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Attitudes and Behavior

2009-04-29T23:19:00.005+07:00

The many definitions of attitude that have been offered through the year have referred to both physical and mental states. As a working definition, we can consider attitudes to be responses that locate objects of thought on some particular dimension of judgment. The attitudes of a large group of people are referred to collectively as public opinion.

Most attitudes have three components: a cognitive or belief aspect, an affective or feeling aspect, and a behavioral or conative component. Different questions and measures may emphasize different aspect of an attitude. Two major measurement technique are the Likert method and the semantic differential techniques. Among the numerous other measures that have been developed, some are rather indirect indexes of attitudes.

Attitudes are formed in a variety of ways. Direct experience with the attitude object itself is a common means of developing an attitude, and learning theory principles can help to explain the acquisition process. Attitudes are also influenced by the opinions and behaviors of parents and peer and by the communication media. The media's influenced can be explained by social learning theory.

Attitude structure refers to the makeup of attitudes. Attitudes vary, for example, in their complexity. Value pluralism suggests that attitudinal complexity is a result of the amount of conflict between competing values that are relevant to a particular issue. Attitudes are related not only to basic values but to other attitudes as well. They also affect the ways in which other information is selected and retained in memory, so that it often supports existent attitudes.

A major issue is the relationship between assessed attitudes and observed behaviors. Some early investigators found little relationship between the two, but more recent work has substantially advanced our understanding of when and how such relationships will be found. The theory of reasoned action bases predictions of behavioral intentions, and in turn behavior, on two factors: one's attitude toward the behavior and subjective norms in regard to that behavior.

An understanding of the relationships between attitude and behavior entails in understanding of the processes involved. Advances in social cognition have helped to develop such understanding. The accessibility of an attitude is a major determinant of its ability to predict behavior, and conditions that make attitudes accessible are being specified.

Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

Communication

2009-04-29T23:19:00.004+07:00

Communication is fundamental to most social behavior. Although the forms of communication are varied, it has been truthfully said that we can't not communicate. Early models of the communication process described a one way flow from a transmitter to receiver. More recent models stress that communication is a shared social system, with both partners bringing a set of expectations and understanding to the interaction. Both verbal and non verbal communications are part of this shared system.

We communicate through may channels, including language and para language, gaze, facial expression, body movements, and gestures, touch, and interpersonal distance. The study of our use of language, the most obvious form of communication, reveals how important intention and interpretation can be. The nonverbal behaviors, including gaze, serve a variety of purposes. Five specific functions are (1) to provide information, (2) to regulate interaction, (3) to express intimacy, (4) to exercise social control, and (5) to facilitate the accomplishment of tasks.

Facial expression convey a variety of emotions, and these basic emotional expressions can be identified by people in very different cultures. Cultures may differ, however, in the display rules that govern the circumstances in which an emotion will be expressed. Interpersonal distance is a more abstract form of communication, but it, too, is important means of conveying information. Four major zones (intimate, personal, social, and public) define the distance between people which accompany different type of interchange.

All of these verbal and nonverbal channels combine in the process of communication to convey meaning. Three major dimensions of communication have been identified (liking, status, and responsiveness), each of which is associated with a distinctive set of nonverbal cues. Two models have been proposed to explain how nonverbal cues are combined to convey liking. The equilibrium model proposes that participants in an interaction seek to archive a balance between pressures toward approach and avoidance, and compensate for an excess of pressure in one direction by sending nonverbal messages designed to restore balance. The arousal model suggests that the way a change in arousal level is interpreted depends on the way the situation is defined. Sometimes compensation will be the rule, and at other times reciprocity is more likely.

Conversations have a regular structure, and the elements of that structure—an opening, a body, and a close—are typically regulated by a set of rules of conventions. Conversations between partners in a close relationship tend to follow somewhat distinctive rules. Self-disclosure, for example, is both more common in such conversation and less subject to rules of strict reciprocity.

Deceptive communication is accompanied by specific patterns of verbal and non verbal behaviors. Although deceit may be leaked, however, observers are often unable distinguish the truth teller from the liar.

Self and social knowledge combine the communication process. Often a person's beliefs about another can influence that other person behavior, creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. Five step comprise the expectancy confirmation sequence in which belief of the perceiver are conveyed to a target, who interprets the message an then acts in accordance with that interpretation. The target's response may thus tend to confirm the perceiver's beliefs. In other circumstances the target will dis confirm expectations in order to communicate some other message back to the perceiver.

Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

Social Knowledge

2009-04-29T23:18:00.002+07:00

Understanding other people is a useful skill that makes the world more predictable. Our initial impressions of other people are often based on surface characteristics, such as physical appearance, which are immediately visible. We infer a person's character traits and personality from the characteristics we see.

Some traits, which have appropriately been called central traits, are more important than others in the process of impression formation. Traits also vary in the degree to which they can be confirmed or dis confirmed by observation. In combining a series of trait descriptors, people tend to average their values to arrive at an overall judgment. Accuracy of impression is an elusive issue, as eyewitness testimony in the courtroom has demonstrated.

The mental categories that represent social knowledge may be conceptualized in several ways. Most people have a set of implicit personality theories and social theories that represent their understanding of human behavior. More specific events are represented by schemes, prototypes, and scripts. A stereotype is a schema that summarizes beliefs about members of a particular group. In some instances, particularly in the case of a negative beliefs about member of a particularly in the case of a negative belief, a stereotype may reflect an illusory correlation between two actually unrelated factors.

The process of social cognition include the initial encoding of information and the subsequent retrieval of information from memory. Both the vividness and the distinctiveness of an event will affect its encoding. Moods, goals, and emotional states are also influential. Priming can affect the accessibility of a particular social category.

Because social information is so extensive, people have developed a set of heuristics or shortcuts to make their task simpler. The social inference process is also subject to a number of biases, including the false consensus bias.

The specific form of social interference that concern explanations for the outcomes of events is called causal attribution. In general, action ma be attributed to either a dispositional factor or situational factor. Several models are have been developed to explain various aspects of the attribution process. Biases are evident in out attribution as well. We tend, for example, to overestimate the influence of dispositional factors (the fundamental attribution error). At a more general level, explanations of events often reflect a belief in a just world.

Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

The Self

2009-04-29T23:17:00.002+07:00

Social knowledge and social behavior begin with the self-concept, the totality of an individual's through about the self. As such early social scientists as George Herbert mead and Harry Stack Sullivan pointed out. We learn about ourselves from the reflected appraisals of others. We also about ourselves through the outcomes of action we take.

Self-schemes are cognitive generalization about the self that influence the way we organize and remember events and experiences. The self-concept consists of multiple schema's. We may usefully think of the self as consisting on multiple identities arranged in a hierarchy of importance. The self-concept also includes ideas about what we would like to be or think it possible to become. Certain of a person's characteristics are likely to affect the definition of self. Both gender identity and racial identity are important aspects of the self.

Self-perception theory says that we become aware of ourselves by watching what we do much as outside observers form judgments of us on the basis of what they see. Certain conditions can create a state of objective self-awareness; at such times we focus attention on some aspect of the self. The particular aspect of self that is salient depends in part on the accessibility of that aspect, which can be affected by priming. People who are high in self-consciousness are more likely to engage in this process that people who are low in self-consciousness.

Because the concept of self is an active one, it is important to consider the processes involved. Self-esteem refers to the evaluation of oneself, an assessment of how good or bad one is. Negative emotions are generally aroused when there is a discrepancy between the perceived self and some standard of comparison (an ideal self, an ought self, or a possible self).

To evaluate their abilities, people often engage in social comparison, looking to other people as a way of gauging their own performance. People also make causal attributions to explain their outcomes. Frequently such attributions are self-serving, designed to permit us to take credit for positive outcomes and to avoid blame for negative ones. Attributions are important because they can affect subsequent choices and actions.

The attempt to control the images of the self that are presented to others is called impression management. Such self-presentation can serve many goals and people can user a variety of strategies in pursuing them. People who anticipate failure, for instance, may resort to self-handicapping strategies. Although all people who score high in self-monitoring are more attuned to this process than people who score low in it.

Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

The Self

2009-04-29T23:16:00.001+07:00

Method of Studying Social Behavior

2009-04-29T23:15:00.002+07:00

Research is an exacting and exciting endeavor. The process of research
is a lengthy one, beginning with an idea and moving through decisions on
how to test the idea, completion of the actual research, and, finally,
analysis and interpretation of the data. Each of these stages is
important to the final product, which is the answer to some question
about human behavior.

Sources for experimental hypotheses are numerous, ranging from casual
observation to complex hypothetico-deductive systems. Once a question is
formulated, there are many ways to attempt to answers it. Anya question
can be answered by several methods. The social-psychology researcher:
laboratory experiments, field experiments, quasi-experimental research,
field studies, archival research, simulation and role playing, and
surveys and interviews. Each of these methods has certain advantages and
disadvantages.

The selection of any one method depends in part on the question being
asked. In the long run, it is important for the investigator to test
each question with a variety of methods, thereby canceling out the
disadvantages of each single method and gaining confidence in the
validity of the research results. Further, different techniques of
statistical analysis are required to test different hypotheses.

Finally, investigators must give careful thought to ethical issues.
Social-psychology research involves people, and the right of these
participants in the research process must be recognized and protected at
all times.
Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

Theories as Explanation of Social Behavior

2009-04-29T23:14:00.004+07:00

Social psychology is the field of study concerned with interpersonal behavior. Its concerns include not only actual interpersonal behavior but any behavior in which the presence of theres is imagined or anticipated. Imagining what the world would be like with out any other human beings gives you some sense of how broad the concerns of social psychology are.

Although the writings of early philosophers and the experiments of 19^th century psychologists indicate an interest in social behavior, the beginning of social psychology as a recognized discipline is often set at 1908, when two textbooks titled Social Psychology were published. During the next 30 years, many important developments set the tone for modern social psychology as a research-based discipline, and both research and theory have continued to accelerate.

Theories are set of hypotheses formulated to explain phenomena. The three theoretical approach that dominate current social psychology are role the theory, learning theory, and cognitive theory.

Role theory seeks to explain social behavior by an analysis of roles, role obligation, role expectations, and role conflicts. A role is a socially defined pattern of behavior that accompanies a particular position with in a social context. In recent years, concept derived from role theory have been used to explain a variety of phenomena related to the self and the self-concept.

Learning theory originally limited its concerns to stimuli, response, and reinforcements, concentrating only on events external to the person. More recent offshoots of reinforcement theory include social learning theory and social exchange theory, both of which include numerous cognitive concepts in their models. Thibaut and Kelley's theory of interdependence has shifted the focus from the individual to the interacting dyad, considering the rewards and costs for both partners in an interaction.

Cognitive theory finds some roots in early work by both Gestalt and phenomenological theorist. It has developed much more elaborate concepts of cognitive structure, how ever, often borrowing models from the field of computer technology. Social cognition refers specifically to the ways in which we think about people and the social aspects of our environment.

Theories can be compared on a number of dimensions, including their units of analysis, emphasis on historical or contemporary situations, focus on internal or external events, emphasis on individuals or social structures, and basic assumptions about human nature.

Each theory offers a unique perspective on social behavior, and no single theory explains everything. Our understanding is often increased when we take several different perspectives into account.

Source:
Deaux, Kay. 1984. Social Psychology. Cole Publishing Company

For Bill Gates, antitrust fight was a personal crucible

2008-06-26T12:51:00.001+07:00

June 26, 2008 (Computerworld) Ten years ago, Bill Gates was the new John D. Rockefeller. And from the U.S. government's perspective at the start of its antitrust trial against Microsoft in 1998, Gates was seen as being every bit as powerful as the old oilman was -- if not more so. The desktop operating system was seen as important to the new, tech-focused economy as oil had been to the old economy of the early 20th century.

With gas now averaging well above $4 a gallon and oil profits through the roof, it is difficult to believe that in 1998 the U.S. government and more than 20 states were focused on Microsoft's desktop operating system dominance. The case threatened Microsoft with a breakup, and would ultimately bring Gates, then serving as Microsoft's chairman and CEO, to the witness stand in defense of the company he is now about to leave (see more coverage on our "Bill Gates Moves On" page). It was a brutal case with enormous stakes. It was a crucible and it was personal.

The antitrust fight turned on many legal issues concerning Microsoft's anti-competitive practices. Part of Microsoft's defense was based on the idea that its behavior was constrained by emerging technologies. The company argued that it faced unknown knowns, as former Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld might put it. Microsoft 10 years ago knew enough about the computer industry to know that game-changing threats were certain to arrive, it just didn't know their exact shape. Linux and Java and browsers were often cited as threats at the trial, but those were known threats; what Microsoft argued was that the unknown threats to come were just as real.

It was not an argument that Rockefeller's Standard Oil could have raised. It was not an argument the judge bought at the time. But history may still have more to say on whether the argument had merit.

In 1998, Google Inc. was just getting started, its seeming omnipresence still years away. Smartphones, which today are developing into their own competitive platform, weren't in use. Wireless networks were in their infancy. That left Microsoft as the proverbial 900-pound gorilla ostensibly in need of restraint.

Unlike the strain Windows faces today, Microsoft's OS was on top of the desktop world. That fact led to the antitrust fight that would roil Microsoft for years, a fight that was personified on the company's side by its leader.

In preparing for the case, the government had asked Gates to testify. He opted not to. So on Oct. 19, 1998, in U.S. District Court in Washington, Gates was accused by the government of lacking "intestinal fortitude" because of his decision. In lieu of an appearance, the government instead used videotaped deposition excerpts that showed Gates being evasive and argumentative, leading to courtroom chuckles over sometimes embarrassing comments.

Gates had not believed the tapes would be shown in court, and at a news conference soon after they were made public Gates went after David Boies, the government's lead trial attorney. "You have to understand that Mr. Boies made it clear...in the negotiations leading up to the case that he is really out to destroy Microsoft," Gates said.

The belief that the government was out to "destroy" Microsoft was certainly the company's perspective. Microsoft officials thought the government was seeking a corporate break-up. Gates' feistiness also underscored a different worldview -- that the company saw itself competing in a market that could change overnight. Gates' now famous 1995 Internet Tidal Wave memo (download PDF) illustrated his view. "Browsing the Web, you find almost no Microsoft file formats. After 10 hours of browsing, I had not seen a single Word DOC, AVI file...."

One of the things Microsoft hoped to accomplish in this case was convincing the government that the tech industry was unlike any other. The company hired Richard Schmalensee, dean of the Sloan School of Management at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), to help make its case. A big part of his argument was that the real threats hadn't yet arrived. It was fear of these unknown threats that served to constraint Microsoft's apparent power.

Wrote Schmalensee in his direct testimony : "Much of Microsoft's future competition is unknown. It was not known in 1994 that Netscape, Java and Linux would become competitive threats to Microsoft. It is not known today who will become competitive threats to Microsoft in 2002."

Boies countered Schmalensee with MIT professor Franklin Fisher, who dismissed that warning about future threats. The notion that "a wolf might come out of the forest" to challenge Microsoft wasn't serious analysis, he said. The issue, the government argued, was about the monopoly power the company had at the time.

Gates tried to explain the threat in his deposition with Boies (download PDF).

Boise: When people used the word with you "commoditize" as in the statement that Netscape was threatening or endeavoring to commoditize the operating system, what did you understand commoditize to mean?

Gates: That they were creating a product that would either reduce the value or eliminate demand for the Windows operating system if they continued to improve it and we didn't keep improving our product.

The argument did not hold -- at least as far as the judge was concerned. In 2000, U.S. District Court Judge Thomas Penfield Jackson order that Microsoft be broken up, Standard Oil-style (read the decision). A year later, in 2001 the U.S.government -- in the interest of moving the case along -- dropped that remedy and announced a settlement under which Microsoft would agree to change to some of its business practices.

Before that agreement was finalized in court Gates, after refusing to appear years earlier, took the stand. In 2002, one of the points he raised concerned the future.

"Ten years is a very long time in the software industry," he wrote (download PDF). "Ten years ago, Windows was just beginning to become broadly successful, even as many ISVs focused on writing applications for MS-DOS and IBM's OS/2. Ten years before that the PC industry barely existed. Given the constantly accelerating pace of innovation, I expect we will see more changes in the computing landscape in the next 10 years than in any prior 10-year period."

Six years later, Windows -- still dominant -- has run into trouble; Microsoft has sought, so far unsuccessfully, to scoop up an Internet search company as it looks to better fit in with a new age; Google looms as an ever-larger threat. And Gates, his company intact, is moving on to the world of philanthropy, looking less like Rockefeller and more like another titan of an earlier time, Andrew Carnegie.

Ronaldo holds the key for Portugal

2008-06-03T16:17:00.000+07:00

Last tournament's beaten finalists have a lot to prove if they are to pick up a European Championship trophy for the first time in their history.

VladimirRys/GettyImages

Big Phil: Subject of interest from Man City.

They may have only lost once in qualifying, but they endured a nervous few moments before eventually sealing their place at Euro 2008 with a 0-0 draw against fellow challengers Finland.

The Portuguese have long been known for inconsistency and recent draws against the likes of Serbia, Poland and Armenia did nothing to dispel that reputation. Historically, the 'Golden Generation' did well to reach the quarters and semis in 1996 and 2000 respectively, but going out of the 2002 World Cup in the Group stages and their shock defeat to Greece in the Euro 2004 final will live long in the memory.

Under Luis 'Big Phil' Scolari the team reached the semi-finals of the 2006 World Cup in Germany and look to be making progress, but they still have a lot to do to fulfil their potential.

Certainly, in Scolari, they have one of the best coaches around and he is already attracting attention from many top clubs for when his tenure comes to an end after the tournament. Famous for his fiery temper, the Brazilian was banned for three matches in qualifying after a post-match altercation with Serbian defender Ivica Dragutinovic; but his character is often considered a positive for a national team who have been accused of lacking ambition.

Likened to an over-zealous father figure, his methods of training have also raised some eyebrows in Portugal, yet his determination to do things his own way has found favour among those who felt the Portuguese federation was too involved in the running of the team.

'I know we have to improve in the finals' was Scolari's assessment of their qualifying campaign and, with assistant Flávio Teixeira at his side, the big Brazilian would love to add the European Championship title to a collection which already includes a Copa Libertadores and World Cup winner's medal.

Aggressive and forthright, Scolari has also engendered a good team spirit within his relatively young squad and he will surely build his campaign around the form of Manchester United winger Cristiano Ronaldo, who has been in sparkling form all year.

Unstoppable for United in both Europe and the Premier League, Ronaldo is unquestionably the best player on the planet going into the Championships and did his best to ensure that Portugal made it to Austria & Switzerland by scoring eight goals in 13 appearances.

However, despite the threat that Ronaldo brings, the Portuguese team do possess a few weak links and while they have a lot of attacking potential, are sometimes prone to the odd defensive lapse.

32-year-old goalkeeper Ricardo made a name for himself in Euro 2004 by knocking England out with some agile penalty saves, before netting the winning spot kick himself; but his inconsistent, and often eccentric, form for Real Betis has led many to question how much faith his defence have in him.

Indeed, while Chelsea's Ricardo Carvalho stands out as a 'world-class' centre-half, the Portuguese lack any other defenders of his calibre - with the possible exception of utility man Bosingwa who will soon be joining Carvalho at Stamford Bridge. Elsewhere, Valencia's Miguel has been an ever present in the qualifying campaign, but has hardly shone in a poor season for Los Che in La Liga.

Paulo Ferreira made only a handful of starts for Chelsea this season, with the Brazilian-born defender Pepe suffering a similar fate at Real Madrid; while the likes of Bruno Alves, Fernando Meira and Jorge Ribeiro have failed to do enough to cement their place in the side.

While maintaining defensive stability may be an important part of Portugal's challenge, their lack of a proven goalscorer (even with Ronaldo in the side) is an issue that could cost them a place in the final stages of the tournament.

The retirement of PSG's prolific Pauleta has left a gap in Portugal's frontline, which Scolari has struggled to fill. Benfica striker Nuno Gomes has done his best, with three goals in qualifying but, at 32, is not one for the future.

Hugo Almeida and Helder Postiga boast youthful exuberance, but neither of them match up to Pauleta, or even Gomes, in the finishing stakes.

If Portugal are to get goals, the most likely source would appear to be from an exceptionally talented and creative midfield. With the likes of seasoned campaigners Deco and Simao always keen to run at defenders, a five-man midfield would seem to suit the side, with Gomes playing up front on his own.

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Ronaldo: Arguably the best in the world at the moment.

Indeed, Portugal are fortunate that a number of their midfielders can play in the 'second-striker' position. Simao did the job against Greece in the friendly defeat in March, while Ronaldo is a shoe-in for a free roaming role behind the main striker after his 42-goal haul this season. Sporting Lisbon captain Joao Moutinho has been tipped for greatness but may have to wait his turn, especially if he is competing with the United star for the position.

With Nani and Ricardo Quaresma proving width and a constant attacking threat, as well as some incredible dribbling skills, Scolari has a number of attacking options on his hands, even in the absence of a main target man.

Building on a two man defensive midfield, Portugal like to firm up the centre of the park with the likes of the retiring Petit, Raul Meireles or talented youngster Miguel Veloso patrolling in front of the defence.

Veloso in particular has all the attributes to be a success on the global stage and the 22-year-old has been attracting a lot of attention from Europe with some assured performances for Sporting Lisbon; although Scolari may go for the experience of Petit to start with.

Certainly the Portuguese boast one of the strongest midfields in the competition and what they lack in defensive discipline, they make up for in flair. With a decent spine of Carvalho, Ronaldo and Gomes and good squad depth, the team have a decent chance of making at least the semi-finals, if not more.

In a group where the under-achieving Czech Republic form their only real barrier to progression, Scolari's men should be in confident mood.

Their deficiencies could prove to be the difference when they come up against another top side, but riding high on the wave of success that Ronaldo has made for himself should ensure that the Portuguese can enhance their reputation at Euro 2008; as long as they don't fall victim to their old inconsistent ways.

Italy: A tournament of firsts

2008-06-03T16:16:00.000+07:00

As current world champions all eyes will be on the Italy this summer and nothing less than victory in Austria/Switzerland will do. That may not seem like a tall order for a team that boasts four World Cups in the trophy cabinet (1934, 1938, 1982, 2006) but the Azzurri have only a single triumph in the European Championships and that came back in 1968.

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Italy's coach Roberto Donadoni.

It has often been said that the lack of whipping boys at the Euros makes it a tougher competition to win than World Cup and Italy's record would seem to bear this out.

Roberto Donadoni is the man charged with delivering a second European triumph to Italy but he is a relatively young manager who is learning on the job.

Appointed in the wake of Italy's 2006 World Cup glory the 44-year-old succeeded the hugely experienced Marcello Lippi and inherited the burden of expectation that goes with coaching such a historically trophy-laden nation.

The Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio even admitted publicly that Donandoni's appointment represented something of a gamble - his managerial CV being somewhat sparse - but that the former international had all the qualities to become a great coach.

However, the Azzurri began their campaign in underwhelming fashion, with a 1-1 home draw to Lithuania. But this was not the shock it appeared at first glance because many of the triumphant Italian side were still basking in the glory of the World Cup and Donadoni's experimental side became a victim of their own malaise.

When France avenged their 2006 World Cup final defeat with a 3-1 victory at the Stade de France in September of the same year the nation snapped back to reality and the wisdom of Donadoni's appointment began to be questioned.

Despite his 63 caps as an Italian international and serving under illustrious coaches such as Arrigo Sacchi and Fabio Capello as member of AC Milan's all-conquering team of the late eighties and early nineties, his total experience of top-flight management amounted to two seasons with Livorno in Serie A.

However, the FIGC gave Donadoni a vote of confidence and the Azzurri never looked back as they went trough the remainder of the qualification campaign unbeaten. The Italians drew 0-0 with France at the San Siro. Then, with strikers Luca Toni and Pippo Inzaghi injured, Donadoni called upon Udinese striker Antonio di Natale to come up with the goods against Ukraine.

It was a brave move by the Italian tactician as Di Natale rose to the occasion, scoring both goals to re-energise the push for qualification as they moved into second place above France.

Italy beat Scotland, the form team of the qualifying group, at a raucous Hampden Park thanks to a 90th minute winner from Christian Panucci and then secured top spot, three points ahead of second-placed France, with a 3-1 success against the Faroe Islands in the final match of qualifying.

After a stuttering start, Donadoni passed his first test as manager of the national team and now he heads into more unknown territory: tournament football. Although the likes of veteran defender Paolo Maldini and talisman Francesco Totti have now retired from international football, Donadoni can still call upon aid from an experienced group of players; World Cup winning captain Fabio Cannavaro remains at the centre of defence and Gennaro Gattuso still marshals midfield.

Juventus captain Alessandro Del Piero was recalled for Euro 2008. after scoring 18 goals in Serie A this season. The 33-year-old has the experience of six international tournaments to draw upon.

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Italy striker Luca Toni

But in order to get any playing time the veteran striker will have to depose the man of the moment, Luca Toni Varchetta Delle Cave.

Something of a late bloomer, the 30-year-old Luca Toni played most of his early football in the lower reaches of Italian football and it was only following a move to Palermo in 2003 that he began to make a name for himself. Following a €10million switch to Fiorentina Toni really flourished, scoring 31 goals in Serie A to secure the 2005/06 Capocannonieri and European Golden Boot.

Despite his advancing years Toni forced himself into the Italian team for the 2006 World Cup, where he missed only one game and scored two goals as the Italians lifted the trophy. The 6ft 5in striker continued to play a key role in qualifying for Euro 2008 and since moving to Bayern Munich last summer from Fiorentina, Toni has also shone in the Bundesliga.

The tall target man has grown from strength to strength to become one of the most highly-rated forwards in Europe. He scores with his head, with power, and has good agility for a big man. But he also makes goals for others.

He has become something of a talisman for the Azzurri and the former Serie C1 striker, who endured periods at teams such as Fiorenzuola and Lodigiani, will have to be at his best as Italy look to escape from the 'Group of Death' at Euro 2008.

Drawn alongside the Netherlands, Romania and France it will be a tough task. The Italians have not beaten Les Bleus without the help of penalties since the 1978 World Cup and they may well have to do so to progress to the knockout phase.

Euro 2008 will prove to be a tournament of firsts for Donadoni and his Italy team. Even if they are one of the favourites to win the whole thing.

Future stars of the tournament?

2008-06-03T16:14:00.002+07:00

With the eyes of the world watching during a huge competition like the European Championships, a host of young talent will look to use the opportunity to showcase their skills.

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Benzema: Will lead the line for France.

Here's a selection, in no particular order, of some fresh faces to look out for when the competition kicks off.

Karim Benzema: Striker, France
A French football star of Algerian descent is always going to be compared to the legendary Zidane. However, Benzema is hewn from different stock. A tall and agile striker, the Lyon youngster has burst onto the international scene over the past year with a series of impressive performances for club and country.

The top scorer in Ligue 1 this season, Benzema has been attracting attention from across Europe, although has repeatedly pledged his future to Les Gones. Fast, and with a great eye for goal, he can also play on the wings, which is a versatility that Thierry Henry, Nicolas Anelka and Djibril Cisse also possess.

The new generation of French striker, Benzema will surely get his chance to impress alongside the likes of Henry after his goal-filled season with Lyon. If he can learn from the experience, then he will have the world at his feet after the tournament is over.

Joao Moutinho: Midfielder, Portugal
The youngest Sporting captain in history has a lot to live up to in the shape of Portugal legend Rui Costa, who he has constantly been compared with throughout his career with the national side. An attacking midfielder, who plays best in the gap behind a front two, Moutinho has shown promise from an early age and has hardly missed a game for Sporting since breaking into the first-team aged 17.

An excellent passer of the ball, Moutinho has a great engine as well and gets from box-to-box with enthusiasm that has seen him become a fans' favourite in Portugal. He faces stiff competition for a midfield berth from Deco, Maniche, Tiago and Hugo Viana, but has more than enough to compete on the international stage.

Along with Nani and fellow Sporting team-mate Miguel Veloso, Moutinho ranks as one of the most promising prospects to come out of Selecção for some time and it may not be long before he is plying his trade with one of Europe's elite.

Mario Gomez: Striker, Germany
Surely one of the most talented German strikers around, Gomez has hit the heights for his club Stuttgart this season bagging 19 goals in 25 starts in the Bundesliga. Tall, powerful and strong in the air, Europe's elite are already on his trail with Chelsea and Barcelona showing interest.

The Catalans may be heading the queue as Gomez's father is of Spanish origin, but would have to pay upwards of £20million if he has a good tournament. German coach Joachim Low has already shown faith in the youngster ahead of Kevin Kuranyi and could be persuaded to play Lucas Podolski in a midfield role in order to partner him with Klose.

Luka Modric: Midfielder, Croatia
A part of the Croatian side that sent England crashing out of qualifying, the 22-year-old Modric has been a key player for Slaven Bilic. Playing in central midfield, and sometimes on the left, Modric's performances for Dinamo Zagreb attracted the attention of Tottenham who splashed out £16.5million for his services over the summer.

Despite being slight of frame, Modric is able to use his body well and contributes defensively as well (something that many offensive players neglect to do). His ability to use both feet sets his apart from some of his team-mates and his range of passing and dribbling skills are a key component to the Croatian attack.

Ciprian Marica: Striker, Romania
A record transfer for VfB Stuttgart in the summer of 2007, Marica has justified his ¬8million price tag with a series of assured displays for one so young. Scoring four goals in eleven of Romania's qualifying games, the striker has helped Romania to become a force to reckoned with and is sure to get his chance again alongside Adrian Mutu.

Boasting excellent dribbling skills, Marica can also rely on a good turn of pace to get him away from defenders. A relative unknown before his move to Germany, the 22-year-old has become an important player for club and country, although he'll find it tough going against the solid defences of the other sides in Group C.

Eren Derdiyok, Striker, Switzerland
A powerful and quick striker, Derdiyok holds the hope of a nation in his young hands alongside the established Alexander Frei up front. While the youngster may not get many chances to shine at Euro 2008, he has already shown himself more than capable of impressing when called into action.

A great goal against England in February alerted the world to his potential, but his club form for FC Basle has also sent European scouts' pulses racing. Arsenal and Newcastle have reportedly been monitoring the 19-year-old and, after proving himself above the level of the Swiss U19 and U21 sides, Derdiyok will be looking to show the world what he has to offer.

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Akinfeev: A safe pair of hands for Hiddink's Russia.
Igor Akinfeyev: Goalkeeper, Russia
Breaking into the CSKA first-team aged only 17, Akinfeyev soon made an impression between the sticks and was called up to the Russian Euro 2004 squad, where he gained valuable experience.

Under new coach Guus Hiddink, Akinfeyev has established himself firmly as the favourite for the #1 jersey, despite missing six months of the season with a knee injury. Viewed as one of the most promising 'keepers in the world, let alone Europe, the youngster has been linked with every European giant, but is keen to continue his development in Moscow.

His command of the penalty area, shot stopping ability and agility are without question, but it remains to be seen if Akinfeyev can overcome his injury troubles and succeed at a major tournament. Euro 2008 will certainly offer him the opportunity.

Arda Turan: Midfielder, Turkey
One of the best players in the Turkish league, Turan has already notched up a number of international appearances at the tender age of 21. With nine in qualifying, the youngster showed that he can cut it with the big boys and has been attracting the attention of big-spending Newcastle.

A box of tricks, Turan fits in well on either wing or playing the hole behind the strikers and has bags of creativity. Great vision and an excellent passing ability make this youngster one of the hottest prospects in Europe and a good Euro 2008 could see his stock rise even higher.

Others to keep an eye on: Ibrahim Afellay (Netherlands), Raul Albiol (Spain), Jakub Blaszczykowski (Poland), Daniele De Rossi (Italy), Vasilis Torosidis (Greece), Sebastian Prödl (Austria), Sebastian Larsson (Sweden), Tomás Sivok (Czech Rep).

International football an old man's game

2008-06-03T16:14:00.001+07:00

There is a trend in the European Championships. Otto Rehhagel, 65 at the time, struck a blow for seniority at Euro 2004. Marcello Lippi, then 58, got his hands on the World Cup two years ago. The previous tournament was won by Luiz Felipe Scolari who, although a mere 53 at the time, has long appeared a man of a previous generation with his upright stance and disciplinarian views.

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The 69-year-old Aragones could be in luck

So the chances are that in Vienna on June 29, the victorious manager will strengthen Sir Alex Ferguson's belief (a rather self-justifying theory that the 66-year-old Champions League winner is permitted nonetheless) that bosses, like his beloved wines, improve with age.

This theory bodes well for Spain's Luis Aragones (69), even if some of his ill-judged comments suggest he has learned little over the years. France's Raymond Domenech (56) also has his claims enhanced along with Scolari who, like Sweden's Lars Lagerback, is nearing his 60th birthday.

Among the outsiders, and quickly ignoring Austria's Josef Hickersberger (60), there is the 64-year-old Swiss boss Kobi Kuhn, Leo Beenhakker (65), the pensioner in charge of Poland, the wrinkled Czech Karel Bruckner (68) and the indefatigable Rehhagel, second in seniority only to Aragones.

At the other end of the age spectrum, Roberto Donadoni has the silver locks, but not the years in management. While Marco van Basten and Slaven Bilic are outnumbered by men old enough to be their father. Superbly as the latter has done with Croatia, the prevailing feeling is that international football is an old man's game.

Come the next World Cup, Fabio Capello and Ottmar Hitzfeld may again prove that, but why is it an environment where the saga generation flourish? One explanation is that their younger counterparts acknowledge the superiority of the club game, preferring its intensity and, of course, its money, leaving the field free for the veterans to ply their trade on a different stage.

Lawrie Sanchez and Alex McLeish used international football to establish their reputations while Roy Hodgson and Walter Smith were able to rehabilitate theirs. Only the jobs with the wealthier countries retain their lure and even then, as England discovered, not enough to stop Sven-Goran Eriksson's eye wandering.

But while international football has become a lucrative form of semi-retirement, the merits of an old head in the dugout are evident. While there is evidence to suggest that the majority of the best club managers are appointed by their mid forties, in international football, they can be one or even two decades later in life.

A maturity of judgment can compensate for a lack of energy. As the eventful career of the much travelled Guus Hiddink, now 61, shows, possessing finely-honed talents that can be applied to different teams is invaluable. The Russia manager is proof, too, that international management can become a specialist pursuit; much as Test and one-day cricketers require some similar skills but certain separate attributes, so do managers of clubs and countries.

The latter is not a pursuit for the control freaks among managers. They do not see their players for 52 weeks a year and theirs rarely need be a 16 or 18-hour day. But there is an unforgiving aspect to international management that even the club game struggles to replicate. Entire tenures are judged on one match, a two-year spell can be deemed either a success or failure because of one substitution, one tactical switch or one surprise selection.

The stop-start nature of it means that, after months of inactivity, they have mere moments to adjudicate. When each choice is scrutinised, those decades of practice can come in handy. It is an environment, too, where there is much they cannot control, and not merely because of the impossibility of transfers. They have less time to organise and galvanise a team, to forge a spirit off the field and an understanding on it.

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Big Phil is counting the years

Force of personality is required to combat over-protective club coaches, but, as managers of the lesser sides can testify, there is little they can do when the country's key player is banished to the reserves. So the ability to revise plans rapidly is essential. Injuries affect all managers, but in the international game they can entail handing a pivotal role to uncapped players, or those with a handful of friendly appearances as a replacement. Bold decision-making, under the pressure of a nation's expectations, is not easy.

Lest it be forgotten, Scolari won the 2002 World Cup without his chosen captain, Emerson, and with a comparatively untried central midfield partnership of Gilberto Silva and Kleberson. In Euro 2004, he discarded four of his regular side after a solitary game and went on to reach the final.

Rehhagel's ultimate triumph then was instructive, too, with his side among the most organised in memory, but without the benefit of time a club manager has to drill a defence. In 2006 Lippi's keeper, Gianluigi Buffon, was only beaten twice, despite losing a first-choice central defender, Alessandro Nesta, for much of the tournament. And in the last two World Cups, Hiddink's gift for improvisation from the dugout has been very evident.

Football, like many elements of popular culture, can appear in thrall to the new. It can be an ageist cult that grows both bored and sceptical of the old. Yet, following Ferguson's renaissance, the lesson of Euro 2008, as of recent international tournaments, could be that it is good to be grey.

Flamini added to squad after Vieira injury

2008-06-03T16:12:00.000+07:00

CLAIREFONTAINE, France, June 2 (Reuters) - France captain Patrick Vieira will miss France's first match at Euro 2008 because of an injury, coach Raymond Domenech told reporters on Monday.

Midfielder Vieira, who hurt his left ankle in training on Friday, will not play the Group C game against Romania on June 9 in Zurich, Domenech said.

A decision on whether he remains in the tournament would be taken on Sunday, the coach added.

Midfielder Mathieu Flamini was called up to the French squad earlier on Monday following concerns over Vieira's fitness.

'He (Vieira) is doubtful and that's why we called back Mathieu (Flamini) and will make a decision on June 8,' said Domenech.

France have until Sunday, one day before their Group C opener against Romania, to make changes to their squad in case of an injury.

Flamini, who is set to join AC Milan from Arsenal on July 1, had been included in a provisional 30-man squad but had been left out of the final 23-man squad last week.

Vieira has not played in his side's last two warm-up games, against Ecuador and Paraguay.

Dutch camp hoping for Van Persie all-clear

2008-06-03T16:11:00.000+07:00

Holland coach Marco van Basten hopes to have Arsenal star Robin van Persie back in full training on Wednesday ahead of their opening Euro 2008 group match.

The Dutch, who comfortably beat Wales 2-0 yesterday, head to their Swiss camp this week and Van Persie is expected to take an active role after a thigh injury.

The 24-year-old missed all three of Holland's warm-up matches last week, the 3-0 win over Ukraine, a 1-1 draw with Denmark and the 2-0 success over a plucky, but outclassed, Wales.

Oranje boss Van Basten has criticised Arsenal for bringing the midfielder back too soon during last season, leading to another setback.

Now he will have to evaluate Van Persie's fitness ahead of next Monday's opening clash with Italy in Berne but Van Basten declared himself satisfied with the Dutch build-up.

'We have done well in three warm-up games, I am satisfied with our progress,' he said.

'The preparation has been good, we could have scored more goals against Wales but overall I am very pleased with the way our preparation is going for the finals.'

Van Basten was delighted with the display of former Chelsea winger Arjen Robben, who scored Holland's first goal.

He said: 'When you mention Robben you have speed, joy and exuberance. He scored a fine goal and was always a danger.

'All the pains and knocks he has suffered seem to have gone and he will be important for us in the finals.'

Wales boss John Toshack conceded that his young stars had gained priceless experience as the Dutch gave all their big names a run out - apart from Van Persie.

Wesley Sneijder broke the deadlock in the first half and Robben added a second after the break to end any chance Wales had of producing a surprise at Feyenoord's De Kuip stadium.

'Holland are a very, very good side, and they showed it. We can have no complaints about the result,' Toshack said. 'But although the Dutch were in command for long spells, our lads kept going right to the end.

'They found it a big step up. Playing for the likes of Peterborough, Barnsley and Stockport is a little different than facing players of this quality.

'Their players were at peak fitness going into the final, but a lot of former Wales sides with far more top-level players have found it difficult to get any sort of result in Holland.

'We did very well to keep it goalless for the first half-hour, but the goal we conceded was shocking.

'There was a lack of concentration and you cannot allow Robben to come like that from the left and have a run at goal right through the centre of our defence.

'From then on we found it hard. They got a good second, but to our credit we created two very good chances in the last few minutes and should have scored.

'It would have been totally unjust for us to have got anything, let alone a draw, but I was pleased with the way the boys stuck at it.

Toshack also hailed 21-year-old goalkeeper Wayne Hennessey for an outstanding performance.

He added: 'He made a string of fine saves, he kept us in the game during that first half. He has improved considerably over the year.'

Austrians and Swiss limber up gently for Euro 2008

2008-06-03T16:10:00.000+07:00

VIENNA, June 3 (Reuters) - Girding their lederhosen and firing up cheese fondues, Austria and Switzerland are gearing up to stage Euro 2008, the year's biggest soccer event - quietly.

With just a few days to go, enthusiasm for the tournament is barely evident among inhabitants of the two Alpine nations, more known for their skiing prowess than their soccer skills.

'Soccer, yeah, soccer, oh well,' said 23-year-old Viennese student Alexander Meyerhofer.

'It can be interesting, though not really when Austria plays, but I guess it'll be a good party after all,' he said, strolling along one of Vienna's leafy boulevards lined with imperial palaces as horse-drawn carriages go past.

Every ticket has been sold, and the co-hosts are bracing for the onslaught of some five million visitors who will swarm into stadiums or gather in picturesque town squares, gobbling up bratwurst with a swig of beer as they watch the sixteen teams battling it out on giant screens.

Eight venues across the two Alpine nations will host 31 matches during Euro 2008, starting in Basel on June 7 and ending with the final in the Austrian capital Vienna on June 29.

National flags are conspicuous by their absence and the cities have eschewed the kind of blanket advertising that Germany laid on when it hosted the World Cup in 2006.

This apparent modesty may have something to do with the expectations surrounding the nations' chances of success.

Austria, which had never qualified for the European Championship before, are ranked 101st in the world, behind the likes of Ethiopia, Zimbabwe and Thailand.

Switzerland, ranked 48th, suffered a 4-0 drubbing against Germany in March, and failed to reach the second round of the European Championship finals in two previous attempts.

As hosts, both nations automatically qualified this time.

Still, retailers and the tourism industry in Austria and Switzerland are banking on Euro 2008 paying a lasting dividend.

Champions of tourism in particular are hoping visiting fans will fall in love with the birthplace of Mozart and Arnold Schwarzenegger or develop a strong attachment to the mountainous stronghold of banking secrecy and fine chocolate.

Meanwhile retailers in host cities are selling everything from porcelain cows to handbags, thermal flasks or even funeral urns in the shape of footballs or teams' colours.

Overall, economists expect the event to add around 0.2 percentage points of growth this year to gross domestic product (GDP) in the two countries, which share both the Alps and red and white playing strips.

Hosting the tournament has also increased security challenges in the two nations that are home to a combined population of nearly 16 million people.

In Switzerland up to 15,000 soldiers will be used to shore up security behind the scenes -- its biggest ever peacetime military deployment -- while fighter jets over both countries have flown patrols to prepare for possible terrorist attacks.

Austria has re-introduced spot checks at its borders in an attempt to keep out hooligans and local police will be working alongside around 1,100 of their colleagues from abroad.

Italy captain Cannavaro out of Euro 2008

2008-06-03T16:09:00.000+07:00

The Italian Football Federation have confirmed that captain Fabio Cannavaro will miss Euro 2008 with an ankle injury.

The 34-year-old defender twisted his ankle in training today following a collision with team-mate Giorgi Chiellini, and underwent lengthy treatment on the pitch before being carried off on a stretcher and taken to hospital.

Extensive tests have since revealed the Real Madrid man has torn ankle ligaments and will play no part in the Azzurri's European campaign.

A statement on the Federation's official website said: 'The news we feared was confirmed in Baden late on Monday evening. Fabio Cannavaro will say goodbye to our European adventure, before it has even begun.

'The captain has suffered torn ligaments, which happened the moment his foot made contact with the ground. His ankle twisted awkwardly.'

The statement also confirmed Fiorentina defender Alessandro Gamberini has been called up as a replacement.

Cannavaro will hold a press conference tomorrow alongside national coach Roberto Donadoni, who will be ruing the absence of one of his most influential players.

Cannavaro was a key member of Italy's World Cup-winning side two years ago, and was named FIFA World Player of the Year for his performances in Germany.

Italy will face Holland in their European opener next Monday, before further Group C matches against Romania and France.