CBRE and the University of San Diego surveyed 154 LEED certified or Energy Star labeled buildings containing over 2,000 tenants in May 2009 to determine occupant productivity impacts in sustainably designed buildings.  As the survey was broad in scope, multiple benefits were determined:

• 90% of those surveyed reported equal (45%) or reduced (45%) absenteeism
  • “The 10% that reported more sick time after moving were in Energy Star-labeled buildings and not LEED certified.  It appears that they suffer what often happens to new buildings when ventilation systems are not kept clean or VOCs are not eliminated from new construction materials and finishes… we should emphasize that these are not LEED buildings.”
• 97.5% of those surveyed reported equal (43%) or increased (54.5%) employee productivity.
• Of those reporting increased productivity, the average productivity increase was 4.88%, resulting in an annual benefit of $5,204 per worker. When considering LEED only buildings, the average impact was slightly higher at 5.24% ($5,588).

Survey responses about perceptions of productivity in sustainable buildings.

Another study examining air quality impacts on worker productivity led the authors to believe that one cannot consider energy efficiency alone if a company is trying to create a high performance environment.  As cited in the CBRE/USD study:

It has now been shown beyond reasonable doubt that poor indoor air quality in buildings can decrease productivity in addition to causing visitors to express dissatisfaction. There is an approximate 20% to 70% linear relationship between the percentage dissatisfied with indoor air quality and the measured decrement in performance. The size of the effect on most aspects of office work performance appears to be as high as 6 – 9%, the higher value being obtained in field validation studies.

Further confirmation of the importance of a wider view of workplace performance comes from studies referenced by Research Design Connections and presented at the Environmental Design Research Association (EDRA) conference. These studies found that “25% of job satisfaction can be tied to the workplace, with 5% of individual performance and 11% of team performance dependent on a good workplace. When asked, 75% of managers stated that they believed that the workplace can affect productivity and the bottom line.”

The impact of job satisfaction is highlighted by a GSA study of 12 environmentally friendly buildings. This determined that in addition to utility and other economic savings, the occupants of sustainably designed buildings scored higher on occupant satisfaction surveys. “Occupant satisfaction is important because it correlates with personal and team performance.  That often means higher productivity and creativity for an organization.”

Implications

We see two important issues to glean from these studies.

1. There is a definite distinction between pursuing LEED certification and Energy Star labeling. While achieving both is ideal, narrowly focusing on energy use at the expense of air quality and other factors can have negative consequences. Both systems help designers develop energy efficient designs, but after the energy efficient equipment and appliances are considered, the LEED system also balances its ratings by considering the human interactions and experiences in the building. Air quality, daylighting and user-control are some of the factors that workers may consider important that are credited in LEED but not Energy Star.
2. There are many subjective factors that employees factor into their perception of the workplace and how satisfied they are with working in that place. The common thread in all of those subjective factors is the employees feeling of being considered by the designer and the things that should be considered are not just new furniture and equipment, but simple design moves like openness, views, natural lighting and fresh air are features that can enhance the employees satisfaction. To design a truly high performance building, one cannot focus on energy efficiency alone.



Citations

Fowler, M. Kim and Rauch, M. Emily. Assessing Green Building Performance: A Post Occupancy Evaluation of 12 GSA Buildings. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, operated by Battelle Memorial Institute, for the U.S. Department of Energy and the U.S. General Service Administration, 2008. via RDC.

Miller, Norm et al. Green Buildings and Productivity. CBRE/USD Center for Real Estate. August 19, 2009.

Workplace Working Group. Research Design Connections. July 2002.

Wyon, D. (2004). The effects of indoor air quality on performance and productivity. Indoor Air, 14 (s7), 92-101 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0668.2004.00278.x

As mentioned in a previous post, the City of New York created an amazing document, NYC’s Active Design Guidelines, describing research and guidelines based on that research for creating a healthier built environment.  While the previous post focused narrowly on the finer points of stairwell design and their implications for usage and increased activity, today we’ll take a broader focus of the impacts of neighborhood and building design.  From the NYC report:

A study conducted in Atlanta, Georgia, found that each quartile increase of land-use mix—an attribute of neighborhoods that encourages walking—was associated with a 12 percent reduction in the likelihood of obesity. The same study found a link between the walkability of a neighborhood and a reduction in per capita air pollutants and greenhouse gases, supporting the idea that physical activity and environmental improvement are linked.  Cycling even just 15 minutes or 2.5 miles—less than the average commuting distance—twice a day is enough to burn the equivalent of more than 10 pounds annually.  Other studies have found that obesity rates are lower in countries such as Germany, Denmark, and the Netherlands, where biking infrastructure is better and where more trips are taken by foot, bicycle, and transit.  Numerous studies have linked proximity of parks and other recreational facilities to higher levels of physical activity among both youth and adults.

Implications

The NYC report clearly makes a strong argument for the link between architecture and urban design and health outcomes, but more importantly it offers a series of suggestions for transitioning to healthier towns, cities, and regions.  The primary recommendations are divided into three categories:

• Urban design strategies that create neighborhood streets, outdoor spaces that encourage walking, and active transportation and recreation
• Building design strategies for promoting active living where we work and live (ex: placement and design of stairs, elevators, indoor and outdoor spaces)
• Synergies between active design and sustainable design initiatives

The smart design and regular maintenance of sidewalks, bicycle lanes, parks and open spaces can directly affect public health and well being.  As cities re-examine their guidelines, sidewalk requirements and mixed use zoning should be considered.  It should be noted that LEED-ND encourages many of the same solutions.

Citations

New York City Department of Design + Construction.Active Design Guidelines. Copyright 2009 by the City of New York

Artibise, Yuri. ABC’s of Urbanism. October 5, 2010.

Bassett DR Jr, Pucher J, Buehler R, Thompson DL, & Crouter SE (2008). Walking, cycling, and obesity rates in Europe, North America, and Australia. Journal of physical activity & health, 5 (6), 795-814 PMID: 19164816

Pucher, J., & Buehler, R. (2008). Making Cycling Irresistible: Lessons from The Netherlands, Denmark and Germany Transport Reviews, 28 (4), 495-528 DOI: 10.1080/01441640701806612

A study published in the Journal of Housing for the Elderly examined in some detail the visitation patterns in assisted living environments and the perceptions of residents on the impact have on their well-being. Such visits are both common and critical to the well-being of residents, with 90% of those responding to survey rating the ability to receive visitors as either ‘important’ or ‘very important’. Fortunately, 80% of respondents received visits at least occasionally, with most receiving visits on a weekly basis or more.

While the decisions about when and how to allow visitors is more of an operational issue, the research into the activities performed during visits provide us implications for the design and layout of facilities serving these patients. Visitations are “overwhelmingly centered on quiet sitting activities”, with the most common tasks included below (based on percentage of patients responding):

• 47% – Sitting/playing games together
• 20% – Taking care of affairs/family business
• 14% – Visiting with grandchildren or great grandchildren
• 10% – Reminiscing/looking at photo albums
• 2% – Watching TV or talking about current events

Implications

If single occupancy rooms are provided for the residents, all that may be required is a small seating area and table within the room to provide a suitable area for all of the activities listed above.   Some form of task lighting should be located in this area to ensure that any documents being reviewed as part of the ‘taking care of affairs/family business’ activity or games played can be read by an elderly population with diminishing eyesight.

Hotel business centers may provide a good model for a private "affairs/family business" meeting area in assisted living facilities.

Many facilities feature multi-occupant rooms, and it would be wise to consider individual meeting areas that can be reserved or used on an impromptu basis.  Many facilities include group meeting spaces, but fewer have areas that allow for visual and acoustical privacy.  At least one should be equipped a computer connected to the internet, a printer, and a telephone with teleconference capabilities to support any external business activities that may be required for the resident who may or may not be able to leave the facility for certain appointments.

Citation

Thompson, D., Weber, J., & Juozapavicius, K. (2001). Chapter 2 Residents in Assisted Living Facilities and Visitation Patterns. Journal of Housing For the Elderly, 15 (1), 31-42 DOI: 10.1300/J081v15n01_03

A group of studies has examined the effect that the location, density, and variety of products in a retail environment can have on the customers perception of value. A classic study on aisle design determined that aisles with a low variety of products and a correspondingly high volume of each item conveyed a “lower price image” among consumers than an aisle with a great variety of items of limited quantities.

Relatively dense retail suggests discounted merchandise.

Another study published in Psychology and Marketing evaluated how retail density and music tempo affected shopper perceptions of the store. When stores had a high retail density (more ‘stuff’ per square foot) consumers rated the experience more highly when low-tempo music was playing. Conversely, consumers preferred high-tempo music in when the stores had low retail density.

A more spacious distribution of products suggests higher-end, luxury goods.

Finally, another group of researchers investigated the effect of retail density along human (how many people are in the store) and spatial (how much ‘stuff’ is in the store) scales. “Managers should particularly avoid spatial density when human density is high (e.g., in the weekends or at rush hours). Practically, this means removal of physical barriers or obstacles (e.g., racks or displays) in aisles as much as possible in these times. And with respect to permanent physical barriers in passageways [such as columns] . . . it would certainly be wise to reserve those aisles for products low in demand and thus attracting fewer consumers as opposed to aisles with popular products where density will be generally higher.”

Implications

What the above studies implicate in aggregate is that it’s possible to affect consumer perceptions of value via environmental modifications. In other words, the way a store is laid out can suggest to a customer that the products within the store are luxurious or a great discount. In this way it’s possible for an architect or design to contribute to a store’s brand in ways beyond simple aesthetic improvements or graphic design.

Citations

Eroglu, Sevgin et al. “The Interaction of Retail Density and Music Tempo: Effects on Shopper Responses”. Psychology and Marketing. Volume 22 Issue 7, pages 577-589.

Rompay, Thomas van, Mirjam Galetzka, Ad Pruyn and Jaime Garcia. 2008. “Human and Spatial Dimensions of Retail Density: Revisiting the Role of Perceived Control”. Psychology and Marketing, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 319-335. via RDC.

Smith, Peter and David J. Burns “Atmospherics and Retail Environments: The Case for the Power Aisle”. International Journal of Retail & Distribution Management. Vol. 24, Issue 1: pages 7-14.

Soon after I started at LS3P I was asked by a College of Charleston Hospitality and Tourism Management professor to present to their students regarding the myriad ways that design can affect the guest or customer experience of a company. He had recently read (and had his students read) a paper titled Servicescapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees, and tasked me with providing a broader view of the research on the subject for his students.

Who doesn't like waiting in line?

While the scope of the research presented is too broad to cover in a single post, one of the favorite topics relates to the ways in which architecture can influence actual and perceived wait times of customers, a topic described well in a 1985 article from David Maister titled the Psychology of Waiting Lines. While I’ll cover many of the practical applications in the Implications section below, the root of the theory can be summed up in a simple formula. Maister’s take on what he calls the ‘First Law of Service’:

S = P – E
In this formulation, ‘S’ stands for satisfaction, ‘P’ for perception and ‘E’ for expectation. If you expect a certain level of service, and perceive the service reviewed to be higher, you are a satisfied client. If you perceive the same level as before, but expected higher, you are disappointed and, consequently, a dissatisfied client.

The reason this concept is so critical is that it highlights how the actual wait time a customer endures isn’t necessarily the most important driver with their satisfaction of a given service or company, their perception of the wait is arguably more important. People accept the fact that we need to wait in a variety of situations, so the important thing is to bring the customer’s perception of the wait time below their expectation of what a reasonable wait time should be. Fortunately, a body of research has taught us ways that designers can potentially help get this equation into positive territory.

The perception of wait time has huge implications on overall satisfaction, with one study in urgent care settings determining that “that total time spent waiting for the clinician was the most significant predictor of patient satisfaction”.

Implications

Maister offers up eight rules of waiting in his article that I suggest any business owner read. Below I’ve cherry picked those that have the biggest implications for design. Ultimately these issues are rooted in operations, but in most instances these operations can benefit by having an environment that supports what you’re trying to accomplish through service.

• Occupied time feels shorter than unoccupied time
  • Hotels place mirrors next to elevators to distract guests waiting for them
  • Grocery stores place reading materials in checkout lines
  • Blockbuster places a TV with coming attractions near their checkout lines
  • Restaurants give patrons menus before they sit down to peruse
  • Waiting rooms in healthcare settings can provide self-help informational materials for the subject patients are seeking care for

Grocery stores are increasingly moving towards branded TV networks in their checkout lines

• ‘Start’ the service early
  • Restaurants send patrons to the bar while waiting for a table. One popular seafood restaurant in Charleston has host staff pass out free hush puppies to patrons waiting outside.
  • SC DMV uses a concierge to check people in immediately, generally giving them forms to fill out before meeting the attendant
• Anxiety makes waits seem longer
  • In the DMV situation above, the concierge also lets people know whether or not they have the materials they need, reducing anxiety
  • Consider estimated wait times for airport security checkpoints
• Uncertain/Unexplained waits are longer than known, finite waits
  • Highways are increasingly showing travel times based on current traffic on heavily traveled highways
  • Amusement parks place placards explaining estimated wait times at certain points in line for popular rides
  • Restaurants frequently tell patrons overestimated wait times (reducing ‘E’) so they will be pleased when seated in a more timely fashion
  • Highways increasingly provide accident info (“Wreck on exit 43”) so people have some explanation of what is causing the delay
  • Break or non-service areas should be staged away from the view of those being served (e.g. a bank teller needing to catch up on paperwork needs an area away from sight of those seeking service to do so… people don’t understand why the teller is just ‘standing there’ not helping)

Signs estimating wait times for subways/buses are becoming increasingly popular.

• Fair waits are shorter than unfair waits
  • Single line served by multiple tellers ensure first come, first served, while multiple lines (one per teller) often results in fast lane slow lane issues.
• People will wait longer for services that seem more valuable
  • People are willing to wait far longer for higher end restaurants than those in fast food or lower priced establishments
• Solo waits feel longer than group waits
  • Consider ways to encourage social interaction among people in line

Citations

Beckler, Franklin and Stephanie Jones Douglass. The Ecology of the Patient Visit: Physical Attractiveness, Waiting Times, and Perceived Quality of Care.  Healthcare Design.  November 2006.

Bitner, Mary Jo. Servicescapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees. Journal of Marketing. Vol 56: April 1992, 57-71.

Maister, David. The Psychology of Waiting Lines. The Service Encounter. ed. John A Czepiel, Michael R. Solomon, and Carol Suprenant. DC Heath and Company: Lexington Books, 1985.

The design of a street or neighborhood can have direct implications on the safety of its occupants or residents.  A study published in Urban Design International  and summarized here examined three towns with varying “social classes, spatial patterns and housing types.”  The police reports consistently showed a pattern of crimes in cul-de-sacs, footpaths and rear dead-end alleys.  Crime rates were higher in areas where visibility and through-traffic were limited.

'Eyes on the street' in Celebration, FL - Click to view full size.

Implications

“Eyes on the Street” can help prevent crime in public spaces.  The report mentioned above suggested that designers can consider the following features to help make public spaces safer:

• Integrated through-roads with visible entrances on both sides of the street
• Sidewalks and other features to encourage more pedestrian traffic
• Front porches that enable residents to directly view activities
• Integrated linear public spaces
• Visual continuity between spaces

Citation

The Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment. The Value of Good Design. 1 November, 2002.

In 2007, we conducted some research for a client who was interested to know if there was a magic ratio of commercial (retail and office) square footage to residential units/acre.   Most of the developments had actual numbers published, but some were projections based on long-term development plans. As you’ll see, the projects studied are top tier developments that are relatively successful. Data was gathered from multiple sources including the ULI and CNU case study databases, along with various project websites. Please note that the scope of these developments and their resulting ratios may have changed since this study was performed.

Click image to view full size.

Smart Growth Ratios – Profiles: Development snapshots of the projects included in the study.

Smart Growth Ratios – Rankings: Four charts showing the develpments in order based on overall size, residential density, commercial density, and the residential/commercial ratio.

Implications

While the linear equation above technically results in an equation: (Res Units/Acre) = .0004 (Com SF/Acre) + 10.275… It’s clear to see in the graph above that there is enough deviation from this in the data to make the equation effectively useless.  In any case, at least we’ve learned that this ratio does not appear to be a driving factor in the development of successful mixed-use projects.

Regarding the impact that the mix of uses may have on sustainable outcomes, recent research has determined that “job accessibility is more important than retail/service accessibility for reducing the impact of personal vehicle use.”

An important note to our research: While we did not have a good way to quantify it for the purposes of this study, we did look into trends of surrounding developments to gauge market availability for residential and/or commercial development. Part of our premise at the time was that mixed-use developments, with the proper phased development plan, could/should be a more self-sustaining place, but it was fairly clear based on anecdotal analysis that most of these projects focused on what was lacking in the surrounding areas.

Citation

Cervero, Rober, and Michael Duncan. “Which Reduces Vehicle Traffic More: Jobs-Housing Balance or Retail-Housing Mixing?“. Journal of the American Planning Association. Issue 4, Volume 72, 2006.

If the field of environmental design research is old enough to permit studies to earn the honor of being ‘classic’, this 1984 investigation by Roger Ulrich at Texas A&M would have to be in the top five nominees. Over the course of 10 years, gall bladder removal patients were matched based on age, sex, weight, and smoking habits, and placed in either a room with a view of trees and plants, or a room with a view of a brick wall:

Patients with a natural view spent a shorter time in the hospital than those with the brick wall view (7.96 days compared with 8.70 days per patient ) and had fewer negative notes made about them (1.13 per patient compared with 3.96 per patient). The ‘natural view’ group requested significantly fewer doses of analgesics in the period between two and five days after surgery, when patients are most in control of their own pain relief.

Implications

This study lends support to the theory of biophilia, a term coined by noted anthropologist E.O. Wilson that posits that humans innately favor and are attracted to natural environments over artificial ones. Another study by Ulrich examined the impact of art in healthcare environments and determined that “open landscape scenes dramatically reduced pain and anxiety…. [while] abstract art hindered patient recovery.”

It’s clear from the evidence that nature, or to a lesser extent representations of nature, may have an impact on the quality of patient care.  Areas where patients spend the majority of their time should be located in a manner to afford such views, and larger facilities should considering integrating vegetated courtyards or green roofs in areas that are within view of windows.

Citation

Ulrich, Roger et al. “View through a window may influence recovery from surgery”. Science. 224, 420: 1984.

Wilson, Alex. “Biophilia in Practice: Buildings that Connect People with Nature“. Environmental Building News. 1 July 2006.

Many working families, defined by Center for Housing Policy as families with a household income of $20,000 to $50,000, seek to find affordable housing by moving away from city centers, but then only find that the transportation costs make this even more expensive.  Affordable housing is traditionally defined as 30% or less of a household budget.  However, a 2006 study by the CHP found that in most metropolitan regions of the country, the combined cost of housing and transportation is 45% or more of household budgets.  For each dollar saved on housing, $0.77 was spent on transportation costs.

The Center for Neighborhood Technologies conducted a study of six metropolitan areas and found that neighborhoods with the least number of commuting options had the highest percentage of workers leaving before 6:00 a.m.  The financial cost of transportation is not the only factor to consider, as increased commute times are a quality of life issue that should not be ignored.

When housing costs alone are considered, much more area is considered 'affordable' than when housing and transportation costs are combined. Click the image to go to an interactive tool that shows affordability in most US metropolitan areas.

Of the 20 fastest growing counties in the U.S., 75% are located 30 miles or more from the closest central business district.  Other trends that will likely continue are: housing and transportation costs are rising faster than incomes and gas prices are rising. One mitigating factor for these problems are statistics showing that job growth is rising fastest in the suburbs, which over time may allow even those in the suburbs to reduce their dependence on single car transportation.

Implications

The Center for Housing Policy has identified several possible solutions to finding this balance:

• Consider housing and transportation policies together.  Build affordable housing near existing and planned transit hubs.
• Encourage infill development.  Redevelop older neighborhoods near job centers or with good transportation centers.
• Target employment.  This could reduce transportation costs and help raise incomes.
• Contain/connect areas of sprawl.  Improvements in transit service are needed to achieve this.
• Reduce the cost of commuting by car.  Policies need to be created that encourage car sharing or make car ownership accessible or affordable.

The CHP found that public opinion is split about 50-50 between the two options of larger and/or cheaper housing with longer commutes and smaller or more costly home and shorter commute.

Citations

Center for Neighborhood Technology. Housing + Transportation Affordability Index. Accessed 08.11.10.

Lipman, Barbara J. “A Heavy Load: The Combined Housing and Transportation Burdens of Working Families“. Center for Housing Policy. October 2006.

MuniNetGuide. Transportation Costs Impact Housing Affordability.  26 March, 2010.

Hospitality operating costs are rising quickly, and by parsing the data on hotel operating costs it’s possible to quickly identify cost effective upgrades that can payback initial investments quickly. Research out of Cornell’s School of Hotel Administration found that in 2005 “the cost of operating a U.S. hotel grew by 6.5 percent, led by the 13.7-percent growth in utilities from 2004 to 2005.  In 2008 utility expense growth exceeded the rate of inflation by 3.6 percent.” By examining data from the Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey (CBECS) from the Energy Information Administration we see that the single largest energy hog in most hotels is hot water consumption:

Typical US hotel energy use profile from CBECS data

Implications

The “Green” Hotels Association has focused on reducing energy and water consumption through laundry practices.  According a press release from the GHA, hotels have the potential to “save over $6.50 a day per occupied room on laundry by using a simple towel-rack hanger and sheet-changing card” encouraging guests to use their linens more than once.  The article goes on to state that it’s common for properties to report up to 70% to 90% guest participation in these programs.

Despite efforts from the hotel staff, the guest is ultimately the person who needs to decide whether the towels and sheets should be changed each day.  A study out of Arizona State University determined that towel re-use programs were most effective when the messages encouraging the program focused on social norms (“The majority of guests in this room reuse their towels.” -> 75% participation) rather than highlighting the associated environmental benefits  (Your participation helps our hotel to reduce water and energy use -> 35% participation).

While reducing demand is the first step to take, newer ozone laundry or water reuse system technology can also reduce energy and water needed for laundry cycles by up to 90%.  The American Water Works Association website features an excellent report showing the economics behind these new technologies can lead to rapid payback periods from 1.6-4.5 years.

Citations

Energy Information Administration. 2003 Commercial Buildings Energy Consumption Survey. Accessed 10 August 2010.

“Green” Hotels Association. Press Release. 25 September 2002.

Hoffman, Bill and James Riesenberger. Commercial Laundry Conservation Technologies. American Water Works Association. Accessed 10 August 2010.

Jie J. Zhang, Nitin Joglekar, Ph.D., and Rohit Verma, Ph.D. “Developing Measures for Environmental Sustainability in Hotels: An Exploratory Study”. Cornell Hospitality Report Vol. 10, No. 8, May 2010.