discovery, for two reasons. First, "Faraday's Law" has a fundamental significance in relation to our theoretical understanding of electro-magnetic.

Second, the electro-magnetic can be used to drive continuous flow of electric current as demonstrated by the Faraday by making the first electric dynamo. Although our power generators to supply the cities and factories today are much more perfect than what was done Faraday, but all based on similar principles to the electro magnetic influence.

Faraday also contributed in the field of chemistry. He made a plan change so the liquid gas, he found various types of chemicals including benzene. More importantly, the work of his efforts in the field of electro-chemistry (chemical investigation of the effect of electric current).

Faraday with high precision investigation resulted in two laws "elektrolysis" that mention his name coupled with the basic principles of electro chemistry. He also popularized the term used a lot in that field such as: anode, cathode, electrode and ion.

Faraday and was introduced to the world likewise an important idea about the physics of magnetic lines and electric power lines. With the emphasis that is not its own magnetic field but in between, he helped prepare the way for various kinds of advances in modern physics, including Maxwell's statement about the similarities between the two expressions by sign (=) such as 2x + 5 = 10.

Faraday also discovered, when a combination of two light passed through a magnetic field, something in between will be amended. This invention has particular significance, because this is the first clue that there is a relationship between the light with magnet.

Faraday was not only intelligent but also beautiful and have style as a speaker. But, he is simple, do not take the matter in terms of fame, money and adulation. He refused to be knighted and also refused to become chairman of the British Royal Society. Live long and happy marriage, just do not have children. He died in 1867 near the city of London.

Biography and Profile of Karl Marx

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sat, 28 Apr 2012 21:11:00 -0700

Biography and Profile of Karl Marx - Karl Marx was born in Trier, Prussia, May 5, 1818. his father, a lawyer, his family menafkai relatively well, the typical middle-class life. His parents were of Jewish priests (rabbis).

But, for reasons of his father's business became adherents of the teachings of Luther when Karl Marx was very young. In 1841 Marx received a doctorate of philosophy from the University of Berlin, the University is highly influenced by Hegel and the teacher - a young teacher adherents of Hegel's philosophy, but critical thinking. Marx doctorate in philosophy from the study can be tedious, but it is precede the study of the various ideas that emerged later.

After graduation he became a writer for a radical and liberal newspaper within 10 months he became editor in chief of the newspaper. But, .. because of his political stance, the newspaper was later shut down the government.

Essay - an essay published earlier in the period reflects a conviction that membiumbing Marx throughout his life.

Writing essays Marx sprinkle it liberally on democratic principles, he refused keabstrakat Hegelian philosophy, naive dreams of communist activists who urged utopiadan idea what he regarded as a political act prematurely. In gagasn activists reject this idea of Marx lay the foundation for life itself.

Practical efforts, even in driving the mass though, will be in charge with the cannon when it is considered Berbah efforts. However, the intellectual ideas that can lead us and to conquer our beliefs, ideas that can freeze us, are fetters - the fetters in which one can only be separated from it by sacrificing his life, the ideas are like the devil so that people can only handle dengna surrendered to Marx (Marx, 1842/1977: 20)

Marx married in 1843 and soon after he was forced to leave Germany for a more libaral DAPT in Paris. In Paris he bergualat with the idea of Hegel and his supporters, but he also faces two sets of new ideas - the French socialism and English political economy.

In a unique way she combines Hegelian, socialism and political economy then menentuka intellectual orientation. It is very important also is meeting with people who became lifelong friends, donors and Fredrich Engels kolabolatornyayakni (Carver, 1983) Engels child to become a ruler of a textile mill socialist who criticized kondisis face life in the working class. Many of Marx pity the misery of the working class comes from exposure to Engels and his ideas.

Marx and Engels in 1844 held a lengthy discussion at a famous café in Paris and lay the groundwork for a lifelong friendship. Engels said that discussions about "our complete agreement in all budang theory becomes real and we start the cooperative agreement since it" (McLellan, 1993:131) in the following year Engels published the works of the condition Of The Working Class in England. During that period Marx published numerous works very hard at to understand (kebenyakan not published during his lifetime), including the Holy Family and The German ideology (written with Engels) and he wrote the 1844 economic and Philosophic manuscripts to indicate his concern for the economic play increased.

Although Marx and Engels possessed the same theoretical orientation, but there are also some differences between them. Marx tends to be a lack of intellectual theoretical basis and are very family oriented.

Engels is a practical thinker, neat and orderly and employers who do not believe in family institutions. Although they are different, Marx and Engels forge close cooperation so that they berkolabirasi write books and articles and work together in radical organizations, and even helped finance the Marx Engels for the rest of his life Marx mencurahklan allowing his attention to the intellectual and political activities.

Although there is close association between the name of Marx and Engels, but Engels explained that he was a junior friend;

Marx is able to work very well without me. I have never achieved such a feat achieved in Marx. Marx's understanding of higher, further experience and his views more widely and faster than me. Genius is someone Marx (Engels, in the quotation in McLellan, 1973: 131-132)

Many believe that Engels failed to understand the ins and outs of Marx. After Marx died, Engels became the major spokesman for the Marxian theory, and in many ways distorted and too menyerderhanakannya, though he remained loyal to the political perspective that he wrought with Marx.

Because some of his writings have been disturbing the Prussian government, the French government (at the request of Prussia) expelled in 1845 and therefore Marx Marx moved to Brussels. Radikelismenya meninggkat and he became an active member in the international revolutionary movement.

He also joined the Communist League and with Engels asked to write the league's charter, the result is Communist manifestor 1848, a masterpiece of the mark by political slogans are renowned (eg 'the burh around the world unite'!).

In 1849 he moved to London and, given the failure of the political revolution of 1848, he withdrew from revolutionary activity and eyebrows to a more detailed rsiset activities of the role of system ka [capitalist. This study eventually produced three volumes of Das kapital.jilid first published in 1867;

the other two volumes published after his death. During the research and writing that he is living in poverty, finance simple life of writing and grant honorarium from Engels. Marx back in 1864 involved in political activity, joining the 'The International', a labor movement internasio nal. He was soon prominent in the movement and for several years devoted to the movement.

He started getting popularity, both as an international leader and as a writer des capital. The split of international movement in 1876, the failure of revolutionary movements and disease - the disease, making Marx finally collapsed. His wife died in 1881 and her daughter in 1882 and Marx himself died in 1883.

Biography and Profile of Isaac Newton

krisnantoidiots1@gmail.com (OM Kris) — Sat, 28 Apr 2012 20:46:00 -0700

Biography and Profile of Isaac Newton - Thank you hopefully Biography and Profile of Isaac Newton. a little more familiar with Isaac Newton may we all have a lot with applicable with frequent mention his name on in physics with Newton's laws, please see this blog where leaders and people know famous in the world. to increase our science also motivated to take the Positive side of a world leader Isaac Newton in physics.

Biography of Isaac Newton, Sir Isaac Newton was a physicist, mathematician, astronomer and chemist who came from England. He is also the greatest scientists and most influential in the world who ever lived, was born in Woolsthrope, England, right on Christmas day in 1642, the year coinciding with the death of Galileo. Like the Prophet Muhammad, he was born after his father died he was heliocentric and followers of the most influential scientists in history, even said to be the father of modern physics.

Early times of Isaac Newton

Newton was born in Woolsthorpe-by-Colsterworth, hamlet in countyLincolnshire born prematurely, at which time premature infants are not expected presence in the world.His father, Isaac, died three months before the birth of Newton, and two years later his mother, Hannah Ayscough Newton, is married to another man and left Newton with his grandmother. Newton includes the smart kids.

According to the E.T. Bell (1937, Simon and Schuster) and H. Eves:

"Newton started school while living with his grandmother in the village and then sent to a local language school in Grantham where he eventually became the smartest kids in school. When the school at Grantham, he lived in a boarding house owned by a local pharmacist named William Clarke. Before going to school at the University of Cambridge at the age of 19, Newton had established the love with a foster brother William Clarke, Anne Storer. When Newton focused on his lessons, his love story with a more uncertain and ultimately Storer married someone else. Many menegatakan that he, Newton, always remembering his love story next, although Newton never mentioned having a boyfriend and even marry. "

Since the age of 12 to 17 years, Newton was educated at Kings School The school is located in Grantham (his signature is still there in the school library). His family issued a Newton from school on the grounds that he was a farmer alone, however, Newton does not look like his new job.

But in the end after convincing his family and his mother with the help of his uncle and teacher, Newton can finish school at the age of 18 with satisfactory grades.

In the boy he had shown real prowess in the field of mechanics and very skillful use of his hands. Although children with a brilliant brain, the school seemed reluctant and did not attract much attention.

When stepping on puberty, her mother out of school with the hope that his son could be a good farmer. Fortunately the mother could be persuaded, that the main talent lies not there.

At age eighteen he entered the University of Cambridge. This is where Newton is quick to absorb what was then known to science and mathematics and quickly began his own investigation. Between the ages of twenty-one and twenty-seven years he had laid the foundations of scientific theory which, in turn, then change the world.

Mid-17th century was a period of hatchery science. The invention of telescope near the beginning of the century has revolutionized the entire opinion about astrology. English philosopher Francis Bacon and the French philosopher Rene Descartes both call upon scientists throughout Europe for no longer rely on the authority of Aristotle, but to experiment and research on the basic point of departure and his own purposes.

What is proposed by Bacon and Descartes, already practiced by the great Galileo. The use of binoculars, a new discovery for astronomy research by Newton have revolutionized the field investigation, and he did in the mechanics sector has resulted in what is now known as "Newton's laws of motion" of the first.

With a variety of scientific work accomplished, Newton wrote a book Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, which is described in the book about the theory of gravity in general, under the laws of motion are found, where the objects will be drawn down due to gravity.

Working together with Gottfried Leibniz, Newton developed the theory of calculus.Newton was the first to explain the theory of motion and was instrumental in formulating the circular motion of Kepler's laws, which extend Newton law by assuming that a circular orbit motion is not necessarily a perfect circle (like the elipse, hyperbola and parabola).

Newton discovered the color spectrum when performing experiments with white light through a prism, he also believed that the beam is a collection of particles. Newton also developed the law of cooling in the gain of the binomial theory, and find a principle of momentum and angular momentum.

Opinion of the Head of the Berlin Academy of Sciences of Newton: "Newton was a genius that ever existed and the most fortunate, we can not find more than a world system to be established."

Other great scientists, such as William Harvey, discoverer of blood circulation affairs and governance inventor Johannes Kepler motion of planets around the sun, presents information that is fundamental for the scholars. Even so, pure science is still a hobby of the intellectuals, and still has not been proven, when used in a technology-that science can change the basic pattern of human life as predicted by Francis Bacon.

Although Copernicus and Galileo had kicked aside some stray assumptions about ancient knowledge and has been presenting a more genah understanding of the universe, but no one thought the subject was carefully formulated to be capable of turning the pile sense landless and unfounded as she arranged them in a theory which enables the development of the predictions are more scientific.

None other than Isaac Newton was the one person capable of presenting a collection of neatly summarized the theory and laid the foundation stone of modern science is now the current is so fad.

Newton himself somewhat reluctantly publish and announce its findings. The basic idea was drawn up long before 1669, but many new theories were publicly known for years afterward. The first publication of his findings is concerned penjungkir reversal, the old notion of things light. In a series of careful experiments, Newton discovered the fact that what is commonly called the "white light" is actually none other than that contained a mixture of all colors in the rainbow.

And he was very careful analysis of the legal consequences of reflection and refraction of light. He adhered to the law-in 1668 - designed and well built the first reflecting telescope, binoculars model used by most investigators kemintang star today. This discovery, together with the results obtained in the field of optical experiments that have been diperagakannya, presented by him to the institution of the British royal investigators when he was twenty-nine years.

Newton's success in the field of optics have probably been sufficient to put Newton on the list order this book. Meanwhile, there are still discoveries that are less important in the field of pure mathematics and in the field of mechanics. Largest offerings in the field of mathematics is the discovery of the "integral calculus" which may be solved when he was twenty-three or twenty-four years. This discovery is the most important works in the field of modern mathematics.

Not just like a seed that grew thereof modern mathematical theory, but also furniture that without the inevitable discovery that advancement of modern knowledge that comes after is impossible. Even Newton did not do anything else, the discovery of "integral calculus" it alone is sufficient to lead him into a tall ladder in the list order this book.

But Newton's discoveries is the most important in the field of mechanics, knowledge about the movement of some object. Galileo was the first discoverer of the laws that describe the motion of an object when not influenced by outside forces. Of course, essentially all objects are influenced by outside forces and the most important issues in the matter of mechanics is how objects move in that state. This problem is solved by Newton's second law of motion and famous and can be regarded as the laws of classical physics are most important.

The second law (as described dcngan matcmatik equation F = ma) provides that the acceleration of an object is equal to the net force divided by mass of the body. Newton's second law to add the famous third law of motion (assert that in every action, such as physical strength, there is a reaction similar to that conflict) as well as the most famous discovery of the scientific principle of universal law of gravity.

The fourth device of this law, if combined, would form a unified system applicable for the entire macro-mechanical systems, ranging from pergoyangan pendulum to move planets in orbit around the sun that can be supervised and his movements can be predicted. Newton did not just assign the laws of mechanics, but he himself also uses the tools of mathematical calculus, and show that the fundamental formulas can be used for solving problems.

Newton's laws can and have been used in large-scale scientific and technical areas of design of various equipment. In his lifetime, pemraktekan the most dramatic is in the field of astronomy. In this sector, even Newton stood at the front. In 1678 Newton published his famous book Principles of mathematical natural philosophy (usually summarized Principia only).

In it Newton put forward his theory of the law of gravity and the laws of motion. He shows how these laws can be used to estimate accurately the movements of planets around the sun. The main issue movements astronomy is how to estimate the exact position and movement-kemintang stars and planets, thus completely solved by Newton just a sambar. For his work that Newton is often considered the greatest astronomer of all the greatest.

What is our assessment of the significance of Newton scholarship? If we open the open the index encyclopedia of science, we will meet together with particulars regarding Newton's laws and its findings on two or three times more than the particulars of any scientist, too. Leibniz said the great scholars who did not even close to Newton has been involved in a heated argument: "Of all things related to mathematics from the developing world up to begin the Newton, that the best contribution."

Also praise given by the great French scholar, Laplace: "The book Principia Newton was far ahead of all the products of human genius in the world." And Langrange often said that Newton was the greatest genius who ever lived. While Ernst Mach in his writing in 1901 said, "All of the mathematical problem is solved since the days of his life is the basis for the development of mechanics based on Newton's laws."

This may be a great discovery of Newton's most complicated: he found a container of separation between fact and law, able to describe some of the magic, but not much help to the allegations; he bequeathed to us the laws of the continuum that can be used for problems in space physics a very broad scope of confidential and contain the possibility to make the right guesses.

In this brief description, it is impossible to expose in detail the findings of Newton. As a result, many of the works rather less well known are forced to set aside even have an important meaning in terms of discoveries in the field of its own problems. Newton also made great contributions in the field of thermodynamics (the study of the heat) and in the field of acoustics (the science of sound).

And he also who presents a crystal clear explanation of how physical principles of "preservation" of the motion so as not to waste as well as "preservation" of the angular motion of something. Queue of the present invention can be further extended if you want: Newtonlah people who invented the binomial theorem in mathematics is very logical and accountable. Want to add anymore? He also, of none other than, the first to express the particulars conclusively the origin of the stars.

Now, look at from the point of the development of science. In the last five centuries, thanks to modern scientific discoveries, the way of everyday human life has experienced great revolution. How to dress differently, eat differently, how to work and manifold. In fact, the relaxed way of life lazed even not at all similar to what was done one time in 1500 AD. Scientific discoveries have revolutionized not only the technology and economics, but also completely change the political, religious thought, art and philosophy.

Very langkalah aspects of human life are still "squat in place" not moved an inch even in the presence of a scientific revolution. The reason is-once again for this reason that became the reason why so many scientists and inventors of new ideas contained in the register book. Newton not only the most intelligent among the ranks of intelligent brains of the brain, but at the same time he was the most influential in the development of scientific theory.

That's why he got the honor to occupy the sequence is almost the top of many of the most influential man in human history. Newton's final breath in 1727, was interred in Westminster Abbey, the first scientist to get that kind of respect.

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