Study English Online Free

One hundred most common words in English

2011-02-26T11:14:00.001-08:00

Recommended books for ESL - English Gramma and English Vocaburary

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These English learning books are designed especially for ESL learners. I'm highly recommended of ESL students who want to improve their English skills both in writing and reading.

Easy ways to learn Reading English Language

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There are many ways you can learn English. One easy way I found is to watch movies with English Subtitle. That's way I can here it in English and see all the words in English. English is my second language and I'm still learning about it everyday. Now that I have four years-old twins girls I teach them to read books in English. They are learning really fast and know how to read and write in basic English language. I feel like I'm reviewing my English as well. Another way to learn English is to start with children literature like Dr. Seuss books e.g. Go Dog Go, One Fish, Two Fish. These books are great for beginners who want to learn how to read English. These books show you words that are rhyme together and also great ways to learn basic English grammar.

Chapter VIII: Pitfalls to Avoid

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CHAPTER VIII

PITFALLS TO AVOID

Common Stumbling Blocks—Peculiar
Constructions—Misused Forms.

ATTRACTION

Very often the verb is separated from its real nominative or
subject by several intervening words and in such cases one is
liable to make the verb agree with the subject nearest to it. Here
are a few examples showing that the leading writers now and then
take a tumble into this pitfall:

"The partition which the two ministers made of the powers of
government were singularly
happy."—Macaulay.

(Should be was to agree with its subject,
partition.)
"One at least of the qualities which fit it for training
ordinary men unfit it for training an extraordinary
man."—Bagehot.

(Should be unfits to agree with subject
one.)
"The Tibetans have engaged to exclude from their country those
dangerous influences whose appearance were the chief cause
of our action."—The Times.

(Should be was to agree with appearance.)
"An immense amount of confusion and indifference prevail
in these days."—Telegraph.

(Should be prevails to agree with amount.)

ELLIPSIS

Errors in ellipsis occur chiefly with prepositions.

His objection and condoning of the boy's course, seemed to say
the least, paradoxical.

(The preposition to should come after objection.)

Many men of brilliant parts are crushed by force of
circumstances and their genius forever lost to the world.

(Some maintain that the missing verb after genius is are,
but such is ungrammatical. In such cases the right verb should be
always expressed: as—their genius is forever lost to
the world.

THE SPLIT INFINITIVE

Even the best speakers and writers are in the habit of placing a
modifying word or words between the to and the remaining
part of the infinitive. It is possible that such will come to be
looked upon in time as the proper form but at present the splitting
of the infinitive is decidedly wrong. "He was scarcely able
to even talk" "She commenced to rapidly
walk around the room." "To have really loved
is better than not to have at all loved." In these
constructions it is much better not to split the infinitive. In
every-day speech the best speakers sin against this observance.

In New York City there is a certain magistrate, a member of "the
400," who prides himself on his diction in language. He tells this
story: A prisoner, a faded, battered specimen of mankind, on whose
haggard face, deeply lined with the marks of dissipation, there
still lingered faint reminders of better days long past, stood
dejected before the judge. "Where are you from?" asked the
magistrate. "From Boston," answered the accused. "Indeed," said the
judge, "indeed, yours is a sad case, and yet you don't seem
to thoroughly realise how low you have sunk." The man
stared as if struck. "Your honor does me an injustice," he said
bitterly. "The disgrace of arrest for drunkenness, the
mortification of being thrust into a noisome dungeon, the publicity
and humiliation of trial in a crowded and dingy courtroom I can
bear, but to be sentenced by a Police Magistrate who splits his
infinitives—that is indeed the last blow."

ONE

The indefinite adjective pronoun one when put in place of
a personal substantive is liable to raise confusion. When a
sentence or expression is begun with the impersonal one the
word must be used throughout in all references to the subject.
Thus, "One must mind one's own business if one wishes to succeed"
may seem prolix and awkward, nevertheless it is the proper form.
You must not say—"One must mind his business if he wishes to
succeed," for the subject is impersonal and therefore cannot
exclusively take the masculine pronoun. With any one it is
different. You may say—"If any one sins he should acknowledge
it; let him not try to hide it by another sin."

ONLY

This is a word that is a pitfall to the most of us whether
learned or unlearned. Probably it is the most indiscriminately used
word in the language. From the different positions it is made to
occupy in a sentence it can relatively change the meaning. For
instance in the sentence—"I only struck him that
time," the meaning to be inferred is, that the only thing I did to
him was to strike him, not kick or otherwise abuse him. But
if the only is shifted, so as to make the sentence read-"I
struck him only that time" the meaning conveyed is, that
only on that occasion and at no other time did I strike him. If
another shift is made to-"I struck only him that time," the
meaning is again altered so that it signifies he was the only
person I struck.

In speaking we can by emphasis impress our meaning on our
hearers, but in writing we have nothing to depend upon but the
position of the word in the sentence. The best rule in regard to
only is to place it immediately before the word or
phrase it modifies or limits.

ALONE

is another word which creates ambiguity and alters meaning. If
we substitute it for only in the preceding example the meaning of
the sentence will depend upon the arrangement. Thus "I alone
struck him at that time" signifies that I and no other struck him.
When the sentence reads "I struck him alone at that time" it
must be interpreted that he was the only person that received a
blow. Again if it is made to read "I struck him at that time
alone" the sense conveyed is that that was the only occasion
on which I struck him. The rule which governs the correct use of
only is also applicable to alone.

OTHER AND ANOTHER

These are words which often give to expressions a meaning far
from that intended. Thus, "I have nothing to do with that
other rascal across the street," certainly means that I am a
rascal myself. "I sent the despatch to my friend, but another
villain intercepted it," clearly signifies that my friend is a
villain.

A good plan is to omit these words when they can be readily done
without, as in the above examples, but when it is necessary to use
them make your meaning clear. You can do this by making each
sentence or phrase in which they occur independent of contextual
aid.

AND WITH THE RELATIVE

Never use and with the relative in this manner:
"That is the dog I meant and which I know is of pure breed."
This is an error quite common. The use of and is permissible
when there is a parallel relative in the preceding sentence or
clause. Thus: "There is the dog which I meant and.which I know is
of pure breed" is quite correct.

LOOSE PARTICIPLES

A participle or participial phrase is naturally referred to the
nearest nominative. If only one nominative is expressed it claims
all the participles that are not by the construction of the
sentence otherwise fixed. "John, working in the field all day and
getting thirsty, drank from the running stream." Here the
participles working and getting clearly refer to
John. But in the sentence,—"Swept along by the mob I could
not save him," the participle as it were is lying around loose and
may be taken to refer to either the person speaking or to the
person spoken about. It may mean that I was swept along by the mob
or the individual whom I tried to save was swept along.

"Going into the store the roof fell" can be taken that it was
the roof which was going into the store when it fell. Of course the
meaning intended is that some person or persons were going into the
store just as the roof fell.

In all sentence construction with participles there should be
such clearness as to preclude all possibility of ambiguity. The
participle should be so placed that there can be no doubt as to the
noun to which it refers. Often it is advisable to supply such words
as will make the meaning obvious.

BROKEN CONSTRUCTION

Sometimes the beginning of a sentence presents quite a different
grammatical construction from its end. This arises from the fact
probably, that the beginning is lost sight of before the end is
reached. This occurs frequently in long sentences. Thus: "Honesty,
integrity and square-dealing will bring anybody much better through
life than the absence of either." Here the construction is broken
at than. The use of either, only used in referring to
one of two, shows that the fact is forgotten that three qualities
and not two are under consideration. Any one of the three meanings
might be intended in the sentence, viz., absence of any one
quality, absence of any two of the qualities or absence of the
whole three qualities. Either denotes one or the other of two and
should never be applied to any one of more than two. When we fall
into the error of constructing such sentences as above, we should
take them apart and reconstruct them in a different grammatical
form. Thus,—"Honesty, integrity and square-dealing will bring
a man much better through life than a lack of these qualities which
are almost essential to success."

DOUBLE NEGATIVE

It must be remembered that two negatives in the English language
destroy each other and are equivalent to an affirmative. Thus "I
don't know nothing about it" is intended to convey,
that I am ignorant of the matter under consideration, but it
defeats its own purpose, inasmuch as the use of nothing implies
that I know something about it. The sentence should read—"I
don't know anything about it."

Often we hear such expressions as "He was not asked to
give no opinion," expressing the very opposite of what is
intended. This sentence implies that he was asked to give his
opinion. The double negative, therefore, should be carefully
avoided, for it is insidious and is liable to slip in and the
writer remain unconscious of its presence until the eye of the
critic detects it.

FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN

The use of the first personal pronoun should be avoided as much
as possible in composition. Don't introduce it by way of apology
and never use such expressions as "In my opinion," "As far as I can
see," "It appears to me," "I believe," etc. In what you write, the
whole composition is expressive of your views, since you are the
author, therefore, there is no necessity for you to accentuate or
emphasize yourself at certain portions of it.

Moreover, the big I's savor of egotism! Steer clear of
them as far as you can. The only place where the first person is
permissible is in passages where you are stating a view that is not
generally held and which is likely to meet with opposition.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

When two verbs depend on each other their tenses must have a
definite relation to each other. "I shall have much pleasure in
accepting your kind invitation" is wrong, unless you really mean
that just now you decline though by-and-by you intend to accept; or
unless you mean that you do accept now, though you have no pleasure
in doing so, but look forward to be more pleased by-and-by. In fact
the sequence of the compound tenses puzzle experienced writers. The
best plan is to go back in thought to the time in question and use
the tense you would then naturally use. Now in the sentence
"I should have liked to have gone to see the circus" the way to
find out the proper sequence is to ask yourself the
question—what is it I "should have liked" to do? and the
plain answer is "to go to see the circus." I cannot
answer—"To have gone to see the circus" for that would imply
that at a certain moment I would have liked to be in the position
of having gone to the circus. But I do not mean this; I mean that
at the moment at which I am speaking I wish I had gone to see the
circus. The verbal phrase I should have liked carries me
back to the time when there was a chance of seeing the circus and
once back at the time, the going to the circus is a thing of the
present. This whole explanation resolves itself into the simple
question,—what should I have liked at that time, and
the answer is "to go to see the circus," therefore this is the
proper sequence, and the expression should be "I should have liked
to go to see the circus."

If we wish to speak of something relating to a time prior
to that indicated in the past tense we must use the perfect tense
of the infinitive; as, "He appeared to have seen better days." We
should say "I expected to meet him," not "I expected to
have met him." "We intended to visit you," not "to
have visited you." "I hoped they would arrive," not "I
hoped they would have arrived." "I thought I should
catch the bird," not "I thought I should have caught
the bird." "I had intended to go to the meeting," not "I had
intended to have gone to the meeting."

BETWEEN—AMONG

These prepositions are often carelessly interchanged.
Between has reference to two objects only, among to
more than two. "The money was equally divided between them" is
right when there are only two, but if there are more than two it
should be "the money was equally divided among them."

LESS—FEWER

Less refers is quantity, fewer to number. "No man
has less virtues" should be "No man has fewer
virtues." "The farmer had some oats and a fewer quantity of
wheat" should be "the farmer had some oats and a less
quantity of wheat."

FURTHER—FARTHER

Further is commonly used to denote quantity,
farther to denote distance. "I have walked farther
than you," "I need no further supply" are correct.

EACH OTHER—ONE ANOTHER

Each other refers to two, one another to more than
two. "Jones and Smith quarreled; they struck each other" is
correct. "Jones, Smith and Brown quarreled; they struck one
another" is also correct. Don't say, "The two boys teach one
another" nor "The three girls love each other."

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

These words are continually misapplied. Each can be
applied to two or any higher number of objects to signify every
one of the number independently. Every requires more
than two to be spoken of and denotes all the persons or
things taken separately. Either denotes one
or the other of two, and should not be used to include both.
Neither is the negative of either, denoting not the other,
and not the one, and relating to two persons or
things considered separately.

The following examples illustrate the correct usage of these
words:

Each man of the crew received a reward.

Every man in the regiment displayed bravery.

We can walk on either side of the street.

Neither of the two is to blame.

NEITHER-NOR

When two singular subjects are connected by neither,
nor use a singular verb; as, Neither John nor
James was there," not were there.

NONE

Custom Has sanctioned the use of this word both with a singular
and plural; as—"None is so blind as he who will not
see" and "None are so blind as they who will not see."
However, as it is a contraction of no one it is better to
use the singular verb.

RISE-RAISE

These verbs are very often confounded. Rise is to move or
pass upward in any manner; as to "rise from bed;" to increase in
value, to improve in position or rank, as "stocks rise;"
"politicians rise;" "they have risen to honor."

Raise is to lift up, to exalt, to enhance, as "I raise
the table;" "He raised his servant;" "The baker raised the price of
bread."

LAY-LIE

The transitive verb lay, and lay, the past tense
of the neuter verb lie, are often confounded, though quite
different in meaning. The neuter verb to lie, meaning to lie
down or rest, cannot take the objective after it except with a
preposition. We can say "He lies on the ground," but we
cannot say "He lies the ground," since the verb is neuter
and intransitive and, as such, cannot have a direct object. With
lay it is different. Lay is a transitive verb,
therefore it takes a direct object after it; as "I lay a
wager," "I laid the carpet," etc.

Of a carpet or any inanimate subject we should say, "It lies on
the floor," "A knife lies on the table," not lays.
But of a person we say—"He lays the knife on the
table," not "He lies——." Lay being the
past tense of the neuter to lie (down) we should say, "He
lay on the bed," and lain being its past participle
we must also say "He has lain on the bed."

We can say "I lay myself down." "He laid himself down" and such
expressions.

It is imperative to remember in using these verbs that to
lay means to do something, and to lie means to be
in a state of rest.

SAYS I—I SAID

"Says I" is a vulgarism; don't use it. "I said" is
correct form.

IN—INTO

Be careful to distinguish the meaning of these two little
prepositions and don't interchange them. Don't say "He went
in the room" nor "My brother is into the navy."
In denotes the place where a person or thing, whether at
rest or in motion, is present; and into denotes
entrance. "He went into the room;" "My brother is
in the navy" are correct.

EAT—ATE

Don't confound the two. Eat is present, ate is
past. "I eat the bread" means that I am continuing the
eating; "I ate the bread" means that the act of eating is
past. Eaten is the perfect participle, but often eat
is used instead, and as it has the same pronunciation (et) of
ate, care should be taken to distinguish the past tense, I
ate from the perfect I have eaten (eat).

SEQUENCE OF PERSON

Remember that the first person takes precedence of the
second and the second takes precedence of the
third. When Cardinal Wolsey said Ego et Rex (I and
the King), he showed he was a good grammarian, but a bad
courtier.

AM COME—HAVE COME

"I am come" points to my being here, while "I have come"
intimates that I have just arrived. When the subject is not a
person, the verb to be should be used in preference to the
verb to have; as, "The box is come" instead of "The box has
come."

PAST TENSE—PAST PARTICIPLE

The interchange of these two parts of the irregular or so-called
strong verbs is, perhaps, the breach oftenest committed by
careless speakers and writers. To avoid mistakes it is requisite to
know the principal parts of these verbs, and this knowledge is very
easy of acquirement, as there are not more than a couple of hundred
of such verbs, and of this number but a small part is in daily use.
Here are some of the most common blunders: "I seen" for "I saw;" "I
done it" for "I did it;" "I drunk" for "I drank;" "I begun" for "I
began;" "I rung" for "I rang;" "I run" for "I ran;" "I sung" for "I
sang;" "I have chose" for "I have chosen;" "I have drove" for "I
have driven;" "I have wore" for "I have worn;" "I have trod" for "I
have trodden;" "I have shook" for "I have shaken;" "I have fell"
for "I have fallen;" "I have drank" for "I have drunk;" "I have
began" for "I have begun;" "I have rang" for "I have rung;" "I have
rose" for "I have risen;" "I have spoke" for "I have spoken;" "I
have broke" for "I have broken." "It has froze" for "It has
frozen." "It has blowed" for "It has blown." "It has flowed" (of a
bird) for "It has flown."

N. B.—The past tense and past participle of To Hang
is hanged or hung. When you are talking about a man
meeting death on the gallows, say "He was hanged"; when you are
talking about the carcass of an animal say, "It was hung," as "The
beef was hung dry." Also say your coat "was hung on a
hook."

PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE

Don't forget that prepositions always take the objective case.
Don't say "Between you and I"; say "Between you and
me"

Two prepositions should not govern one objective
unless there is an immediate connection between them. "He was
refused admission to and forcibly ejected from the school" should
be "He was refused admission to the school and forcibly ejected
from it."

SUMMON—SUMMONS

Don't say "I shall summons him," but "I shall summon him."
Summon is a verb, summons, a noun.

It is correct to say "I shall get a summons for him," not
a summon.

UNDENIABLE—UNEXCEPTIONABLE

"My brother has an undeniable character" is wrong if I wish to
convey the idea that he has a good character. The expression should
be in that case "My brother has an unexceptionable character." An
undeniable character is a character that cannot be denied,
whether bad or good. An unexceptionable character is one to which
no one can take exception.

THE PRONOUNS

Very many mistakes occur in the use of the pronouns. "Let you
and I go" should be "Let you and me go." "Let them and we
go" should be "Let them and us go." The verb let is transitive and
therefore takes the objective case.

"Give me them flowers" should be "Give me those
flowers"; "I mean them three" should be "I mean those
three." Them is the objective case of the personal pronoun and
cannot be used adjectively like the demonstrative adjective
pronoun. "I am as strong as him" should be "I am as strong
as he"; "I am younger than her" should be "I am
younger than she;" "He can write better than me"
should be "He can write better than I," for in these examples the
objective cases him, her and me are used
wrongfully for the nominatives. After each of the misapplied
pronouns a verb is understood of which each pronoun is the subject.
Thus, "I am as strong as he (is)." "I am younger than she (is)." "He
can write better than I (can)."

Don't say "It is me;" say "It is I" The verb To
Be of which is is a part takes the same case after it that it
has before it. This holds good in all situations as well as with
pronouns.

The verb To Be also requires the pronouns joined to it to
be in the same case as a pronoun asking a question; The nominative
I requires the nominative who and the objectives
me, him, her, its, you,
them, require the objective whom.

"Whom do you think I am?" should be "Who do you
think I am?" and "Who do they suppose me to be?" should be
"Whom do they suppose me to be?" The objective form of the
Relative should be always used, in connection with a preposition.
"Who do you take me for?" should be "Whom do, etc." "Who did
you give the apple to?" should be "Whom did you give the apple to,"
but as pointed out elsewhere the preposition should never end a
sentence, therefore, it is better to say, "To whom did you give the
apple?"

After transitive verbs always use the objective cases of the
pronouns. For "He and they we have seen," say
"Him and them we have seen."

THAT FOR SO

"The hurt it was that painful it made him cry," say "so
painful."

THESE—THOSE

Don't say, These kind; those sort. Kind and
sort are each singular and require the singular pronouns
this and that. In connection with these demonstrative
adjective pronouns remember that this and these refer
to what is near at hand, that and those to what is
more distant; as, this book (near me), that book
(over there), these boys (near), those boys (at a
distance).

THIS MUCH—THUS MUCH

"This much is certain" should be "Thus much or
so much is certain."

FLEE—FLY

These are two separate verbs and must not be interchanged. The
principal parts of flee are flee, fled,
fled; those of fly are fly, flew,
flown. To flee is generally used in the meaning of
getting out of danger. To fly means to soar as a bird. To
say of a man "He has flown from the place" is wrong; it
should be "He has fled from the place." We can say with
propriety that "A bird has flown from the place."

THROUGH—THROUGHOUT

Don't say "He is well known through the land," but "He is well
known throughout the land."

VOCATION AND AVOCATION

Don't mistake these two words so nearly alike. Vocation is the
employment, business or profession one follows for a living;
avocation is some pursuit or occupation which diverts the person
from such employment, business or profession. Thus

"His vocation was the law, his avocation, farming."

WAS—WERE

In the subjunctive mood the plural form were should be
used with a singular subject; as, "If I were," not
was. Remember the plural form of the personal pronoun
you always takes were, though it may denote but one.
Thus, "You were," never "you was." "If I was
him" is a very common expression. Note the two mistakes in
it,—that of the verb implying a condition, and that of the
objective case of the pronoun. It should read If I were he.
This is another illustration of the rule regarding the verb To
Be, taking the same case after it as before it; were is
part of the verb To Be, therefore as the nominative (I) goes
before it, the nominative (he) should come after it.

A OR AN

A becomes an before a vowel or before h mute for
the sake of euphony or agreeable sound to the ear. An apple,
an orange, an heir, an honor, etc.

Chapter VII: Errors

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CHAPTER VII

ERRORS

Mistakes—Slips of Authors—Examples and
Corrections—Errors of Redundancy.

In the following examples the word or words in parentheses are
uncalled for and should be omitted:

Fill the glass (full).
They appeared to be talking (together) on private
affairs.
I saw the boy and his sister (both) in the garden.
He went into the country last week and returned (back)
yesterday.
The subject (matter) of his discourse was excellent.
You need not wonder that the (subject) matter of his discourse
was excellent; it was taken from the Bible.
They followed (after) him, but could not overtake him.
The same sentiments may be found throughout (the whole of) the
book.
I was very ill every day (of my life) last week.
That was the (sum and) substance of his discourse.
He took wine and water and mixed them (both) together.
He descended (down) the steps to the cellar.
He fell (down) from the top of the house.
I hope you will return (again) soon.
The things he took away he restored (again).
The thief who stole my watch was compelled to restore it (back
again).
It is equally (the same) to me whether I have it today or
tomorrow.
She said, (says she) the report is false; and he replied, (says
he) if it be not correct I have been misinformed.
I took my place in the cars (for) to go to New York.
They need not (to) call upon him.
Nothing (else) but that would satisfy him.
Whenever I ride in the cars I (always) find it prejudicial to my
health.
He was the first (of all) at the meeting.
He was the tallest of (all) the brothers.
You are the tallest of (all) your family.
Whenever I pass the house he is (always) at the door.
The rain has penetrated (through) the roof.
Besides my uncle and aunt there was (also) my grandfather at the
church.
It should (ever) be your constant endeavor to please your
family.
If it is true as you have heard (then) his situation is indeed
pitiful.
Either this (here) man or that (there) woman has (got)
it.
Where is the fire (at)?
Did you sleep in church? Not that I know (of).
I never before (in my life) met (with) such a stupid
man.
(For) why did he postpone it?
Because (why) he could not attend.
What age is he? (Why) I don't know.
He called on me (for) to ask my opinion.
I don't know where I am (at).
I looked in (at) the window.
I passed (by) the house.
He (always) came every Sunday.
Moreover, (also) we wish to say he was in error.
It is not long (ago) since he was here.
Two men went into the wood (in order) to cut (down)
trees.

Further examples of redundancy might be multiplied. It is very
common in newspaper writing where not alone single words but entire
phrases are sometimes brought in, which are unnecessary to the
sense or explanation of what is written.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS

Even the best speakers and writers are sometimes caught napping.
Many of our standard authors to whom we have been accustomed to
look up as infallible have sinned more or less against the
fundamental principles of grammar by breaking the rules regarding
one or more of the nine parts of speech. In fact some of them have
recklessly trespassed against all nine, and still they sit on their
pedestals of fame for the admiration of the crowd. Macaulay
mistreated the article. He wrote,—"That a historian
should not record trifles is perfectly true." He should have used
an.

Dickens also used the article incorrectly. He refers to
"Robinson Crusoe" as "an universally popular book," instead
of a universally popular book.

The relation between nouns and pronouns has always been a
stumbling block to speakers and writers. Hallam in his
Literature of Europe writes, "No one as yet had exhibited
the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined
them in dogs." This means that Vesalius examined human kidneys in
dogs. The sentence should have been, "No one had as yet exhibited
the kidneys in human beings, Vesalius having examined such organs
in dogs only."

Sir Arthur Helps in writing of Dickens, states—"I knew a
brother author of his who received such criticisms from him
(Dickens) very lately and profited by it." Instead of
it the word should be them to agree with
criticisms.

Here are a few other pronominal errors from leading authors:

"Sir Thomas Moore in general so writes it, although not many
others so late as him." Should be he.—Trench's
English Past and Present.

"What should we gain by it but that we should speedily become as
poor as them." Should be they.—Alison's
Essay on Macaulay.

"If the king gives us leave you or I may as lawfully preach, as
them that do." Should be they or those, the
latter having persons understood.—Hobbes's History of
Civil Wars.

"The drift of all his sermons was, to prepare the Jews for the
reception of a prophet, mightier than him, and whose shoes
he was not worthy to bear." Should be than
he.—Atterbury's Sermons.

"Phalaris, who was so much older than her." Should be
she.—Bentley's Dissertation on Phalaris.

"King Charles, and more than him, the duke and the Popish
faction were at liberty to form new schemes." Should be than
he.—Bolingbroke's Dissertations on Parties.

"We contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to
the same proportion more than us." Should be than
we.—Swift's Conduct of the Allies.

In all the above examples the objective cases of the pronouns
have been used while the construction calls for nominative
cases.

"Let thou and I the battle
try"—Anon.

Here let is the governing verb and requires an objective
case after it; therefore instead of thou and I, the
words should be you (sing.) and me.

"Forever in this humble cell, Let thee and I, my fair one,
dwell"—Prior.

Here thee and I should be the objectives
you and me.

The use of the relative pronoun trips the greatest number of
authors.

Even in the Bible we find the relative wrongly translated:

Whom do men say that I am?—St. Matthew.

Whom think ye that I am?—Acts of the Apostles.

Who should be written in both cases because the word is
not in the objective governed by say or think, but in the
nominative dependent on the verb am.

"Who should I meet at the coffee house t'other night, but
my old friend?"—Steele.

"It is another pattern of this answerer's fair dealing, to give
us hints that the author is dead, and yet lay the suspicion upon
somebody, I know not who, in the country."—Swift's
Tale of a Tub.

"My son is going to be married to I don't know who."
—Goldsmith's Good-natured Man.

The nominative who in the above examples should be the
objective whom.

The plural nominative ye of the pronoun thou is
very often used for the objective you, as in the
following:

"His wrath which will one day destroy ye both."
—Milton.

"The more shame for ye; holy men I thought
ye."—Shakespeare.

"I feel the gales that from ye
blow."—Gray.

"Tyrants dread ye, lest your just decree Transfer the
power and set the people free."—Prior.

Many of the great writers have played havoc with the adjective
in the indiscriminate use of the degrees of comparison.

"Of two forms of the same word, use the
fittest."—Morell.

The author here in trying to give good advice sets a bad
example. He should have used the comparative degree, "Fitter."

Adjectives which have a comparative or superlative signification
do not admit the addition of the words more, most, or
the terminations, er, est, hence the following
examples break this rule:

"Money is the most universal incitement of human
misery."—Gibbon's Decline and Fall.

"The chiefest of which was known by the name of Archon
among the Grecians."—Dryden's Life of Plutarch.

"The chiefest and largest are removed to certain
magazines they call libraries."—Swift's Battle of the
Books.

The two chiefest properties of air, its gravity and
elastic force, have been discovered by mechanical
experiments.—Arbuthno

"From these various causes, which in greater or lesser
degree, affected every individual in the colony, the indignation of
the people became general."—Robertson's History of
America.

"The extremest parts of the earth were meditating a
submission."—Atterbury's Sermons.

"The last are indeed more preferable because they are
founded on some new knowledge or improvement in the mind of
man."—Addison, Spectator.

"This was in reality the easiest manner of the
two."—Shaftesbury's Advice to an Author.

"In every well formed mind this second desire seems to be the
strongest of the two."—Smith's Theory of Moral
Sentiments.

In these examples the superlative is wrongly used for the
comparative. When only two objects are compared the comparative
form must be used.

Of impossibility there are no degrees of comparison, yet we find
the following:

"As it was impossible they should know the words, thoughts and
secret actions of all men, so it was more impossible they
should pass judgment on them according to these
things."—Whitby's Necessity of the Christian
Religion.

A great number of authors employ adjectives for adverbs. Thus we
find:

"I shall endeavor to live hereafter suitable to a man in
my station."—Addison.

"I can never think so very mean of him."—Bentley's
Dissertation on Phalaris.

"His expectations run high and the fund to supply them is
extreme scanty,—Lancaster's Essay on
Delicacy.

The commonest error in the use of the verb is the disregard of
the concord between the verb and its subject. This occurs most
frequently when the subject and the verb are widely separated,
especially if some other noun of a different number immediately
precedes the verb. False concords occur very often after
either, or, neither, nor, and
much, more, many, everyone,
each.

Here are a few authors' slips:—

"The terms in which the sale of a patent were
communicated to the public."—Junius's Letters.

"The richness of her arms and apparel were
conspicuous."—Gibbon's Decline and Fall.

"Everyone of this grotesque family were the creatures of
national genius."—D'Israeli.

"He knows not what spleen, languor or listlessness
are."—Blair's Sermons.

"Each of these words imply, some pursuit or object
relinquished."—Ibid.

"Magnus, with four thousand of his supposed accomplices
were put to death."—Gibbon.

"No nation gives greater encouragements to learning than we do;
yet at the same time none are so injudicious in the
application."—Goldsmith.

"There's two or three of us have seen strange
sights."—Shakespeare.

The past participle should not be used for the past tense, yet
the learned Byron overlooked this fact. He thus writes in the
Lament of Tasso:—

"And with my years my soul begun to pant With feelings of
strange tumult and soft pain."

Here is another example from Savage's Wanderer in which
there is double sinning:

"From liberty each nobler science sprung, A Bacon
brighten'd and a Spenser sung."

Other breaches in regard to the participles occur in the
following:—

"Every book ought to be read with the same spirit and in the
same manner as it is writ"—Fielding's Tom
Jones.

"The Court of Augustus had not wore off the manners of
the republic "—Hume's Essays.

"Moses tells us that the fountains of the earth were broke
open or clove asunder."—Burnet.

"A free constitution when it has been shook by the
iniquity of former administrations."—Bolingbroke.

"In this respect the seeds of future divisions were sowed
abundantly."—Ibid.

In the following example the present participle is used for the
infinitive mood:

"It is easy distinguishing the rude fragment of a rock
from the splinter of a statue."—Gilfillan's Literary
Portraits.

Distinguishing here should be replaced by to
distinguish.

The rules regarding shall and will are violated in
the following:

"If we look within the rough and awkward outside, we will
be richly rewarded by its perusal."—Gilfillan's Literary
Portraits.

"If I should declare them and speak of them, they should
be more than I am able to express."—Prayer Book Revision
of Psalms XI.

"If I would declare them and speak of them, they are more
than can be numbered."—Ibid.

"Without having attended to this, we will be at a loss,
in understanding several passages in the classics."—Blair's
Lectures.

"We know to what cause our past reverses have been owing and
we will have ourselves to blame, if they are again
incurred."—Alison's History of Europe.

Adverbial mistakes often occur in the best writers. The adverb
rather is a word very frequently misplaced. Archbishop
Trench in his "English Past and Present" writes, "It rather
modified the structure of our sentences than the elements of our
vocabulary." This should have been written,—"It modified the
structure of our sentences rather than the elements of our
vocabulary."

"So far as his mode of teaching goes he is rather a
disciple of Socrates than of St. Paul or Wesley." Thus writes
Leslie Stephens of Dr. Johnson. He should have written,—" So
far as his mode of teaching goes he is a disciple of Socrates
rather than of St. Paul or Wesley."

The preposition is a part of speech which is often wrongly used
by some of the best writers. Certain nouns, adjectives and verbs
require particular prepositions after them, for instance, the word
different always takes the preposition from after it;
prevail takes upon; averse takes to;
accord takes with, and so on.

In the following examples the prepositions in parentheses are
the ones that should have been used:

"He found the greatest difficulty of (in)
writing."—Hume's History of England.

"If policy can prevail upon (over)
force."—Addison.

"He made the discovery and communicated to (with) his
friends."—Swift's Tale of a Tub.

"Every office of command should be intrusted to persons
on (in) whom the parliament shall
confide."—Macaulay.

Several of the most celebrated writers infringe the canons of
style by placing prepositions at the end of sentences. For instance
Carlyle, in referring to the Study of Burns, writes:—"Our own
contributions to it, we are aware, can be but scanty and feeble;
but we offer them with good will, and trust they may meet with
acceptance from those they are intended for."

—"for whom they are intended," he should have written.

"Most writers have some one vein which they peculiarly and
obviously excel in."—William Minto.

This sentence should read,—Most writers have some one vein
in which they peculiarly and obviously excel.

Many authors use redundant words which repeat the same thought
and idea. This is called tautology.

"Notwithstanding which (however) poor Polly embraced them all
around."—Dickens.

"I judged that they would (mutually) find each
other."—Crockett.

"....as having created a (joint) partnership between the two
Powers in the Morocco question."—The Times.

"The only sensible position (there seems to be) is to frankly
acknowledge our ignorance of what lies beyond."—Daily
Telegraph.

"Lord Rosebery has not budged from his position—splendid,
no doubt,—of (lonely) isolation."—The Times.

"Miss Fox was (often) in the habit of assuring Mrs.
Chick."—Dickens.

"The deck (it) was their field of
fame."—Campbell.

"He had come up one morning, as was now (frequently) his
wont,"—Trollope.

The counsellors of the Sultan (continue to) remain
sceptical—The Times.

Seriously, (and apart from jesting), this is no light
matter.—Bagehot.

To go back to your own country with (the consciousness that you
go back with) the sense of duty well done.—Lord
Halsbury.

The Peresviet lost both her fighting-tops and (in
appearance) looked the most damaged of all the ships—The
Times.

Counsel admitted that, that was a fair suggestion to make, but
he submitted that it was borne out by the (surrounding)
circumstances.—Ibid.

Another unnecessary use of words and phrases is that which is
termed circumlocution, a going around the bush when there is no
occasion for it,—save to fill space.

It may be likened to a person walking the distance of two sides
of a triangle to reach the objective point. For instance in the
quotation: "Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden,
whom, whenever an opportunity was presented, he praised through the
whole period of his existence with unvaried liberality; and perhaps
his character may receive some illustration, of a comparison he
instituted between him and the man whose pupil he was" much of the
verbiage may be eliminated and the sentence thus condensed:

"Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom he lost no
opportunity of praising; and his character may be illustrated by a
comparison with his master."

"His life was brought to a close in 1910 at an age not far from
the one fixed by the sacred writer as the term of human
existence."

This in brevity can be put, "His life was brought to a close at
the age of seventy;" or, better yet, "He died at the age of
seventy."

"The day was intensely cold, so cold in fact that the
thermometer crept down to the zero mark," can be expressed: "The
day was so cold the thermometer registered zero."

Many authors resort to circumlocution for the purpose of
"padding," that is, filling space, or when they strike a snag in
writing upon subjects of which they know little or nothing. The
young writer should steer clear of it and learn to express his
thoughts and ideas as briefly as possible commensurate with
lucidity of expression.

Volumes of errors in fact, in grammar, diction and general
style, could be selected from the works of the great writers, a
fact which eloquently testifies that no one is infallible and that
the very best is liable to err at times. However, most of the
erring in the case of these writers arises from carelessness or
hurry, not from a lack of knowledge.

As a general rule it is in writing that the scholar is liable to
slip; in oral speech he seldom makes a blunder. In fact, there are
many people who are perfect masters of speech,—who never make
a blunder in conversation, yet who are ignorant of the very
principles of grammar and would not know how to write a sentence
correctly on paper. Such persons have been accustomed from infancy
to hear the language spoken correctly and so the use of the proper
words and forms becomes a second nature to them. A child can learn
what is right as easy as what is wrong and whatever impressions are
made on the mind when it is plastic will remain there. Even a
parrot can be taught the proper use of language. Repeat to a
parrot.—"Two and two make four" and it never will say
"two and two makes four."

In writing, however, it is different. Without a knowledge of the
fundamentals of grammar we may be able to speak correctly from
association with good speakers, but without such a knowledge we
cannot hope to write the language correctly. To write even a common
letter we must know the principles of construction, the
relationship of one word to another. Therefore, it is necessary for
everybody to understand at least the essentials of the grammar of
his own language.

English For Vietnamese, Chinese and English Speakers

2010-11-26T11:39:00.000-08:00

Conversations of Miguel and Maria: How Children Learn English As a Second Language (Second Language Professional Library)
Mr. K.'s open door to english: A textbook written and arranged to assist those who desire to learn english as a second language

Looking for good book to practice your English? Here are some example of the best one.

Chapter XIII: Choice of words

2008-03-21T20:32:00.001-07:00

CHAPTER XIII

CHOICE OF WORDS

Small Words—Their Importance—The Anglo-Saxon
Element

In another place in this book advice has been given to never use
a long word when a short one will serve the same purpose. This
advice is to be emphasized. Words of "learned length and thundering
sound" should be avoided on all possible occasions. They proclaim
shallowness of intellect and vanity of mind. The great purists, the
masters of diction, the exemplars of style, used short, simple
words that all could understand; words about which there could be
no ambiguity as to meaning. It must be remembered that by our words
we teach others; therefore, a very great responsibility rests upon
us in regard to the use of a right language. We must take care that
we think and speak in a way so clear that there may be no
misapprehension or danger of conveying wrong impressions by vague
and misty ideas enunciated in terms which are liable to be
misunderstood by those whom we address. Words give a body or form
to our ideas, without which they are apt to be so foggy that we do
not see where they are weak or false. We must make the endeavor to
employ such words as will put the idea we have in our own mind into
the mind of another. This is the greatest art in the world—to
clothe our ideas in words clear and comprehensive to the
intelligence of others. It is the art which the teacher, the
minister, the lawyer, the orator, the business man, must master if
they would command success in their various fields of endeavor. It
is very hard to convey an idea to, and impress it on, another when
he has but a faint conception of the language in which the idea is
expressed; but it is impossible to convey it at all when the words
in which it is clothed are unintelligible to the listener.

If we address an audience of ordinary men and women in the
English language, but use such words as they cannot comprehend, we
might as well speak to them in Coptic or Chinese, for they will
derive no benefit from our address, inasmuch as the ideas we wish
to convey are expressed in words which communicate no intelligent
meaning to their minds.

Long words, learned words, words directly derived from other
languages are only understood by those who have had the advantages
of an extended education. All have not had such advantages. The
great majority in this grand and glorious country of ours have to
hustle for a living from an early age. Though education is free,
and compulsory also, very many never get further than the "Three
R's." These are the men with whom we have to deal most in the arena
of life, the men with the horny palms and the iron muscles, the men
who build our houses, construct our railroads, drive our street
cars and trains, till our fields, harvest our crops—in a
word, the men who form the foundation of all society, the men on
whom the world depends to make its wheels go round. The language of
the colleges and universities is not for them and they can get
along very well without it; they have no need for it at all in
their respective callings. The plain, simple words of everyday
life, to which the common people have been used around their own
firesides from childhood, are the words we must use in our dealings
with them.

Such words are understood by them and understood by the learned
as well; why then not use them universally and all the time? Why
make a one-sided affair of language by using words which only one
class of the people, the so-called learned class, can understand?
Would it not be better to use, on all occasions, language which the
both classes can understand? If we take the trouble to investigate
we shall find that the men who exerted the greatest sway over the
masses and the multitude as orators, lawyers, preachers and in
other public capacities, were men who used very simple language.
Daniel Webster was among the greatest orators this country has
produced. He touched the hearts of senates and assemblages, of men
and women with the burning eloquence of his words. He never used a
long word when he could convey the same, or nearly the same,
meaning with a short one. When he made a speech he always told
those who put it in form for the press to strike out every long
word. Study his speeches, go over all he ever said or wrote, and
you will find that his language was always made up of short, clear,
strong terms, although at times, for the sake of sound and
oratorical effect, he was compelled to use a rather long word, but
it was always against his inclination to do so, and where was the
man who could paint, with words, as Webster painted! He could
picture things in a way so clear that those who heard him felt that
they had seen that of which he spoke.

Abraham Lincoln was another who stirred the souls of men, yet he
was not an orator, not a scholar; he did not write M.A. or Ph.D.
after his name, or any other college degree, for he had none. He
graduated from the University of Hard Knocks, and he never forgot
this severe Alma Mater when he became President of the
United States. He was just as plain, I just as humble, as in the
days when he split rails or plied a boat on the Sangamon. He did
not use big words, but he used the words of the people, and in such
a way as to make them beautiful. His Gettysburg address is an
English classic, one of the great masterpieces of the language.

From the mere fact that a word is short it does not follow that
it is always clear, but it is true that nearly all clear words are
short, and that most of the long words, especially those which we
get from other languages, are misunderstood to a great extent by
the ordinary rank and file of the people. Indeed, it is to be
doubted if some of the "scholars" using them, fully understand
their import on occasions. A great many such words admit of several
interpretations. A word has to be in use a great deal before people
get thoroughly familiar with its meaning. Long words, not alone
obscure thought and make the ideas hazy, but at times they tend to
mix up things in such a way that positively harmful results follow
from their use.

For instance, crime can be so covered with the folds of long
words as to give it a different appearance. Even the hideousness of
sin can be cloaked with such words until its outlines look like a
thing of beauty. When a bank cashier makes off with a hundred
thousand dollars we politely term his crime defalcation
instead of plain theft, and instead of calling himself a
thief we grandiosely allude to him as a defaulter.
When we see a wealthy man staggering along a fashionable
thoroughfare under the influence of alcohol, waving his arms in the
air and shouting boisterously, we smile and say, poor gentleman, he
is somewhat exhilarated; or at worst we say, he is slightly
inebriated; but when we see a poor man who has fallen from
grace by putting an "enemy into his mouth to steal away his brain"
we express our indignation in the simple language of the words:
"Look at the wretch; he is dead drunk."

When we find a person in downright lying we cover the falsehood
with the finely-spun cloak of the word prevarication.
Shakespeare says, "a rose by any other name would smell as sweet,"
and by a similar sequence, a lie, no matter by what name you may
call it, is always a lie and should be condemned; then why not
simply call it a lie? Mean what you say and say what you mean; call
a spade a spade, it is the best term you can apply to the
implement.

When you try to use short words and shun long ones in a little
while you will find that you can do so with ease. A farmer was
showing a horse to a city-bred gentleman. The animal was led into a
paddock in which an old sow-pig was rooting. "What a fine
quadruped!" exclaimed the city man.

"Which of the two do you mean, the pig or the horse?" queried
the farmer, "for, in my opinion, both of them are fine
quadrupeds."

Of course the visitor meant the horse, so it would have been
much better had he called the animal by its simple; ordinary
name—, there would have been no room for ambiguity in his
remark. He profited, however, by the incident, and never called a
horse a quadruped again.

Most of the small words, the simple words, the beautiful words
which express so much within small bounds belong to the pure
Anglo-Saxon element of our language. This element has given names
to the heavenly bodies, the sun, moon and stars; to three out of
the four elements, earth, fire and water; three out of the four
seasons, spring, summer and winter. Its simple words are applied to
all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night,
morning, evening, twilight, noon, mid-day, midnight, sunrise and
sunset. The names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail,
sleet, thunder, lightning, as well as almost all those objects
which form the component parts of the beautiful, as expressed in
external scenery, such as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and
stream, etc., are Anglo-Saxon. To this same language we are
indebted for those words which express the earliest and dearest
connections, and the strongest and most powerful feelings of
Nature, and which, as a consequence, are interwoven with the
fondest and most hallowed associations. Of such words are father,
mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home,
kindred, friend, hearth, roof and fireside.

The chief emotions of which we are susceptible are expressed in
the same language—love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame, and also
the outward signs by which these emotions are indicated, as tear,
smile, laugh, blush, weep, sigh, groan. Nearly all our national
proverbs are Anglo-Saxon. Almost all the terms and phrases by which
we most energetically express anger, contempt and indignation are
of the same origin.

What are known as the Smart Set and so-called polite society,
are relegating a great many of our old Anglo-Saxon words into the
shade, faithful friends who served their ancestors well. These
self-appointed arbiters of diction regard some of the Anglo-Saxon
words as too coarse, too plebeian for their aesthetic tastes and
refined ears, so they are eliminating them from their vocabulary
and replacing them with mongrels of foreign birth and hybrids of
unknown origin. For the ordinary people, however, the man in the
street or in the field, the woman in the kitchen or in the factory,
they are still tried and true and, like old friends, should be
cherished and preferred to all strangers, no matter from what
source the latter may spring.

Chapter VI: Letter Writing

2008-03-21T20:15:00.000-07:00

CHAPTER VI

LETTER WRITING

Principles of
Letter-Writing—Forms—Notes

Many people seem to regard letter-writing as a very simple and
easily acquired branch, but on the contrary it is one of the most
difficult forms of composition and requires much patience and labor
to master its details. In fact there are very few perfect
letter-writers in the language. It constitutes the direct form of
speech and may be called conversation at a distance. Its forms are
so varied by every conceivable topic written at all times by all
kinds of persons in all kinds of moods and tempers and addressed to
all kinds of persons of varying degrees in society and of different
pursuits in life, that no fixed rules can be laid down to regulate
its length, style or subject matter. Only general suggestions can
be made in regard to scope and purpose, and the forms of indicting
set forth which custom and precedent have sanctioned.

The principles of letter-writing should be understood by
everybody who has any knowledge of written language, for almost
everybody at some time or other has necessity to address some
friend or acquaintance at a distance, whereas comparatively few are
called upon to direct their efforts towards any other kind of
composition.

Formerly the illiterate countryman, when he had occasion to
communicate with friends or relations, called in the peripatetic
schoolmaster as his amanuensis, but this had one
draw-back,—secrets had to be poured into an ear other than
that for which they were intended, and often the confidence was
betrayed.

Now, that education is abroad in the land, there is seldom any
occasion for any person to call upon the service of another to
compose and write a personal letter. Very few now-a-days are so
grossly illiterate as not to be able to read and write. No matter
how crude his effort may be it is better for any one to write his
own letters than trust to another. Even if he should
commence,—"deer fren, i lift up my pen to let ye no that i
hove been sik for the past 3 weeks, hopping this will findye the
same," his spelling and construction can be excused in view of the
fact that his intention is good, and that he is doing his best to
serve his own turn without depending upon others.

The nature, substance and tone of any letter depend upon the
occasion that calls it forth, upon the person writing it and upon
the person for whom it is intended. Whether it should be easy or
formal in style, plain or ornate, light or serious, gay or grave,
sentimental or matter-of-fact depend upon these three
circumstances.

In letter writing the first and most important requisites are to
be natural and simple; there should be no straining after effect,
but simply a spontaneous out-pouring of thoughts and ideas as they
naturally occur to the writer. We are repelled by a person who is
stiff and labored in his conversation and in the same way the stiff
and labored letter bores the reader. Whereas if it is light and in
a conversational vein it immediately engages his attention.

The letter which is written with the greatest facility is the
best kind of letter because it naturally expresses what is in the
writer, he has not to search for his words, they flow in a perfect
unison with the ideas he desires to communicate. When you write to
your friend John Browne to tell him how you spent Sunday you have
not to look around for the words, or study set phrases with a view
to please or impress Browne, you just tell him the same as if he
were present before you, how you spent the day, where you were,
with whom you associated and the chief incidents that occurred
during the time. Thus, you write natural and it is such writing
that is adapted to epistolary correspondence.

There are different kinds of letters, each calling for a
different style of address and composition, nevertheless the
natural key should be maintained in all, that is to say, the writer
should never attempt to convey an impression that he is other than
what he is. It would be silly as well as vain for the common street
laborer of a limited education to try to put on literary airs and
emulate a college professor; he may have as good a brain, but it is
not as well developed by education, and he lacks the polish which
society confers. When writing a letter the street laborer should
bear in mind that only the letter of a street-laborer is expected
from him, no matter to whom his communication may be addressed and
that neither the grammar nor the diction of a Chesterfield or
Gladstone is looked for in his language. Still the writer should
keep in mind the person to whom he is writing. If it is to an
Archbishop or some other great dignitary of Church or state it
certainly should be couched in terms different from those he uses
to John Browne, his intimate friend. Just as he cannot say "Dear
John" to an Archbishop, no more can he address him in the familiar
words he uses to his friend of everyday acquaintance and
companionship. Yet there is no great learning required to write to
an Archbishop, no more than to an ordinary individual. All the
laborer needs to know is the form of address and how to properly
utilize his limited vocabulary to the best advantage. Here is the
form for such a letter:


                                17 Second Avenue,
                                     New York City.
                                       January 1st, 1910.

              Most Rev. P. A. Jordan,
                  Archbishop of New York.

              Most Rev. and dear Sir:—
                 While sweeping the crossing at Fifth
              Avenue and 50th street on last Wednesday
              morning, I found the enclosed Fifty Dollar
              Bill, which I am sending to you in the hope
              that it may be restored to the rightful
              owner.
                 I beg you will acknowledge receipt and
              should the owner be found I trust you will
              notify me, so that I may claim some reward
              for my honesty.
                 I am, Most Rev. and dear Sir,

                         Very respectfully yours,
                                         Thomas Jones.

Observe the brevity of the letter. Jones makes no suggestions to
the Archbishop how to find the owner, for he knows the course the
Archbishop will adopt, of having the finding of the bill announced
from the Church pulpits. Could Jones himself find the owner there
would be no occasion to apply to the Archbishop.

This letter, it is true, is different from that which he would
send to Browne. Nevertheless it is simple without being familiar,
is just a plain statement, and is as much to the point for its
purpose as if it were garnished with rhetoric and "words of learned
length and thundering sound."

Letters may be divided into those of friendship,
acquaintanceship, those of business relations, those written in an
official capacity by public servants, those designed to teach, and
those which give accounts of the daily happenings on the stage of
life, in other words, news letters.

Letters of friendship are the most common and their style
and form depend upon the degree of relationship and intimacy
existing between the writers and those addressed. Between relatives
and intimate friends the beginning and end may be in the most
familiar form of conversation, either affectionate or playful. They
should, however, never overstep the boundaries of decency and
propriety, for it is well to remember that, unlike conversation,
which only is heard by the ears for which it is intended, written
words may come under eyes other than those for whom they were
designed. Therefore, it is well never to write anything which the
world may not read without detriment to your character or your
instincts. You can be joyful, playful, jocose, give vent to your
feelings, but never stoop to low language and, above all, to
language savoring in the slightest degree of moral impropriety.

Business letters are of the utmost importance on account
of the interests involved. The business character of a man or of a
firm is often judged by the correspondence. On many occasions
letters instead of developing trade and business interests and
gaining clientele, predispose people unfavorably towards those whom
they are designed to benefit. Ambiguous, slip-shod language is a
detriment to success. Business letters should be clear, concise, to
the point and, above all, honest, giving no wrong impressions or
holding out any inducements that cannot be fulfilled. In business
letters, just as in business conduct, honesty is always the best
policy.

Official letters are mostly always formal. They should
possess clearness, brevity and dignity of tone to impress the
receivers with the proper respect for the national laws and
institutions.

Letters designed to teach or didactic letters are in a
class all by themselves. They are simply literature in the form of
letters and are employed by some of the best writers to give their
thoughts and ideas a greater emphasis. The most conspicuous example
of this kind of composition is the book on Etiquette by Lord
Chesterfield, which took the form of a series of letters to his
son.

News letters are accounts of world happenings and
descriptions of ceremonies and events sent into the newspapers.
Some of the best authors of our time are newspaper men who write in
an easy flowing style which is most readable, full of humor and
fancy and which carries one along with breathless interest from
beginning to end.

The principal parts of a letter are (1) the heading or
introduction; (2) the body or substance of the letter; (3)
the subscription or closing expression and signature; (4)
the address or direction on the envelope. For the
body of a letter no forms or rules can be laid down as it
altogether depends on the nature of the letter and the relationship
between the writer and the person addressed.

There are certain rules which govern the other three features
and which custom has sanctioned. Every one should be acquainted
with these rules.

THE HEADING

The Heading has three parts, viz., the name of the place,
the date of writing and the designation of the person or persons
addressed; thus:


                                  73 New Street,
                                      Newark, N. J.,
                                     February 1st, 1910.
         Messr. Ginn and Co.,
             New York
         Gentlemen:

The name of the place should never be omitted; in cities, street
and number should always be given, and except when the city is
large and very conspicuous, so that there can be no question as to
its identity with another of the same or similar name, the
abbreviation of the State should be appended, as in the above,
Newark, N. J. There is another Newark in the State of Ohio. Owing
to failure to comply with this rule many letters go astray. The
date should be on every letter, especially business letters.
The date should never be put at the bottom in a business letter,
but in friendly letters this may be done. The designation of
the person or persons addressed differs according to the relations
of the correspondents. Letters of friendship may begin in many ways
according to the degrees of friendship or intimacy. Thus:


     My dear Wife:
     My dear Husband:
     My dear Friend:
     My darling Mother:
     My dearest Love:
     Dear Aunt:
     Dear Uncle:
     Dear George: etc.

To mark a lesser degree of intimacy such formal designations as
the following may be employed:


     Dear Sir:
     My dear Sir:
     Dear Mr. Smith:
     Dear Madam: etc.

For clergymen who have the degree of Doctor of Divinity, the
designation is as follows:


     Rev. Alban Johnson, D. D.
     My dear Sir: or Rev. and dear Sir: or more familiarly
     Dear Dr. Johnson:

Bishops of the Roman and Anglican Communions are addressed as
Right Reverend.


     The Rt. Rev., the Bishop of Long Island. or
     The Rt. Rev. Frederick Burgess, Bishop of Long Island.
     Rt. Rev. and dear Sir:

Archbishops of the Roman Church are addressed as Most
Reverend and Cardinals as Eminence. Thus:


         The Most Rev. Archbishop Katzer.
           Most Rev. and dear Sir:

         His Eminence, James Cardinal Gibbons, Archbishop of Baltimore.
           May it please your Eminence:

The title of the Governor of a State or territory and of the
President of the United States is Excellency. However,
Honorable is more commonly applied to Governors:—


         His Excellency, William Howard Taft,
           President of the United States.

         Sir:—

         His Excellency, Charles Evans Hughes,
           Governor of the State of New York.

         Sir:—

         Honorable Franklin Fort,
           Governor of New Jersey.

         Sir:—

The general salutation for Officers of the Army and Navy is
Sir. The rank and station should be indicated in full at the
head of the letter, thus:


         General Joseph Thompson,
           Commanding the Seventh Infantry.

         Sir:

         Rear Admiral Robert Atkinson,
           Commanding the Atlantic Squadron.

         Sir:

The title of officers of the Civil Government is Honorable and
they are addressed as Sir.


           Hon. Nelson Duncan,
             Senator from Ohio.

           Sir:

           Hon. Norman Wingfield,
             Secretary of the Treasury.

           Sir:

           Hon. Rupert Gresham,
             Mayor of New York.

           Sir:

Presidents and Professors of Colleges and Universities are
generally addressed as Sir or Dear Sir.


     Professor Ferguson Jenks,
       President of .......... University.

     Sir: or Dear Sir:

Presidents of Societies and Associations are treated as business
men and addressed as Sir or Dear Sir.


           Mr. Joseph Banks,
             President of the Night Owls.

           Dear Sir: or Sir:

Doctors of Medicine are addressed as Sir: My dear Sir: Dear
Sir: and more familiarly My dear Dr: or Dear Dr: as


           Ryerson Pitkin, M. D.
           Sir:
           Dear Sir:
           My dear Dr:

Ordinary people with no degrees or titles are addressed as Mr.
and Mrs. and are designed Dear Sir: Dear Madam: and an unmarried
woman of any age is addressed on the envelope as Miss So-and-so,
but always designed in the letter as


           Dear Madam:

The plural of Mr. as in addressing a firm is Messrs, and
the corresponding salutation is Dear Sirs: or Gentlemen:

In England Esq. is used for Mr. as a mark of
slight superiority and in this country it is sometimes used, but it
is practically obsolete. Custom is against it and American
sentiment as well. If it is used it should be only applied to
lawyers and justices of the peace.

SUBSCRIPTION

The Subscription or ending of a letter consists of the
term of respect or affection and the signature. The term depends
upon the relation of the person addressed. Letters of friendship
can close with such expressions as:


         Yours lovingly,
         Yours affectionately,
         Devotedly yours,
         Ever yours, etc.

as between husbands and wives or between lovers. Such gushing
terminations as Your Own Darling, Your own Dovey and other pet and
silly endings should be avoided, as they denote shallowness. Love
can be strongly expressed without dipping into the nonsensical and
the farcical.

Formal expressions of Subscription are:


         Yours Sincerely,
         Yours truly,
         Respectfully yours,

and the like, and these may be varied to denote the exact
bearing or attitude the writer wishes to assume to the person
addressed: as,


         Very sincerely yours,
         Very respectfully yours,
         With deep respect yours,
         Yours very truly, etc.

Such elaborate endings as


   "In the meantime with the highest respect, I am yours to command,"
   "I have the honor to be, Sir, Your humble Servant,"
   "With great expression of esteem, I am Sincerely yours,"
   "Believe me, my dear Sir, Ever faithfully yours,"

are condemned as savoring too much of affectation.

It is better to finish formal letters without any such
qualifying remarks. If you are writing to Mr. Ryan to tell him that
you have a house for sale, after describing the house and stating
the terms simply sign yourself


           Your obedient Servant
           Yours very truly,
           Yours with respect,
             James Wilson.

Don't say you have the honor to be anything or ask him to
believe anything, all you want to tell him is that you have a house
for sale and that you are sincere, or hold him in respect as a
prospective customer.

Don't abbreviate the signature as: Y'rs Resp'fly and
always make your sex obvious. Write plainly

Yours truly, John Field

and not J. Field, so that the person to whom you send it
may not take you for Jane Field.

It is always best to write the first name in full. Married women
should prefix Mrs. to their names, as

Very sincerely yours, Mrs. Theodore Watson.

If you are sending a letter acknowledging a compliment or some
kindness done you may say, Yours gratefully, or Yours
very gratefully, in proportion to the act of kindness
received.

It is not customary to sign letters of degrees or titles after
your name, except you are a lord, earl or duke and only known by
the title, but as we have no such titles in America it is
unnecessary to bring this matter into consideration. Don't sign
yourself,


          Sincerely yours,
            Obadiah Jackson, M.A. or L.L. D.

If you're an M. A. or an L.L. D. people generally know it
without your sounding your own trumpet. Many people, and especially
clergymen, are fond of flaunting after their names degrees they
have received honoris causa, that is, degrees as a mark of
honor, without examination. Such degrees should be kept in the
background. Many a deadhead has these degrees which he could never
have earned by brain work.

Married women whose husbands are alive may sign the husband's
name with the prefix Mrs: thus,

Yours sincerely, Mrs. William Southey.

but when the husband is dead the signature should be—

Yours sincerely, Mrs. Sarah Southey.

So when we receive a letter from a woman we are enabled to tell
whether she has a husband living or is a widow. A woman separated
from her husband but not a divorcee should not sign
his name.

ADDRESS

The address of a letter consists of the name, the title
and the residence.


         Mr. Hugh Black,
           112 Southgate Street,
             Altoona,
                     Pa.

Intimate friends have often familiar names for each other, such
as pet names, nicknames, etc., which they use in the freedom of
conversation, but such names should never, under any circumstances,
appear on the envelope. The subscription on the envelope should be
always written with propriety and correctness and as if penned by
an entire stranger. The only difficulty in the envelope inscription
is the title. Every man is entitled to Mr. and every lady to
Mrs. and every unmarried lady to Miss. Even a boy is
entitled to Master. When more than one is addressed the
title is Messrs. Mesdames is sometimes written of
women. If the person addressed has a title it is courteous to use
it, but titles never must be duplicated. Thus, we can write


     Robert Stitt, M. D., but never
     Dr. Robert Stitt, M. D, or
     Mr. Robert Stitt, M. D.

In writing to a medical doctor it is well to indicate his
profession by the letters M. D. so as to differentiate him from a
D. D. It is better to write Robert Stitt, M. D., than Dr. Robert
Stitt.

In the case of clergymen the prefix Rev. is retained even when
they have other titles; as


Rev. Tracy Tooke, LL. D.

When a person has more titles than one it is customary to only
give him the leading one. Thus instead of writing Rev. Samuel
MacComb, B. A., M. A., B. Sc., Ph. D., LL. D., D. D. the form
employed is Rev. Samuel MacComb, LL. D. LL. D. is appended in
preference to D. D. because in most cases the "Rev." implies a "D.
D." while comparatively few with the prefix "Rev." are entitled to
"LL. D."

In the case of Honorables such as Governors, Judges,
Members of Congress, and others of the Civil Government the prefix
"Hon." does away with Mr. and Esq. Thus we write Hon.
Josiah Snifkins, not Hon. Mr. Josiah Snifkins or Hon. Josiah
Snifkins, Esq. Though this prefix Hon. is also often applied
to Governors they should be addressed as Excellency. For
instance:


         His Excellency,
           Charles E. Hughes,
                         Albany,
                              N. Y.

In writing to the President the superscription on the envelope
should be


         To the President,
           Executive Mansion,
              Washington, D. C.

Professional men such as doctors and lawyers as well as those
having legitimately earned College Degrees may be addressed on the
envelopes by their titles, as


     Jonathan Janeway, M. D.
     Hubert Houston, B. L.
     Matthew Marks, M. A., etc.

The residence of the person addressed should be plainly written
out in full. The street and numbers should be given and the city or
town written very legibly. If the abbreviation of the State is
liable to be confounded or confused with that of another then the
full name of the State should be written. In writing the residence
on the envelope, instead of putting it all in one line as is done
at the head of a letter, each item of the residence forms a
separate line. Thus,


         Liberty,
           Sullivan County,
                         New York.

         215 Minna St.,
           San Francisco,
                         California.

There should be left a space for the postage stamp in the upper
right hand corner. The name and title should occupy a line that is
about central between the top of the envelope and the bottom. The
name should neither be too much to right or left but located in the
centre, the beginning and end at equal distances from either
end.

In writing to large business concerns which are well known or to
public or city officials it is sometimes customary to leave out
number and street. Thus,


         Messrs. Seigel, Cooper Co.,
                       New York City,

         Hon. William J. Gaynor,
                          New York City.

NOTES

Notes may be regarded as letters in miniature confined
chiefly to invitations, acceptances, regrets and introductions, and
modern etiquette tends towards informality in their composition.
Card etiquette, in fact, has taken the place of ceremonious
correspondence and informal notes are now the rule. Invitations to
dinner and receptions are now mostly written on cards. "Regrets"
are sent back on visiting cards with just the one word
"Regrets" plainly written thereon. Often on cards and notes
of invitation we find the letters R. S. V. P. at the bottom. These
letters stand for the French repondez s'il vous plait, which
means "Reply, if you please," but there is no necessity to put this
on an invitation card as every well-bred person knows that a reply
is expected. In writing notes to young ladies of the same family it
should be noted that the eldest daughter of the house is entitled
to the designation Miss without any Christian name, only the
surname appended. Thus if there are three daughters in the Thompson
family Martha, the eldest, Susan and Jemina, Martha is addressed as
Miss Thompson and the other two as Miss Susan
Thompson and Miss Jemina Thompson respectively.

Don't write the word addressed on the envelope of a
note.

Don't seal a note delivered by a friend.

Don't write a note on a postal card.

Here are a few common forms:—

FORMAL INVITATIONS


           Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff request the
         honor of Mr. McAdoo's presence on Friday
         evening, June 15th, at 8 o'clock to meet the
         Governor of the Fort.
              19 Woodbine Terrace
                        June 8th, 1910.

This is an invitation to a formal reception calling for evening
dress. Here is Mr. McAdoo's reply in the third person:—


           Mr. McAdoo presents his compliments to
         Mr. and Mrs. Henry Wagstaff and accepts with
         great pleasure their invitation to meet the
         Governor of the Fort on the evening of June
         fifteenth.
           215 Beacon Street,
                      June 10th, 1910.

Here is how Mr. McAdoo might decline the invitation:—


           Mr. McAdoo regrets that owing to a prior
         engagement he must forego the honor of paying
         his respects to Mr. and Mrs. Wagstaff and the
         Governor of the Fort on the evening of June
         fifteenth.
           215 Beacon St.,
               June 10th, 1910.

Here is a note addressed, say to Mr. Jeremiah Reynolds.


           Mr. and Mrs. Oldham at home on Wednesday
         evening October ninth from seven to eleven.
           21 Ashland Avenue,
                     October 5th.

Mr. Reynolds makes reply:—


           Mr. Reynolds accepts with high appreciation
         the honor of Mr. and Mrs. Oldham's invitation
         for Wednesday evening October ninth.
           Windsor Hotel
               October 7th


           Mr. Reynolds regrets that his duties render
         it impossible for him to accept Mr. and Mrs.
         Oldham's kind invitation for the evening of
         October ninth.
           Windsor Hotel,
                 October 7th,

Sometimes less informal invitations are sent on small specially
designed note paper in which the first person takes the place of
the third. Thus


                                      360 Pine St.,
                                      Dec. 11th, 1910.
         Dear Mr. Saintsbury:
           Mr. Johnson and I should be much pleased to
         have you dine with us and a few friends next
         Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past seven.
                              Yours sincerely,
                                   Emma Burnside.

Mr. Saintsbury's reply:


                                      57 Carlyle Strand
                                      Dec. 13th, 1910.
         Dear Mrs. Burnside:
           Let me accept very appreciatively your
         invitation to dine with Mr. Burnside and you
         on next Thursday, the fifteenth, at half past
         seven.
                                 Yours sincerely,
                                    Henry Saintsbury.
         Mrs. Alexander Burnside.

NOTES OF INTRODUCTION

Notes of introduction should be very circumspect as the writers
are in reality vouching for those whom they introduce. Here is a
specimen of such a note.


                            603 Lexington Ave.,
                                    New York City,
                                     June 15th, 1910.

         Rev. Cyrus C. Wiley, D. D.,
                         Newark, N. J.
         My dear Dr. Wiley:
                            I take the liberty of
         presenting to you my friend, Stacy Redfern,
         M. D., a young practitioner, who is anxious
         to locate in Newark. I have known him many
         years and can vouch for his integrity and
         professional standing. Any courtesy and
         kindness which you may show him will be very
         much appreciated by me.
                             Very sincerely yours,
                                      Franklin Jewett.

Chapter V: Punctuation

2008-02-05T12:36:00.000-08:00

I am behind on my study and I keep forgetting what I've learned. I have to go back to review some of the older chapters. In the mean time, I am posting chapter 5 here for you to continue with your study. Hope you're making progress.
Best of Luck, Ratcha.

CHAPTER V

PUNCTUATION

Principal Points—Illustrations—Capital
Letters.

Lindley Murray and Goold Brown laid down cast-iron rules for
punctuation, but most of them have been broken long since and
thrown into the junk-heap of disuse. They were too rigid, too
strict, went so much into minutiae, that they were more or
less impractical to apply to ordinary composition. The manner of
language, of style and of expression has considerably changed since
then, the old abstruse complex sentence with its hidden meanings
has been relegated to the shade, there is little of prolixity or
long-drawn-out phrases, ambiguity of expression is avoided and the
aim is toward terseness, brevity and clearness. Therefore,
punctuation has been greatly simplified, to such an extent indeed,
that it is now as much a matter of good taste and judgment as
adherence to any fixed set of rules. Nevertheless there are laws
governing it which cannot be abrogated, their principles must be
rigidly and inviolably observed.

The chief end of punctuation is to mark the grammatical
connection and the dependence of the parts of a composition, but
not the actual pauses made in speaking. Very often the points used
to denote the delivery of a passage differ from those used when the
passage is written. Nevertheless, several of the punctuation marks
serve to bring out the rhetorical force of expression.

The principal marks of punctuation are:

The Comma [,]

The Semicolon [;]

The Colon [:]

The Period [.]

The Interrogation [?]

The Exclamation [!]

The Dash [—]

The Parenthesis [()]

The Quotation [" "]

There are several other points or marks to indicate various
relations, but properly speaking such come under the heading of
Printer's Marks, some of which are treated elsewhere.

Of the above, the first four may be styled the grammatical
points, and the remaining five, the rhetorical points.

The Comma: The office of the Comma is to show the
slightest separation which calls for punctuation at all. It should
be omitted whenever possible. It is used to mark the least
divisions of a sentence.

A series of words or phrases has its parts separated by
commas:—"Lying, trickery, chicanery, perjury, were natural to
him." "The brave, daring, faithful soldier died facing the foe." If
the series is in pairs, commas separate the pairs: "Rich and poor,
learned and unlearned, black and white, Christian and Jew,
Mohammedan and Buddhist must pass through the same gate."

A comma is used before a short quotation: "It was Patrick Henry
who said, 'Give me liberty or give me death.'"

When the subject of the sentence is a clause or a long phrase, a
comma is used after such subject: "That he has no reverence for the
God I love, proves his insincerity." "Simulated piety, with a black
coat and a sanctimonious look, does not proclaim a
Christian."

An expression used parenthetically should be inclosed by commas:
"The old man, as a general rule, takes a morning walk."

Words in apposition are set off by commas: "McKinley, the
President, was assassinated."

Relative clauses, if not restrictive, require commas: "The book,
which is the simplest, is often the most profound."

In continued sentences each should be followed by a comma:
"Electricity lights our dwellings and streets, pulls cars, trains,
drives the engines of our mills and factories."

When a verb is omitted a comma takes its place: "Lincoln was a
great statesman; Grant, a great soldier."

The subject of address is followed by a comma: "John, you are a
good man."

In numeration, commas are used to express periods of three
figures: "Mountains 25,000 feet high; 1,000,000
dollars."

The Semicolon marks a slighter connection than the comma.
It is generally confined to separating the parts of compound
sentences. It is much used in contrasts:

"Gladstone was great as a statesman; he was sublime as a
man."

The Semicolon is used between the parts of all compound
sentences in which the grammatical subject of the second part is
different from that of the first: "The power of England relies upon
the wisdom of her statesmen; the power of America upon the strength
of her army and navy."

The Semicolon is used before words and abbreviations which
introduce particulars or specifications following after, such as,
namely, as, e.g., vid., i.e., etc.: "He had three defects;
namely, carelessness, lack of concentration and obstinacy in his
ideas." "An island is a portion of land entirely surrounded by
water; as Cuba." "The names of cities should always commence with a
capital letter; e.g., New York, Paris." "The boy was
proficient in one branch; viz., Mathematics." "No man is perfect;
i.e., free from all blemish."

The Colon except in conventional uses is practically
obsolete.

It is generally put at the end of a sentence introducing a long
quotation: "The cheers having subsided, Mr. Bryan spoke as
follows:"

It is placed before an explanation or illustration of the
subject under consideration: "This is the meaning of the
term:"

A direct quotation formally introduced is generally preceded by
a colon: "The great orator made this funny remark:"

The colon is often used in the title of books when the secondary
or subtitle is in apposition to the leading one and when the
conjunction or is omitted: "Acoustics: the Science of
Sound."

It is used after the salutation in the beginning of letters:
"Sir: My dear Sir: Gentlemen: Dear Mr. Jones:" etc. In this
connection a dash very often follows the colon.

It is sometimes used to introduce details of a group of things
already referred to in the mass: "The boy's excuses for being late
were: firstly, he did not know the time, secondly, he was sent on
an errand, thirdly, he tripped on a rock and fell by the
wayside."

The Period is the simplest punctuation mark. It is simply
used to mark the end of a complete sentence that is neither
interrogative nor exclamatory.

After every sentence conveying a complete meaning: "Birds fly."
"Plants grow." "Man is mortal."

In abbreviations: after every abbreviated word: Rt. Rev. T. C.
Alexander, D.D., L.L.D.

A period is used on the title pages of books after the name of
the book, after the author's name, after the publisher's imprint:
American Trails. By Theodore Roosevelt. New York. Scribner
Company.

The Mark of Interrogation is used to ask or suggest a
question.

Every question admitting of an answer, even when it is not
expected, should be followed by the mark of interrogation: "Who has
not heard of Napoleon?"

When several questions have a common dependence they should be
followed by one mark of interrogation at the end of the series:
"Where now are the playthings and friends of my boyhood; the
laughing boys; the winsome girls; the fond neighbors whom I
loved?"

The mark is often used parenthetically to suggest doubt: "In
1893 (?) Gladstone became converted to Home Rule for
Ireland."

The Exclamation point should be sparingly used,
particularly in prose. Its chief use is to denote emotion of some
kind.

It is generally employed with interjections or clauses used as
interjections: "Alas! I am forsaken." "What a lovely
landscape!"

Expressions of strong emotion call for the exclamation: "Charge,
Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on!"

When the emotion is very strong double exclamation points may be
used: "Assist him!! I would rather assist Satan!!"

The Dash is generally confined to cases where there is a
sudden break from the general run of the passage. Of all the
punctuation marks it is the most misused.

It is employed to denote sudden change in the construction or
sentiment: "The Heroes of the Civil War,—how we cherish
them." "He was a fine fellow—in his own opinion."

When a word or expression is repeated for oratorical effect, a
dash is used to introduce the repetition: "Shakespeare was the
greatest of all poets—Shakespeare, the intellectual ocean
whose waves washed the continents of all thought."

The Dash is used to indicate a conclusion without expressing it:
"He is an excellent man but—"

It is used to indicate what is not expected or what is not the
natural outcome of what has gone before: "He delved deep into the
bowels of the earth and found instead of the hidden
treasure—a button."

It is used to denote the omission of letters or figures:
"J—n J—s for John Jones; 1908-9 for 1908 and 1909;
Matthew VII:5-8 for Matthew VII:5, 6, 7, and 8.

When an ellipsis of the words, namely, that is, to wit,
etc., takes place, the dash is used to supply them: "He excelled in
three branches—arithmetic, algebra, and geometry."

A dash is used to denote the omission of part of a word when it
is undesirable to write the full word: He is somewhat of a
r——l (rascal). This is especially the case in profane
words.

Between a citation and the authority for it there is generally a
dash: "All the world's a stage."—Shakespeare.

When questions and answers are put in the same paragraph they
should be separated by dashes: "Are you a good boy? Yes,
Sir.—Do you love study? I do."

Marks of Parenthesis are used to separate expressions
inserted in the body of a sentence, which are illustrative of the
meaning, but have no essential connection with the sentence, and
could be done without. They should be used as little as possible
for they show that something is being brought into a sentence that
does not belong to it.

When the unity of a sentence is broken the words causing the
break should be enclosed in parenthesis: "We cannot believe a liar
(and Jones is one), even when he speaks the truth."

In reports of speeches marks of parenthesis are used to denote
interpolations of approval or disapproval by the audience: "The
masses must not submit to the tyranny of the classes (hear, hear),
we must show the trust magnates (groans), that they cannot ride
rough-shod over our dearest rights (cheers);" "If the gentleman
from Ohio (Mr. Brown), will not be our spokesman, we must select
another. (A voice,—Get Robinson)."

When a parenthesis is inserted in the sentence where no comma is
required, no point should be used before either parenthesis. When
inserted at a place requiring a comma, if the parenthetical matter
relates to the whole sentence, a comma should be used before each
parenthesis; if it relates to a single word, or short clause, no
stop should come before it, but a comma should be put after the
closing parenthesis.

The Quotation marks are used to show that the words
enclosed by them are borrowed.

A direct quotation should be enclosed within the quotation
marks: Abraham Lincoln said,—"I shall make this land too hot
for the feet of slaves."

When a quotation is embraced within another, the contained
quotation has only single marks: Franklin said, "Most men come to
believe 'honesty is the best policy.'"

When a quotation consists of several paragraphs the quotation
marks should precede each paragraph.

Titles of books, pictures and newspapers when formally given are
quoted.

Often the names of ships are quoted though there is no occasion
for it.

The Apostrophe should come under the comma rather than
under the quotation marks or double comma. The word is Greek and
signifies a turning away from. The letter elided or turned away is
generally an e. In poetry and familiar dialogue the
apostrophe marks the elision of a syllable, as "I've for I have";
"Thou'rt for thou art"; "you'll for you will," etc. Sometimes it is
necessary to abbreviate a word by leaving out several letters. In
such case the apostrophe takes the place of the omitted letters as
"cont'd for continued." The apostrophe is used to denote the
elision of the century in dates, where the century is understood or
to save the repetition of a series of figures, as "The Spirit of
'76"; "I served in the army during the years 1895, '96, '97, '98
and '99." The principal use of the apostrophe is to denote the
possessive case. All nouns in the singular number whether proper
names or not, and all nouns in the plural ending with any other
letter than s, form the possessive by the addition of the
apostrophe and the letter s. The only exceptions to this
rule are, that, by poetical license the additional s may be
elided in poetry for sake of the metre, and in the scriptural
phrases "For goodness' sake." "For conscience' sake," "For Jesus'
sake," etc. Custom has done away with the s and these
phrases are now idioms of the language. All plural nouns ending in
s form the possessive by the addition of the apostrophe only
as boys', horses'. The possessive case of the personal pronouns
never take the apostrophe, as ours, yours, hers, theirs.

CAPITAL LETTERS

Capital letters are used to give emphasis to or call
attention to certain words to distinguish them from the context. In
manuscripts they may be written small or large and are indicated by
lines drawn underneath, two lines for SMALL CAPITALS and three
lines for CAPITALS.

Some authors, notably Carlyle, make such use of Capitals that it
degenerates into an abuse. They should only be used in their proper
places as given in the table below.

The first word of every sentence, in fact the first word in
writing of any kind should begin with a capital; as, "Time flies."
"My dear friend."

Every direct quotation should begin with a capital; "Dewey
said,—'Fire, when you're ready, Gridley!'"

Every direct question commences with a capital; "Let me ask you;
'How old are you?'"

Every line of poetry begins with a capital; "Breathes there a
man with soul so dead?"

Every numbered clause calls for a capital: "The witness asserts:
(1) That he saw the man attacked; (2) That he saw him fall; (3)
That he saw his assailant flee."

The headings of essays and chapters should be wholly in
capitals; as, CHAPTER VIII—RULES FOR USE OF
CAPITALS.

In the titles of books, nouns, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs
should begin with a capital; as, "Johnson's Lives of the
Poets."

In the Roman notation numbers are denoted by capitals; as, I II
III V X L C D M—1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 50, 100, 500, 1000.

Proper names begin with a capital; as, "Jones, Johnson, Caesar,
Mark Antony, England, Pacific, Christmas."

Such words as river, sea, mountain, etc., when used generally
are common, not proper nouns, and require no capital. But when such
are used with an adjective or adjunct to specify a particular
object they become proper names, and therefore require a capital;
as, "Mississippi River, North Sea, Alleghany Mountains," etc. In
like manner the cardinal points north, south, east and west, when
they are used to distinguish regions of a country are capitals; as,
"The North fought against the South."

When a proper name is compounded with another word, the part
which is not a proper name begins with a capital if it precedes,
but with a small letter if it follows, the hyphen; as
"Post-homeric," "Sunday-school."

Words derived from proper names require a Capital; as,
"American, Irish, Christian, Americanize, Christianize."

In this connection the names of political parties, religious
sects and schools of thought begin with capitals; as, "Republican,
Democrat, Whig, Catholic, Presbyterian, Rationalists, Free
Thinkers."

The titles of honorable, state and political offices begin with
a capital; as, "President, Chairman, Governor, Alderman."

The abbreviations of learned titles and college degrees call for
capitals; as, "LL.D., M.A., B.S.," etc. Also the seats of learning
conferring such degrees as, "Harvard University, Manhattan
College," etc.

When such relative words as father, mother, brother, sister,
uncle, aunt, etc., precede a proper name, they are written and
printed with capitals; as, Father Abraham, Mother Eddy, Brother
John, Sister Jane, Uncle Jacob, Aunt Eliza. Father, when used to
denote the early Christian writer, is begun with a capital;
"Augustine was one of the learned Fathers of the Church."

The names applied to the Supreme Being begin with capitals:
"God, Lord, Creator, Providence, Almighty, The Deity, Heavenly
Father, Holy One." In this respect the names applied to the Saviour
also require capitals: "Jesus Christ, Son of God, Man of Galilee,
The Crucified, The Anointed One." Also the designations of Biblical
characters as "Lily of Israel, Rose of Sharon, Comfortress of the
Afflicted, Help of Christians, Prince of the Apostles, Star of the
Sea," etc. Pronouns referring to God and Christ take capitals; as,
"His work, The work of Him, etc."

Expressions used to designate the Bible or any particular
division of it begin with a capital; as, "Holy Writ, The Sacred
Book, Holy Book, God's Word, Old Testament, New Testament, Gospel
of St. Matthew, Seven Penitential Psalms."

Expressions based upon the Bible or in reference to Biblical
characters begin with a capital: "Water of Life, Hope of Men, Help
of Christians, Scourge of Nations."

The names applied to the Evil One require capitals: "Beelzebub,
Prince of Darkness, Satan, King of Hell, Devil, Incarnate Fiend,
Tempter of Men, Father of Lies, Hater of Good."

Words of very special importance, especially those which stand
out as the names of leading events in history, have capitals; as,
"The Revolution, The Civil War, The Middle Ages, The Age of Iron,"
etc.

Terms which refer to great events in the history of the race
require capitals; "The Flood, Magna Charta, Declaration of
Independence."

The names of the days of the week and the months of the year and
the seasons are commenced with capitals: "Monday, March,
Autumn."

The Pronoun I and the interjection O always
require the use of capitals. In fact all the interjections when
uttered as exclamations commence with capitals: "Alas! he is gone."
"Ah! I pitied him."

All noms-de-guerre, assumed names, as well as names given
for distinction, call for capitals, as, "The Wizard of the North,"
"Paul Pry," "The Northern Gael," "Sandy Sanderson," "Poor Robin,"
etc.

In personification, that is, when inanimate things are
represented as endowed with life and action, the noun or object
personified begins with a capital; as, "The starry Night shook the
dews from her wings." "Mild-eyed Day appeared," "The Oak said to
the Beech—'I am stronger than you.'"

Chapter IV: Figurative Language

2008-02-05T12:34:00.000-08:00

Here we are at chapter 4 already. I'm telling you this stuff is pretty tough for me. So many details. I just try the best I can. I've learned so much in the past 3 chapters. Now my head is getting all little bit confused.
I hope you're not, enjoy your study! Ratcha.

CHAPTER IV

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Figures of Speech—Definitions and Examples —Use of
Figures

In Figurative Language we employ words in such a way that
they differ somewhat from their ordinary signification in
commonplace speech and convey our meaning in a more vivid and
impressive manner than when we use them in their every-day sense.
Figures make speech more effective, they beautify and emphasize it
and give to it a relish and piquancy as salt does to food; besides
they add energy and force to expression so that it irresistibly
compels attention and interest. There are four kinds of figures,
viz.: (1) Figures of Orthography which change the spelling of a
word; (2) Figures of Etymology which change the form of words; (3)
Figures of Syntax which change the construction of sentences; (4)
Figures of Rhetoric or the art of speaking and writing effectively
which change the mode of thought.

We shall only consider the last mentioned here as they are the
most important, really giving to language the construction and
style which make it a fitting medium for the intercommunication of
ideas.

Figures of Rhetoric have been variously classified, some
authorities extending the list to a useless length. The fact is
that any form of expression which conveys thought may be classified
as a Figure.

The principal figures as well as the most important and those
oftenest used are, Simile, Metaphor, Personification, Allegory,
Synechdoche, Metonymy, Exclamation, Hyperbole, Apostrophe, Vision,
Antithesis, Climax, Epigram, Interrogation and
Irony.

The first four are founded on resemblance, the second six
on contiguity and the third five, on contrast.

A Simile (from the Latin similis, like), is the
likening of one thing to another, a statement of the resemblance of
objects, acts, or relations; as "In his awful anger he was
like the storm-driven waves dashing against the rock." A
simile makes the principal object plainer and impresses it more
forcibly on the mind. "His memory is like wax to receive
impressions and like marble to retain them." This brings out the
leading idea as to the man's memory in a very forceful manner.
Contrast it with the simple statement—"His memory is good."
Sometimes Simile is prostituted to a low and degrading use;
as "His face was like a danger signal in a fog storm." "Her hair
was like a furze-bush in bloom." "He was to his lady love as a
poodle to its mistress." Such burlesque is never permissible. Mere
likeness, it should be remembered, does not constitute a
simile. For instance there is no simile when one city is compared
to another. In order that there may be a rhetorical simile, the
objects compared must be of different classes. Avoid the old
trite similes such as comparing a hero to a lion. Such were
played out long ago. And don't hunt for farfetched similes. Don't
say—"Her head was glowing as the glorious god of day when he
sets in a flambeau of splendor behind the purple-tinted hills of
the West." It is much better to do without such a simile and simply
say—"She had fiery red hair."

A Metaphor (from the Greek metapherein, to carry
over or transfer), is a word used to imply a resemblance but
instead of likening one object to another as in the simile
we directly substitute the action or operation of one for another.
If, of a religious man we say,—"He is as a great pillar
upholding the church," the expression is a simile, but if we
say—"He is a great pillar upholding the church" it is a
metaphor. The metaphor is a bolder and more lively figure than the
simile. It is more like a picture and hence, the graphic use of
metaphor is called "word-painting." It enables us to give to the
most abstract ideas form, color and life. Our language is full of
metaphors, and we very often use them quite unconsciously. For
instance, when we speak of the bed of a river, the
shoulder of a hill, the foot of a mountain, the
hands of a clock, the key of a situation, we are
using metaphors.

Don't use mixed metaphors, that is, different metaphors in
relation to the same subject: "Since it was launched our project
has met with much opposition, but while its flight has not reached
the heights ambitioned, we are yet sanguine we shall drive it to
success." Here our project begins as a ship, then becomes a
bird and finally winds up as a horse.

Personification (from the Latin persona, person,
and facere, to make) is the treating of an inanimate object
as if it were animate and is probably the most beautiful and
effective of all the figures.

"The mountains sing together, the hills rejoice
and clap their hands."

"Earth felt the wound; and Nature from her seat,

Sighing, through all her works, gave signs of woe."

Personification depends much on a vivid imagination and is
adapted especially to poetical composition. It has two
distinguishable forms: (1) when personality is ascribed to the
inanimate as in the foregoing examples, and (2) when some quality
of life is attributed to the inanimate; as, a raging storm;
an angry sea; a whistling wind, etc.

An Allegory (from the Greek allos, other, and
agoreuein, to speak), is a form of expression in which the
words are symbolical of something. It is very closely allied to the
metaphor, in fact is a continued metaphor.

Allegory, metaphor and simile have three
points in common,—they are all founded on resemblance.
"Ireland is like a thorn in the side of England;" this is simile.
"Ireland is a thorn in the side of England;" this is
metaphor. "Once a great giant sprang up out of the sea and lived on
an island all by himself. On looking around he discovered a little
girl on another small island near by. He thought the little girl
could be useful to him in many ways so he determined to make her
subservient to his will. He commanded her, but she refused to obey,
then he resorted to very harsh measures with the little girl, but
she still remained obstinate and obdurate. He continued to oppress
her until finally she rebelled and became as a thorn in his side to
prick him for his evil attitude towards her;" this is an allegory
in which the giant plainly represents England and the little girl,
Ireland; the implication is manifest though no mention is made of
either country. Strange to say the most perfect allegory in the
English language was written by an almost illiterate and ignorant
man, and written too, in a dungeon cell. In the "Pilgrim's
Progress," Bunyan, the itinerant tinker, has given us by far the
best allegory ever penned. Another good one is "The Faerie Queen"
by Edmund Spenser.

Synecdoche (from the Greek, sun with, and
ekdexesthai, to receive), is a figure of speech which
expresses either more or less than it literally denotes. By it we
give to an object a name which literally expresses something more
or something less than we intend. Thus: we speak of the world when
we mean only a very limited number of the people who compose the
world: as, "The world treated him badly." Here we use the whole for
a part. But the most common form of this figure is that in which a
part is used for the whole; as, "I have twenty head of cattle,"
"One of his hands was assassinated," meaning one of his men.
"Twenty sail came into the harbor," meaning twenty ships.
"This is a fine marble," meaning a marble statue.

Metonymy (from the Greek meta, change, and
onyma, a name) is the designation of an object by one of its
accompaniments, in other words, it is a figure by which the name of
one object is put for another when the two are so related that the
mention of one readily suggests the other. Thus when we say of a
drunkard—"He loves the bottle" we do not mean that he loves
the glass receptacle, but the liquor that it is supposed to
contain. Metonymy, generally speaking, has, three subdivisions: (1)
when an effect is put for cause or vice versa: as "Gray
hairs should be respected," meaning old age. "He writes a fine
hand," that is, handwriting. (2) when the sign is put for
the thing signified; as, "The pen is mightier than the
sword," meaning literary power is superior to military force. (3)
When the container is put for the thing contained; as "The
House was called to order," meaning the members in the
House.

Exclamation (from the Latin ex, out, and
clamare, to cry), is a figure by which the speaker instead
of stating a fact, simply utters an expression of surprise or
emotion. For instance when he hears some harrowing tale of woe or
misfortune instead of saying,—"It is a sad story" he exclaims
"What a sad story!"

Exclamation may be defined as the vocal expression of feeling,
though it is also applied to written forms which are intended to
express emotion. Thus in describing a towering mountain we can
write "Heavens, what a piece of Nature's handiwork! how majestic!
how sublime! how awe-inspiring in its colossal impressiveness!"
This figure rather belongs to poetry and animated oratory than to
the cold prose of every-day conversation and writing.

Hyperbole (from the Greek hyper, beyond, and
ballein, to throw), is an exaggerated form of statement and
simply consists in representing things to be either greater or
less, better or worse than they really are. Its object is to make
the thought more effective by overstating it. Here are some
examples:—"He was so tall his head touched the clouds." "He
was as thin as a poker." "He was so light that a breath might have
blown him away." Most people are liable to overwork this figure. We
are all more or less given to exaggeration and some of us do not
stop there, but proceed onward to falsehood and downright lying.
There should be a limit to hyperbole, and in ordinary speech and
writing it should be well qualified and kept within reasonable
bounds.

An Apostrophe (from the Greek apo, from, and
strephein, to turn), is a direct address to the absent as
present, to the inanimate as living, or to the abstract as
personal. Thus: "O, illustrious Washington! Father of our Country!
Could you visit us now!"


    "My Country tis of thee—
     Sweet land of liberty,
     Of thee I sing."

"O! Grave, where is thy Victory, O! Death where is thy sting!"
This figure is very closely allied to Personification.

Vision (from the Latin videre, to see) consists in
treating the past, the future, or the remote as if present in time
or place. It is appropriate to animated description, as it produces
the effect of an ideal presence. "The old warrior looks down from
the canvas and tells us to be men worthy of our sires."

This figure is much exemplified in the Bible. The book of
Revelation is a vision of the future. The author who uses the
figure most is Carlyle.

An Antithesis (from the Greek anti, against, and
tithenai, to set) is founded on contrast; it consists in
putting two unlike things in such a position that each will appear
more striking by the contrast.


    "Ring out the old, ring in the new,
     Ring out the false, ring in the true."

"Let us be friends in peace, but enemies in
war."

Here is a fine antithesis in the description of a steam
engine—"It can engrave a seal and crush masses of obdurate
metal before it; draw out, without breaking, a thread as fine as a
gossamer; and lift up a ship of war like a bauble in the air; it
can embroider muslin and forge anchors; cut steel into ribands, and
impel loaded vessels against the fury of winds and waves."

Climax (from the Greek, klimax, a ladder), is an
arrangement of thoughts and ideas in a series, each part of which
gets stronger and more impressive until the last one, which
emphasizes the force of all the preceding ones. "He risked truth,
he risked honor, he risked fame, he risked all that men hold
dear,—yea, he risked life itself, and for what?—for a
creature who was not worthy to tie his shoe-latchets when he was
his better self."

Epigram (from the Greek epi, upon, and
graphein, to write), originally meant an inscription on a
monument, hence it came to signify any pointed expression. It now
means a statement or any brief saying in prose or poetry in which
there is an apparent contradiction; as, "Conspicuous for his
absence." "Beauty when unadorned is most adorned." "He was too
foolish to commit folly." "He was so wealthy that he could not
spare the money."

Interrogation (from the Latin interrogatio, a
question), is a figure of speech in which an assertion is made by
asking a question; as, "Does God not show justice to all?" "Is he
not doing right in his course?" "What can a man do under the
circumstances?"

Irony (from the Greek eironcia, dissimulation) is
a form of expression in which the opposite is substituted for what
is intended, with the end in view, that the falsity or absurdity
may be apparent; as, "Benedict Arnold was an honorable man."
"A Judas Iscariot never betrays a friend." "You can always
depend upon the word of a liar."

Irony is cousin germain to ridicule, derision,
mockery, satire and sarcasm. Ridicule
implies laughter mingled with contempt; derision is ridicule
from a personal feeling of hostility; mockery is insulting
derision; satire is witty mockery; sarcasm is bitter
satire and irony is disguised satire.

There are many other figures of speech which give piquancy to
language and play upon words in such a way as to convey a meaning
different from their ordinary signification in common every-day
speech and writing. The golden rule for all is to keep them in
harmony with the character and purpose of speech and
composition.

Chapter III : The Sentence

2008-02-05T12:24:00.000-08:00

CHAPTER III

THE SENTENCE

Different Kinds—Arrangement of
Words—Paragraph

A sentence is an assemblage of words so arranged as to convey a
determinate sense or meaning, in other words, to express a complete
thought or idea. No matter how short, it must contain one finite
verb and a subject or agent to direct the action of the verb.

"Birds fly;" "Fish swim;" "Men walk;"—are sentences.

A sentence always contains two parts, something spoken about and
something said about it. The word or words indicating what is
spoken about form what is called the subject and the word or
words indicating what is said about it form what is called the
predicate.

In the sentences given, birds, fish and men
are the subjects, while fly, swim and walk are
the predicates.

There are three kinds of sentences, simple,
compound and complex.

The simple sentence expresses a single thought and
consists of one subject and one predicate, as, "Man is mortal."

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple
sentences of equal importance the parts of which are either
expressed or understood, as, "The men work in the fields and the
women work in the household," or "The men work in the fields and
the women in the household" or "The men and women work in the
fields and in the household."

A complex sentence consists of two or more simple
sentences so combined that one depends on the other to complete its
meaning; as; "When he returns, I shall go on my vacation." Here the
words, "when he returns" are dependent on the rest of the sentence
for their meaning.

A clause is a separate part of a complex sentence, as
"when he returns" in the last example.

A phrase consists of two or more words without a finite
verb.

Without a finite verb we cannot affirm anything or convey an
idea, therefore we can have no sentence.

Infinitives and participles which are the infinite parts of the
verb cannot be predicates. "I looking up the street" is not a
sentence, for it is not a complete action expressed. When we hear
such an expression as "A dog running along the street," we wait for
something more to be added, something more affirmed about the dog,
whether he bit or barked or fell dead or was run over.

Thus in every sentence there must be a finite verb to limit the
subject.

When the verb is transitive, that is, when the action cannot
happen without affecting something, the thing affected is called
the object.

Thus in "Cain killed Abel" the action of the killing affected
Abel. In "The cat has caught a mouse," mouse is the object of the
catching.

ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE

Of course in simple sentences the natural order of arrangement
is subject—verb—object. In many cases no other form is
possible. Thus in the sentence "The cat has caught a mouse," we
cannot reverse it and say "The mouse has caught a cat" without
destroying the meaning, and in any other form of arrangement, such
as "A mouse, the cat has caught," we feel that while it is
intelligible, it is a poor way of expressing the fact and one which
jars upon us more or less.

In longer sentences, however, when there are more words than
what are barely necessary for subject, verb and object, we have
greater freedom of arrangement and can so place the words as to
give the best effect. The proper placing of words depends upon
perspicuity and precision. These two combined give style to
the structure.

Most people are familiar with Gray's line in the immortal
Elegy—"The ploughman homeward plods his weary way."
This line can be paraphrased to read 18 different ways. Here are a
few variations:


    Homeward the ploughman plods his weary way.
    The ploughman plods his weary way homeward.
    Plods homeward the ploughman his weary way.
    His weary way the ploughman homeward plods.
    Homeward his weary way plods the ploughman.
    Plods the ploughman his weary way homeward.
    His weary way the ploughman plods homeward.
    His weary way homeward the ploughman plods.
    The ploughman plods homeward his weary way.
    The ploughman his weary way plods homeward.

and so on. It is doubtful if any of the other forms are superior
to the one used by the poet. Of course his arrangement was made to
comply with the rhythm and rhyme of the verse. Most of the
variations depend upon the emphasis we wish to place upon the
different words.

In arranging the words in an ordinary sentence we should not
lose sight of the fact that the beginning and end are the important
places for catching the attention of the reader. Words in these
places have greater emphasis than elsewhere.

In Gray's line the general meaning conveyed is that a weary
ploughman is plodding his way homeward, but according to the
arrangement a very slight difference is effected in the idea. Some
of the variations make us think more of the ploughman, others more
of the plodding, and still others more of the weariness.

As the beginning and end of a sentence are the most important
places, it naturally follows that small or insignificant words
should be kept from these positions. Of the two places the end one
is the more important, therefore, it really calls for the most
important word in the sentence. Never commence a sentence with
And, But, Since, Because, and other
similar weak words and never end it with prepositions, small, weak
adverbs or pronouns.

The parts of a sentence which are most closely connected with
one another in meaning should be closely connected in order also.
By ignoring this principle many sentences are made, if not
nonsensical, really ridiculous and ludicrous. For instance: "Ten
dollars reward is offered for information of any person injuring
this property by order of the owner." "This monument was erected to
the memory of John Jones, who was shot by his affectionate
brother."

In the construction of all sentences the grammatical rules must
be inviolably observed. The laws of concord, that is, the agreement
of certain words, must be obeyed.

The verb agrees with its subject in person and number. "I have," "Thou hast," (the pronoun thou is here used to illustrate
the verb form, though it is almost obsolete), "He has," show the
variation of the verb to agree with the subject. A singular subject
calls for a singular verb, a plural subject demands a verb in the
plural; as, "The boy writes," "The boys write."

The agreement of a verb and its subject is often destroyed by
confusing (1) collective and common nouns; (2) foreign and English
nouns; (3) compound and simple subjects; (4) real and apparent
subjects.

(1) A collective noun is a number of individuals or
things regarded as a whole; as, class regiment. When the
individuals or things are prominently brought forward, use a plural
verb; as The class were distinguished for ability. When the
idea of the whole as a unit is under consideration employ a
singular verb; as The regiment was in camp. (2) It is
sometimes hard for the ordinary individual to distinguish the
plural from the singular in foreign nouns, therefore, he should be
careful in the selection of the verb. He should look up the word
and be guided accordingly. "He was an alumnus of Harvard."
"They were alumni of Harvard." (3) When a sentence with one
verb has two or more subjects denoting different things, connected
by and, the verb should be plural; as, "Snow and rain
are disagreeable." When the subjects denote the same thing
and are connected by or the verb should be singular; as,
"The man or the woman is to blame." (4) When the same verb has more
than one subject of different persons or numbers, it agrees with
the most prominent in thought; as, "He, and not you, is
wrong." "Whether he or I am to be blamed."

Never use the past participle for the past tense nor vice
versa. This mistake is a very common one. At every turn we hear
"He done it" for "He did it." "The jar was broke" instead of
broken. "He would have went" for "He would have gone,"
etc.

The use of the verbs shall and will is a rock upon
which even the best speakers come to wreck. They are interchanged
recklessly. Their significance changes according as they are used
with the first, second or third person. With the first person
shall is used in direct statement to express a simple future
action; as, "I shall go to the city to-morrow." With the second and
third persons shall is used to express a determination; as,
"You shall go to the city to-morrow," "He shall go to
the city to-morrow."

With the first person will is used in direct statement to
express determination, as, "I will go to the city to-morrow." With
the second and third persons will is used to express simple
future action; as, "You will go to the city to-morrow," "He
will go to the city to-morrow."

A very old rule regarding the uses of shall and
will is thus expressed in rhyme:
```
    In the first person simply shall foretells,
    In will a threat or else a promise dwells.
Shall in the second and third does threat,
Will simply then foretells the future feat.
```

Take special care to distinguish between the nominative and
objective case. The pronouns are the only words which retain the
ancient distinctive case ending for the objective. Remember that
the objective case follows transitive verbs and prepositions. Don't
say "The boy who I sent to see you," but "The boy whom I sent to
see you." Whom is here the object of the transitive verb
sent. Don't say "She bowed to him and I" but "She bowed to him and
me" since me is the objective case following the preposition
to understood. "Between you and I" is a very common
expression. It should be "Between you and me" since between
is a preposition calling for the objective case.

Be careful in the use of the relative pronouns who,
which and that. Who refers only to persons; which
only to things; as, "The boy who was drowned," "The umbrella which
I lost." The relative that may refer to both persons and
things; as, "The man that I saw." "The hat that I
bought."

Don't use the superlative degree of the adjective for the
comparative; as "He is the richest of the two" for "He is the
richer of the two." Other mistakes often made in this connection
are (1) Using the double comparative and superlative; as, "These
apples are much more preferable." "The most universal motive
to business is gain." (2) Comparing objects which belong to
dissimilar classes; as "There is no nicer life than a
teacher." (3) Including objects in class to which they do
not belong; as, "The fairest of her daughters, Eve." (4) Excluding
an object from a class to which it does belong; as, "Caesar was
braver than any ancient warrior."

Don't use an adjective for an adverb or an adverb for an
adjective. Don't say, "He acted nice towards me" but "He acted
nicely toward me," and instead of saying "She looked
beautifully" say "She looked beautiful."

Place the adverb as near as possible to the word it modifies.
Instead of saying, "He walked to the door quickly," say "He walked
quickly to the door."

Not alone be careful to distinguish between the nominative and
objective cases of the pronouns, but try to avoid ambiguity in
their use.

The amusing effect of disregarding the reference of pronouns is
well illustrated by Burton in the following story of Billy
Williams, a comic actor who thus narrates his experience in riding
a horse owned by Hamblin, the manager:

"So down I goes to the stable with Tom Flynn, and told the man
to put the saddle on him."

"On Tom Flynn?"

"No, on the horse. So after talking with Tom Flynn awhile I
mounted him."

"What! mounted Tom Flynn?"

"No, the horse; and then I shook hands with him and rode
off."

"Shook hands with the horse, Billy?"

"No, with Tom Flynn; and then I rode off up the Bowery, and who
should I meet but Tom Hamblin; so I got off and told the boy to
hold him by the head."

"What! hold Hamblin by the head?"

"No, the horse; and then we went and had a drink together."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, me and Hamblin; and after that I mounted him again
and went out of town."

"What! mounted Hamblin again?"

"No, the horse; and when I got to Burnham, who should be there
but Tom Flynn,—he'd taken another horse and rode out ahead of
me; so I told the hostler to tie him up."

"Tie Tom Flynn up?"

"No, the horse; and we had a drink there."

"What! you and the horse?"

"No, me and Tom Flynn."

Finding his auditors by this time in a horse laugh, Billy
wound up with: "Now, look here, —every time I say horse, you
say Hamblin, and every time I say Hamblin you say horse: I'll be
hanged if I tell you any more about it."

SENTENCE CLASSIFICATION

There are two great classes of sentences according to the
general principles upon which they are founded. These are termed
the loose and the periodic.

In the loose sentence the main idea is put first, and
then follow several facts in connection with it. Defoe is an author
particularly noted for this kind of sentence. He starts out with a
leading declaration to which he adds several attendant connections.
For instance in the opening of the story of Robinson Crusoe
we read: "I was born in the year 1632 in the city of York, of a
good family, though not of that country, my father being a
foreigner of Bremen, who settled first at Hull; he got a good
estate by merchandise, and leaving off his trade lived afterward at
York, from whence he had married my mother, whose relations were
named Robinson, a very good family in the country and from I was
called Robinson Kreutznaer; but by the usual corruption of words in
England, we are now called, nay, we call ourselves, and write our
name Crusoe, and so my companions always called me."

In the periodic sentence the main idea comes last and is
preceded by a series of relative introductions. This kind of
sentence is often introduced by such words as that,
if, since, because. The following is an
example:

"That through his own folly and lack of circumspection he should
have been reduced to such circumstances as to be forced to become a
beggar on the streets, soliciting alms from those who had formerly
been the recipients of his bounty, was a sore humiliation."

On account of its name many are liable to think the loose
sentence an undesirable form in good composition, but this should
not be taken for granted. In many cases it is preferable to the
periodic form.

As a general rule in speaking, as opposed to writing, the
loose form is to be preferred, inasmuch as when the periodic
is employed in discourse the listeners are apt to forget the
introductory clauses before the final issue is reached.

Both kinds are freely used in composition, but in speaking, the
loose, which makes the direct statement at the beginning,
should predominate.

As to the length of sentences much depends on the nature of the
composition. However the general rule may be laid down that short
sentences are preferable to long ones. The tendency of the best
writers of the present day is towards short, snappy, pithy
sentences which rivet the attention of the reader. They adopt as
their motto multum in parvo (much in little) and endeavor to
pack a great deal in small space. Of course the extreme of brevity
is to be avoided. Sentences can be too short, too jerky, too
brittle to withstand the test of criticism. The long sentence has
its place and a very important one. It is indispensable in argument
and often is very necessary to description and also in introducing
general principles which require elaboration. In employing the long
sentence the inexperienced writer should not strain after the
heavy, ponderous type. Johnson and Carlyle used such a type, but
remember, an ordinary mortal cannot wield the sledge hammer of a
giant. Johnson and Carlyle were intellectual giants and few can
hope to stand on the same literary pedestal. The tyro in
composition should never seek after the heavy style. The best of
all authors in the English language for style is Addison. Macaulay
says: "If you wish a style learned, but not pedantic, elegant but
not ostentatious, simple yet refined, you must give your days and
nights to the volumes of Joseph Addison." The simplicity, apart
from the beauty of Addison's writings causes us to reiterate the
literary command—"Never use a big word when a little one will
convey the same or a similar meaning."

Macaulay himself is an elegant stylist to imitate. He is like a
clear brook kissed by the noon-day sun in the shining bed of which
you can see and count the beautiful white pebbles. Goldsmith is
another writer whose simplicity of style charms.

The beginner should study these writers, make their works his
vade mecum, they have stood the test of time and there has
been no improvement upon them yet, nor is there likely to be, for
their writing is as perfect as it is possible to be in the English
language.

Apart from their grammatical construction there can be no fixed
rules for the formation of sentences. The best plan is to follow
the best authors and these masters of language will guide you
safely along the way.

THE PARAGRAPH

The paragraph may be defined as a group of sentences that are
closely related in thought and which serve one common purpose. Not
only do they preserve the sequence of the different parts into
which a composition is divided, but they give a certain spice to
the matter like raisins in a plum pudding. A solid page of printed
matter is distasteful to the reader; it taxes the eye and tends
towards the weariness of monotony, but when it is broken up into
sections it loses much of its heaviness and the consequent
lightness gives it charm, as it were, to capture the reader.

Paragraphs are like stepping-stones on the bed of a shallow
river, which enable the foot passenger to skip with ease from one
to the other until he gets across; but if the stones are placed too
far apart in attempting to span the distance one is liable to miss
the mark and fall in the water and flounder about until he is again
able to get a foothold. 'Tis the same with written language, the
reader by means of paragraphs can easily pass from one portion of
connected thought to another and keep up his interest in the
subject until he gets to the end.

Throughout the paragraph there must be some connection in regard
to the matter under consideration,—a sentence dependency. For
instance, in the same paragraph we must not speak of a house on
fire and a runaway horse unless there is some connection between
the two. We must not write consecutively:

"The fire raged with fierce intensity, consuming the greater
part of the large building in a short time." "The horse took fright
and wildly dashed down the street scattering pedestrians in all
directions." These two sentences have no connection and therefore
should occupy separate and distinct places. But when we
say—"The fire raged with fierce intensity consuming the
greater part of the large building in a short time and the horse
taking fright at the flames dashed wildly down the street
scattering pedestrians in all directions,"—there is a natural
sequence, viz., the horse taking fright as a consequence of the
flames and hence the two expressions are combined in one
paragraph.

As in the case of words in sentences, the most important places
in a paragraph are the beginning and the end. Accordingly the first
sentence and the last should by virtue of their structure and
nervous force, compel the reader's attention. It is usually
advisable to make the first sentence short; the last sentence may
be long or short, but in either case should be forcible. The object
of the first sentence is to state a point clearly; the last
sentence should enforce it.

It is a custom of good writers to make the conclusion of the
paragraph a restatement or counterpart or application of the
opening.

In most cases a paragraph may be regarded as the elaboration of
the principal sentence. The leading thought or idea can be taken as
a nucleus and around it constructed the different parts of the
paragraph. Anyone can make a context for every simple sentence by
asking himself questions in reference to the sentence.
Thus—"The foreman gave the order"— suggests at once
several questions; "What was the order?" "to whom did he give it?"
"why did he give it?" "what was the result?" etc. These questions
when answered will depend upon the leading one and be an
elaboration of it into a complete paragraph.

If we examine any good paragraph we shall find it made up of a
number of items, each of which helps to illustrate, confirm or
enforce the general thought or purpose of the paragraph. Also the
transition from each item to the next is easy, natural and obvious;
the items seem to come of themselves. If, on the other hand, we
detect in a paragraph one or more items which have no direct
bearing, or if we are unable to proceed readily from item to item,
especially if we are obliged to rearrange the items before we can
perceive their full significance, then we are justified in
pronouncing the paragraph construction faulty.

No specific rules can be given as to the construction of
paragraphs. The best advice is,—Study closely the paragraph
structure of the best writers, for it is only through imitation,
conscious or unconscious of the best models, that one can master
the art.

The best paragraphist in the English language for the essay is
Macaulay, the best model to follow for the oratorical style is
Edmund Burke and for description and narration probably the
greatest master of paragraph is the American Goldsmith, Washington
Irving.

A paragraph is indicated in print by what is known as the
indentation of the line, that is, by commencing it a space from the
left margin.

Chapter 2: Essentials of English Grammar

2008-01-24T19:34:00.000-08:00

CHAPTER II

ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Divisions of Grammar—Definitions—Etymology.

In order to speak and write the English language correctly, it is imperative that the fundamental principles of the Grammar be mastered, for no matter how much we may read of the best authors,no matter how much we may associate with and imitate the best speakers, if we do not know the underlying principles of the correct formation of sentences and the relation of words to one another, we will be to a great extent like the parrot, that merely repeats what it hears without understanding the import of what is said. Of course the parrot, being a creature without reason, cannot comprehend; it can simply repeat what is said to it, and as it utters phrases and sentences of profanity with as much facility as those of virtue, so by like analogy, when we do not understand the grammar of the language, we may be making egregious blunders while thinking we are speaking with the utmost accuracy.

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR

There are four great divisions of Grammar, viz.:

Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody.

Orthography treats of letters and the mode of combining them into words.

Etymology treats of the various classes of words and the changes they undergo.

Syntax treats of the connection and arrangement of words in sentences.

Prosody treats of the manner of speaking and reading and the different kinds of verse.

The three first mentioned concern us most.

LETTERS

A letter is a mark or character used to represent an articulate sound. Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. A vowel is a letter which makes a distinct sound by itself. Consonants cannot be sounded without the aid of vowels.The vowels are a, e, i, o, u,and sometimes w and y when they do not begin a word or syllable.

SYLLABLES AND WORDS

A syllable is a distinct sound produced by a single effort of[Transcriber's note: 1-2 words illegible] shall, pig, dog. In every syllable there must be at least one vowel.

A word consists of one syllable or a combination of syllables.

Many rules are given for the dividing of words into syllables,but the best is to follow as closely as possible the divisions made by the organs of speech in properly pronouncing them.

THE PARTS OF SPEECH

ARTICLE

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether the noun is used in a particular or general sense.

There are two articles, a or an and the.A or an is called the indefinite article because it does not point put any particular person or thing but indicates the noun in its widest sense; thus, a man means any man whatsoever of the species or race.

The is called the definite article because it points out some particular person or thing; thus, the man means some particular individual.

NOUN

A noun is the name of any person, place or thing as John, London, book. Nouns are proper and common.

Proper nouns are names applied to particular persons or places.

Common nouns are names applied to a whole kind or species.

Nouns are inflected by number, gender and case.

Number is that inflection of the noun by which we indicate whether it represents one or more than one.

Gender is that inflection by which we signify whether the noun is the name of a male, a female, of an inanimate object or something which has no distinction of sex.

Case is that inflection of the noun which denotes the state of the person, place or thing represented, as the subject of an affirmation or question, the owner or possessor of something mentioned, or the object of an action or of a relation.

Thus in the example, "John tore the leaves of Sarah's book," the distinction between book which represents only one object and leaves which represent two or more objects of the same kind is called Number; the distinction of sex between John, a male, and Sarah, a female, and book and leaves, things which are inanimate and neither male nor female, is called Gender; and the distinction of state between John, the person who tore the book, and the subject of the affirmation, Mary, the owner of the book,leaves the objects torn, and book the object related to leaves, as the whole of which they were a part, is called Case.

ADJECTIVE

An adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is,shows or points out some distinguishing mark or feature of the noun; as, A black dog.

Adjectives have three forms called degrees of comparison, the positive, the comparative and the superlative.

The positive is the simple form of the adjective without expressing increase or diminution of the original quality:nice.

The comparative is that form of the adjective which expresses increase or diminution of the quality: nicer.

The superlative is that form which expresses the greatest increase or diminution of the quality: nicest.

An adjective is in the positive form when it does not express comparison; as, "A rich man."

An adjective is in the comparative form when it expresses comparison between two or between one and a number taken collectively, as, "John is richer than James"; "he is richer than all the men in Boston."

An adjective is in the superlative form when it expresses a comparison between one and a number of individuals taken separately; as, "John is the richest man in Boston."

Adjectives expressive of properties or circumstances which cannot be increased have only the positive form; as, A circular road; the chief end; an extreme measure.

Adjectives are compared in two ways, either by adding er to the positive to form the comparative and est to the positive to form the superlative, or by prefixing more to the positive for the comparative and most to the positive for the superlative; as, handsome, handsomer,handsomest or handsome, more handsome, most handsome.

Adjectives of two or more syllables are generally compared by prefixing more and most.

Many adjectives are irregular in comparison; as, Bad, worse,worst; Good, better, best.

PRONOUN

A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, "John gave his pen to James and he lent it to Jane to write her copy with it." Without the pronouns we would have to write this sentence,—"John gave John's pen to James and James lent the pen to Jane to write Jane's copy with the pen."

There are three kinds of pronouns—Personal, Relative and Adjective Pronouns.

Personal Pronouns are so called because they are used instead of the names of persons, places and things. The Personal Pronouns are I, Thou, He, She, and It, with their plurals, We, Ye or You and They.

I is the pronoun of the first person because it represents the person speaking.

Thou is the pronoun of the second person because it represents the person spoken to.

He, She, It are the pronouns of the third person because they represent the persons or things of whom we are speaking.

Like nouns, the Personal Pronouns have number, gender and case.The gender of the first and second person is obvious, as they represent the person or persons speaking and those who are addressed. The personal pronouns are thus declined:

First Person.
M. or F.

	Sing.	Plural.
N.	I	We
P.	Mine	Ours
O.	Me	Us

Second Person.
M. or F.

	Sing.	Plural.
N.	Thou	You
P.	Thine	Yours
O.	Thee	You

Third Person.
M.

	Sing.	Plural.
N.	He	They
P.	His	Theirs
O.	Him	Them

Third Person.
F.

	Sing.	Plural.
N.	She	They
P.	Hers	Theirs
O.	Her	Them

Third Person.
Neuter.

	Sing.	Plural.
N.	It	They
P.	Its	Theirs
O.	It	Them

N. B.—In colloquial language and ordinary writing Thou,Thine and Thee are seldom used, except by the Society of Friends.The Plural form You is used for both the nominative and objective singular in the second person and Yours is generally used in the possessive in place of Thine.

The Relative Pronouns are so called because they relate to some word or phrase going before; as, "The boy who told the truth;" "He has done well, which gives me great pleasure."

Here who and which are not only used in place of other words, but who refers immediately to boy, and which to the circumstance of his having done well.

The word or clause to which a relative pronoun refers is called the Antecedent.

The Relative Pronouns are who, which, that and what.

Who is applied to persons only; as, "The man who was here."

Which is applied to the lower animals and things without life; as, "The horse which I sold." "The hat which I bought."

That is applied to both persons and things; as, "The friend that helps." "The bird that sings." "The knife that cuts."

What is a compound relative, including both the antecedent and the relative and is equivalent to that which;as, "I did what he desired," i. e. "I did that which he desired."

Relative pronouns have the singular and plural alike.

Who is either masculine or feminine; which and that are masculine, feminine or neuter; what as are lative pronoun is always neuter.

That and what are not inflected.

Who and which are thus declined:

Sing. and Plural		Sing. and Plural
N.	Who	N.	Which
P.	Whose	P.	Whose
O.	Whom	O.	Which

Who, which and what when used to ask questions are called Interrogative Pronouns.

Adjective Pronouns partake of the nature of adjectives and pronouns and are subdivided as follows:

Demonstrative Adjective Pronouns which directly point out the person or object. They are this, that with their plurals these, those, and yon, same and selfsame.

Distributive Adjective Pronouns used distributively. They are each, every, either, neither.

Indefinite Adjective Pronouns used more or less indefinitely. They are any, all, few,some, several, one, other,another, none.

Possessive Adjective Pronouns denoting possession. They are my, thy, his, her, its,our, your, their.

N. B.—(The possessive adjective pronouns differ from the possessive case of the personal pronouns in that the latter can stand alone while the former cannot. "Who owns that book?" "It is mine." You cannot say "it is my,"—the word book must be repeated.)

THE VERB

A verb is a word which implies action or the doing of something, or it may be defined as a word which affirms, commands or asks a question.

Thus, the words John the table, contain no assertion, but when the word strikes is introduced, something is affirmed,hence the word strikes is a verb and gives completeness and meaning to the group.

The simple form of the verb without inflection is called the root of the verb; e. g. love is the root of the verb,—"To Love."

Verbs are regular or irregular, transitive or intransitive.

A verb is said to be regular when it forms the past tense by adding ed to the present or d if the verb ends in e. When its past tense does not end in ed it is said to be irregular.

A transitive verb is one the action of which passes over to or affects some object; as "I struck the table." Here the action of striking affected the object table, hence struck is a transitive verb.

An intransitive verb is one in which the action remains with the subject; as "I walk," "I sit," "I run."

Many intransitive verbs, however, can be used transitively;thus, "I walk the horse;" walk is here transitive.

Verbs are inflected by number, person,tense and mood.

Number and person as applied to the verb really belong to the subject; they are used with the verb to denote whether the assertion is made regarding one or more than one and whether it is made in reference to the person speaking, the person spoken to or the person or thing spoken about.

TENSE

In their tenses verbs follow the divisions of time. They have present tense, past tense and future tense with their variations to express the exact time of action as to an event happening, having happened or yet to happen.

MOOD

There are four simple moods,—the Infinitive, the Indicative, the Imperative and the Subjunctive.

The Mood of a verb denotes the mode or manner in which it is used. Thus if it is used in its widest sense without reference to person or number, time or place, it is in the Infinitive Mood; as "To run." Here we are not told who does the running, when it is done, where it is done or anything about it.

When a verb is used to indicate or declare or ask a simple question or make any direct statement, it is in the Indicative Mood. "The boy loves his book." Here a direct statement is made concerning the boy. "Have you a pin?" Here a simple question is asked which calls for an answer.

When the verb is used to express a command or entreaty it is in the Imperative Mood as, "Go away." "Give me a penny."

When the verb is used to express doubt, supposition or uncertainty or when some future action depends upon a contingency,it is in the subjunctive mood; as, "If I come, he shall remain."

Many grammarians include a fifth mood called the potential to express power, possibility,liberty, necessity, will or duty. It is formed by means of the auxiliaries may, can,ought and must, but in all cases it can be resolvedinto the indicative or subjunctive. Thus, in "I may write if I choose," "may write" is by some classified as in the potential mood, but in reality the phrase I may write is an indicative one while the second clause, if I choose, is the expression of a condition upon which, not my liberty to write, depends, but my actual writing.

Verbs have two participles, the present or imperfect, sometimes called the active ending in ing and the past or perfect, often called the passive, ending in ed or d.

The infinitive expresses the sense of the verb in a substantive form, the participles in an adjective form; as "To rise early is healthful." "An early rising man." "The newly risen sun."

The participle in ing is frequently used as a substantive and consequently is equivalent to an infinitive; thus, "To rise early is healthful" and "Rising early is healthful" are the same.

The principal parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, Past Indicative and Past Participle; as:

Love

Loved

Sometimes one or more of these parts are wanting, and then the verb is said to be defective.

Present	Past	Passive Participle
Can	Could	(Wanting)
May	Might	"
Shall	Should	"
Will	Would	"
Ought	Ought	"

Verbs may also be divided into principal and auxiliary. A principal verb is that without which a sentence or clause can contain no assertion or affirmation. An auxiliary is a verb joined to the root or participles of a principal verb to express time and manner with greater precision than can be done by the tenses and moods in their simple form.Thus, the sentence, "I am writing an exercise; when I shall have finished it I shall read it to the class." has no meaning without the principal verbs writing, finished read; but the meaning is rendered more definite, especially with regard to time,by the auxiliary verbs am, have, shall.

There are nine auxiliary or helping verbs, viz., Be,have, do, shall, will, may,can, ought, and must. They are called helping verbs, because it is by their aid the compound tenses are formed.

TO BE

The verb To Be is the most important of the auxiliary verbs. It has eleven parts, viz., am, art, is, are, was, wast,were, wert; be, being and been.

VOICE

The active voice is that form of the verb which shows the Subject not being acted upon but acting; as, "The cat catches mice." "Charity covers a multitude of sins."

The passive voice: When the action signified by a transitive verb is thrown back upon the agent, that is to say, when the subject of the verb denotes the recipient of the action, the verb is said to be in the passive voice. "John was loved by his neighbors." Here John the subject is also the object affected by the loving, the action of the verb is thrown back on him, hence the compound verb was loved is said to be in the passive voice. The passive voice is formed by putting the perfect participle of any transitive verb with any of the eleven parts of the verb To Be.

CONJUGATION

The conjugation of a verb is its orderly arrangement invoices, moods, tenses, persons and numbers.

Here is the complete conjugation of the verb"Love"—Active Voice.

PRINCIPAL PARTS

Present	Past	Past Participle
Love	Loved	Loved

Infinitive Mood

To Love

Indicative Mood

PRESENT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I love	We love
2nd person	You love	You love
3rd person	He loves	They love

PAST TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I loved	We loved
2nd person	You loved	You loved
3rd person	He loved	They loved

FUTURE TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I shall love	They will love
2nd person	You will love	You will love
3rd person	He will love	We shall love

[Transcriber's note: 1st person plural and 3rd person plural reversed in original]

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I have loved	We have loved
2nd person	You have loved	You have loved
3rd person	He has loved	They have loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I had loved	We had loved
2nd person	You had loved	You had loved
3rd person	He had loved	They had loved

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I shall have loved	We shall have loved
2nd person	You will have loved	You will have loved
3rd person	He will have loved	They will have loved

Imperative Mood

(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

	Sing.	Plural
2nd person	Love (you)	Love (you)

Subjunctive Mood

PRESENT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I love	If we love
2nd person	If you love	If you love
3rd person	If he love	If they love

PAST TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I loved	If we loved
2nd person	If you loved	If you loved
3rd person	If he loved	If they loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I have loved	If we have loved
2nd person	If you have loved	If you have loved
3rd person	If he has loved	If they have loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I had loved	If we had loved
2nd person	If you had loved	If you had loved
3rd person	If he had loved	If they had loved

INFINITIVES

Present	Perfect
To love	To have loved

PARTICIPLES

Present	Past	Perfect
Loving	Loved	Having loved

CONJUGATION OF "To Love"

Passive Voice
Indicative Mood

PRESENT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I am loved	We are loved
2nd person	You are loved	You are loved
3rd person	He is loved	They are loved

PAST TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I was loved	We were loved
2nd person	You were loved	You were loved
3rd person	He was loved	They were loved

FUTURE TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I shall be loved	We shall be loved
2nd person	You will be loved	You will be loved
3rd person	He will be loved	They will be loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I have been loved	We have been loved
2nd person	You have been loved	You have been loved
3rd person	He has been loved	They have been loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I had been loved	We had been loved
2nd person	You had been loved	You had been loved
3rd person	He had been loved	They had been loved

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	I shall have been loved	We shall have been loved
2nd person	You will have been loved	You will have been loved
3rd person	He will have been loved	They will have been loved

Imperative Mood

(PRESENT TENSE ONLY)

	Sing.	Plural
2nd person	Be (you) loved	Be (you) loved

Subjunctive Mood

PRESENT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I be loved	If we be loved
2nd person	If you be loved	If you be loved
3rd person	If he be loved	If they be loved

PAST TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I were loved	If they were loved
2nd person	If you were loved	If you were loved
3rd person	If he were loved	If we were loved

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I have been loved	If we have been loved
2nd person	If you have been loved	If you have been loved
3rd person	If he has been loved	If they have been loved

PAST PERFECT TENSE

	Sing.	Plural
1st person	If I had been loved	If we had been loved
2nd person	If you had been loved	If you had been loved
3rd person	If he had been loved	If they had been loved

INFINITIVES

Present		Perfect
To be loved		To have been loved

PARTICIPLES

Present	Past	Perfect
Being loved	Been loved	Having been loved

(N. B.—Note that the plural form of the personal pronoun,you, is used in the second person singular throughout. The old form thou, except in the conjugation of the verb "To Be," may be said to be obsolete. In the third person singular he is representative of the three personal pronouns of the third person,He, She and It.)

ADVERB

An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Thus, in the example—"He writes well," the adverb shows the manner in which the writing is performed; in the examples—"He is remarkably diligent" and"He works very faithfully," the adverbs modify the adjective diligent and the other adverb faithfully by expressing the degree of diligence and faithfulness.

Adverbs are chiefly used to express in one word what would otherwise require two or more words; thus, There signifies in that place; whence, from what place; usefully, in a useful manner.

Adverbs, like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their terminations to express comparison and different degrees of quality.

Some adverbs form the comparative and superlative by adding er and est; as, soon, sooner,soonest.

Adverbs which end in ly are compared by prefixing more and most; as, nobly, more nobly,most nobly.

A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the comparative and superlative; as, well, better, best.

PREPOSITION

A preposition connects words, clauses, and sentences together and shows the relation between them. "My hand is on the table" shows relation between hand and table.

Prepositions are so called because they are generally placed before the words whose connection or relation with other words they point out.

CONJUNCTION

A conjunction joins words, clauses and sentences; as"John and James." "My father and mother have come,but I have not seen them."

The conjunctions in most general use are and, also; either,or; neither, nor; though, yet; but, however; for, that; because,since; therefore, wherefore, then; if, unless, lest.

INTERJECTION

An interjection is a word used to express some sudden emotion of the mind. Thus in the examples,—"Ah! there he comes; alas! what shall I do?" ah, expresses surprise, and alas, distress.

Nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs become interjections when they are uttered as exclamations, as, nonsense! strange! hail!away! etc.

We have now enumerated the parts of speech and as briefly as possible stated the functions of each. As they all belong to the same family they are related to one another but some are in closer affinity than others. To point out the exact relationship and the dependency of one word on another is called parsing and in order that every etymological connection may be distinctly understood a brief resume of the foregoing essentials is here given:

The signification of the noun is limited to one,but to any one of the kind, by the indefinite article, and to some particular one, or some particular number, by the definite article.

Nouns, in one form, represent one of a kind, and in another, any number more than one; they are the names of males, or females, or of objects which are neither male nor female; and they represent the subject of an affirmation, a command or a question,—the owner or possessor of a thing,—or the object of an action, or of a relation expressed by a preposition.

Adjectives express the qualities which distinguish one person or thing from another; in one form they express quality without comparison; in another, they express comparison between two, or between one and a number taken collectively,—and in a third they express comparison between one and a number of others taken separately.

Pronouns are used in place of nouns; one class of them is used merely as the substitutes of names; the pronouns of another class have a peculiar reference to some preceding words in the sentence, of which they are the substitutes,—and those of a third class refer adjectively to the persons or things they represent. Some pronouns are used for both the name and the substitute; and several are frequently employed in asking questions.

Affirmations and commands are expressed by the verb; and different inflections of the verb express number,person, time and manner. With regard to time, an affirmation may be present or past or future; with regard to manner, an affirmation may be positive or conditional, it being doubtful whether the condition is fulfilled or not, or it being implied that it is not fulfilled;—the verb may express command or entreaty; or the sense of the verb may be expressed without affirming or commanding. The verb also expresses that an action or state is or was going on,by a form which is also used sometimes as a noun, and sometimes to qualify nouns.

Affirmations are modified by adverbs, som eof which can be inflected to express different degrees of modification.

Words are joined together by conjunctions; and the various relations which one thing bears to another are expressed by 'prepositions. Sudden emotions of the mind, and exclamations are expressed by interjections.

Some words according to meaning belong sometimes to one part of speech, sometimes to another. Thus, in "After a storm comes a calm," calm is a noun; in "It is a calm evening," calm is an adjective; and in "Calm your fears," calm is a verb.

The following sentence containing all the parts of speech is parsed etymologically:

"I now see the old man coming, but, alas, he has walked with much difficulty."

I, a personal pronoun, first person singular, masculine or feminine gender, nominative case, subject of the verb see.

now, an adverb of time modifying the verb see.

see, an irregular, transitive verb, indicative mood,present tense, first person singular to agree with its nominative or subject I.

the, the definite article particularizing the noun man.

old, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun man.

man, a common noun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, objective case governed by the transitive verb see.

coming, the present or imperfect participle of the verb"to come" referring to the noun man.

but, a conjunction.

alas, an interjection, expressing pity or sorrow.

he, a personal pronoun, 3rd person singular, masculine gender, nominative case, subject of verb has walked.

has walked, a regular, intransitive verb, indicative mood, perfect tense, 3rd person singular to agree with its nominative or subject he.

with, a preposition, governing the noun difficulty.

much, an adjective, positive degree, qualifying the noun difficulty.

difficulty, a common noun, 3rd person singular, neuter gender, objective case governed by the preposition with.

N.B.—Much is generally an adverb. As an adjective it is thus compared:

Positive	Comparative	Superlative
much	more	most

Chapter 1: Requirements Of Speech

2008-01-24T14:17:00.000-08:00

CHAPTER I

REQUIREMENTS OF SPEECH

Vocabulary—Parts of Speech—Requisites

It is very easy to learn how to speak and write correctly, as
for all purposes of ordinary conversation and communication, only
about 2,000 different words are required. The mastery of just
twenty hundred words, the knowing where to place them, will make us
not masters of the English language, but masters of correct
speaking and writing. Small number, you will say, compared with
what is in the dictionary! But nobody ever uses all the words in
the dictionary or could use them did he live to be the age of
Methuselah, and there is no necessity for using them.

There are upwards of 200,000 words in the recent editions of the
large dictionaries, but the one-hundredth part of this number will
suffice for all your wants. Of course you may think not, and you
may not be content to call things by their common names; you may be
ambitious to show superiority over others and display your learning
or, rather, your pedantry and lack of learning. For instance, you
may not want to call a spade a spade. You may prefer to call it a
spatulous device for abrading the surface of the soil. Better,
however, to stick to the old familiar, simple name that your
grandfather called it. It has stood the test of time, and old
friends are always good friends.

To use a big word or a foreign word when a small one and a
familiar one will answer the same purpose, is a sign of ignorance.
Great scholars and writers and polite speakers use simple
words.

To go back to the number necessary for all purposes of
conversation correspondence and writing, 2,000, we find that a
great many people who pass in society as being polished, refined
and educated use less, for they know less. The greatest scholar
alive hasn't more than four thousand different words at his
command, and he never has occasion to use half the number.

In the works of Shakespeare, the most wonderful genius the world
has ever known, there is the enormous number of 15,000 different
words, but almost 10,000 of them are obsolete or meaningless
today.

Every person of intelligence should be able to use his mother
tongue correctly. It only requires a little pains, a little care, a
little study to enable one to do so, and the recompense is
great.

Consider the contrast between the well-bred, polite man who
knows how to choose and use his words correctly and the underbred,
vulgar boor, whose language grates upon the ear and jars the
sensitiveness of the finer feelings. The blunders of the latter,
his infringement of all the canons of grammar, his absurdities and
monstrosities of language, make his very presence a pain, and one
is glad to escape from his company.

The proper grammatical formation of the English language, so
that one may acquit himself as a correct conversationalist in the
best society or be able to write and express his thoughts and ideas
upon paper in the right manner, may be acquired in a few
lessons.

It is the purpose of this book, as briefly and concisely as
possible, to direct the reader along a straight course, pointing
out the mistakes he must avoid and giving him such assistance as
will enable him to reach the goal of a correct knowledge of the
English language. It is not a Grammar in any sense, but a guide, a
silent signal-post pointing the way in the right direction.

THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN A NUTSHELL

All the words in the English language are divided into nine
great classes. These classes are called the Parts of Speech. They
are Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition,
Conjunction and Interjection. Of these, the Noun is the most
important, as all the others are more or less dependent upon it. A
Noun signifies the name of any person, place or thing, in fact,
anything of which we can have either thought or idea. There are two
kinds of Nouns, Proper and Common. Common Nouns are names which
belong in common to a race or class, as man, city.
Proper Nouns distinguish individual members of a race or class as
John, Philadelphia. In the former case man is
a name which belongs in common to the whole race of mankind, and
city is also a name which is common to all large centres of
population, but John signifies a particular individual of
the race, while Philadelphia denotes a particular one from
among the cities of the world.

Nouns are varied by Person, Number, Gender, and Case. Person is
that relation existing between the speaker, those addressed and the
subject under consideration, whether by discourse or
correspondence. The Persons are First, Second and
Third and they represent respectively the speaker, the
person addressed and the person or thing mentioned or under
consideration.

Number is the distinction of one from more than one.
There are two numbers, singular and plural; the singular denotes
one, the plural two or more. The plural is generally formed from
the singular by the addition of s or es.

Gender has the same relation to nouns that sex has to
individuals, but while there are only two sexes, there are four
genders, viz., masculine, feminine, neuter and common. The
masculine gender denotes all those of the male kind, the feminine
gender all those of the female kind, the neuter gender denotes
inanimate things or whatever is without life, and common gender is
applied to animate beings, the sex of which for the time being is
indeterminable, such as fish, mouse, bird, etc. Sometimes things
which are without life as we conceive it and which, properly
speaking, belong to the neuter gender, are, by a figure of speech
called Personification, changed into either the masculine or
feminine gender, as, for instance, we say of the sun, He is
rising; of the moon, She is setting.

Case is the relation one noun bears to another or to a
verb or to a preposition. There are three cases, the
Nominative, the Possessive and the Objective.
The nominative is the subject of which we are speaking or the agent
which directs the action of the verb; the possessive case denotes
possession, while the objective indicates the person or thing which
is affected by the action of the verb.

An Article is a word placed before a noun to show whether
the latter is used in a particular or general sense. There are but
two articles, a or an and the.

An Adjective is a word which qualifies a noun, that is,
which shows some distinguishing mark or characteristic belonging to
the noun.

DEFINITIONS

A Pronoun is a word used for or instead of a noun to keep
us from repeating the same noun too often. Pronouns, like nouns,
have case, number, gender and person. There are three kinds of
pronouns, personal, relative and
adjective.

A verb is a word which signifies action or the doing of
something. A verb is inflected by tense and mood and by number and
person, though the latter two belong strictly to the subject of the
verb.

An adverb is a word which modifies a verb, an adjective
and sometimes another adverb.

A preposition serves to connect words and to show the
relation between the objects which the words express.

A conjunction is a word which joins words, phrases,
clauses and sentences together.

An interjection is a word which expresses surprise or
some sudden emotion of the mind.

THREE ESSENTIALS

The three essentials of the English language are: Purity,
Perspicuity and Precision.

By Purity is signified the use of good English. It
precludes the use of all slang words, vulgar phrases, obsolete
terms, foreign idioms, ambiguous expressions or any ungrammatical
language whatsoever. Neither does it sanction the use of any newly
coined word until such word is adopted by the best writers and
speakers.

Perspicuity demands the clearest expression of thought
conveyed in unequivocal language, so that there may be no
misunderstanding whatever of the thought or idea the speaker or
writer wishes to convey. All ambiguous words, words of double
meaning and words that might possibly be construed in a sense
different from that intended, are strictly forbidden. Perspicuity
requires a style at once clear and comprehensive and entirely free
from pomp and pedantry and affectation or any straining after
effect.

Precision requires concise and exact expression, free
from redundancy and tautology, a style terse and clear and simple
enough to enable the hearer or reader to comprehend immediately the
meaning of the speaker or writer. It forbids, on the one hand, all
long and involved sentences, and, on the other, those that are too
short and abrupt. Its object is to strike the golden mean in such a
way as to rivet the attention of the hearer or reader on the words
uttered or written.

Joseph Devlin's Introduction to "How to Speak and Write Correctly".

2008-01-24T14:13:00.000-08:00

INTRODUCTION

In the preparation of this little work the writer has kept one
end in view, viz.: To make it serviceable for those for whom it is
intended, that is, for those who have neither the time nor the
opportunity, the learning nor the inclination, to peruse elaborate
and abstruse treatises on Rhetoric, Grammar, and Composition. To
them such works are as gold enclosed in chests of steel and locked
beyond power of opening. This book has no pretension about it
whatever,—it is neither a Manual of Rhetoric, expatiating on
the dogmas of style, nor a Grammar full of arbitrary rules and
exceptions. It is merely an effort to help ordinary, everyday
people to express themselves in ordinary, everyday language, in a
proper manner. Some broad rules are laid down, the observance of
which will enable the reader to keep within the pale of propriety
in oral and written language. Many idiomatic words and expressions,
peculiar to the language, have been given, besides which a number
of the common mistakes and pitfalls have been placed before the
reader so that he may know and avoid them.

The writer has to acknowledge his indebtedness to no one in
particular, but to all in general who have ever
written on the subject.

The little book goes forth—a finger-post on the road of
language pointing in the right direction. It is hoped that they who
go according to its index will arrive at the goal of correct
speaking and writing.

Introduction to Project Gutenberg.

2008-01-24T13:30:00.000-08:00

Project Gutenberg's How to Speak and Write Correctly, by Joseph Devlin

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Study English Online Free

One hundred most common words in English

Recommended books for ESL - English Gramma and English Vocaburary

Easy ways to learn Reading English Language

Chapter VIII: Pitfalls to Avoid

CHAPTER VIII

PITFALLS TO AVOID

Common Stumbling Blocks—Peculiar Constructions—Misused Forms.

ATTRACTION

ELLIPSIS

THE SPLIT INFINITIVE

ONE

ONLY

ALONE

OTHER AND ANOTHER

AND WITH THE RELATIVE

LOOSE PARTICIPLES

BROKEN CONSTRUCTION

DOUBLE NEGATIVE

FIRST PERSONAL PRONOUN

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

BETWEEN—AMONG

LESS—FEWER

FURTHER—FARTHER

EACH OTHER—ONE ANOTHER

EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

NEITHER-NOR

NONE

RISE-RAISE

LAY-LIE

SAYS I—I SAID

IN—INTO

EAT—ATE

SEQUENCE OF PERSON

AM COME—HAVE COME

PAST TENSE—PAST PARTICIPLE

PREPOSITIONS AND THE OBJECTIVE CASE

SUMMON—SUMMONS

UNDENIABLE—UNEXCEPTIONABLE

THE PRONOUNS

THAT FOR SO

THESE—THOSE

THIS MUCH—THUS MUCH

FLEE—FLY

THROUGH—THROUGHOUT

VOCATION AND AVOCATION

WAS—WERE

A OR AN

Chapter VII: Errors

CHAPTER VII

ERRORS

Mistakes—Slips of Authors—Examples and Corrections—Errors of Redundancy.

GRAMMATICAL ERRORS OF STANDARD AUTHORS

English For Vietnamese, Chinese and English Speakers

Chapter XIII: Choice of words

CHAPTER XIII

CHOICE OF WORDS

Small Words—Their Importance—The Anglo-SaxonElement

Chapter VI: Letter Writing

CHAPTER VI

LETTER WRITING

Principles ofLetter-Writing—Forms—Notes

THE HEADING

SUBSCRIPTION

ADDRESS

NOTES

FORMAL INVITATIONS

NOTES OF INTRODUCTION

Chapter V: Punctuation

CHAPTER V

PUNCTUATION

Principal Points—Illustrations—CapitalLetters.

CAPITAL LETTERS

Chapter IV: Figurative Language

CHAPTER IV

FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE

Figures of Speech—Definitions and Examples —Use ofFigures

Chapter III : The Sentence

CHAPTER III

THE SENTENCE

Common Stumbling Blocks—Peculiar
Constructions—Misused Forms.

Mistakes—Slips of Authors—Examples and
Corrections—Errors of Redundancy.

Small Words—Their Importance—The Anglo-Saxon
Element

Principles of
Letter-Writing—Forms—Notes

Principal Points—Illustrations—Capital
Letters.

Figures of Speech—Definitions and Examples —Use of
Figures

Different Kinds—Arrangement of
Words—Paragraph

Passive Voice
Indicative Mood