Well Researched Info on Nigeria

Low birthweight delivery: Prevalence and associated factors as seen at a tertiary health facility - HAA Ugboma, CN Onyearugha

2013-06-12T09:07:00.002+01:00

Low birthweight delivery: Prevalence and associated factors as seen at a tertiary health facility
By -
HAA Ugboma (Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Port Harcourt Teaching Hospital, Port Harcourt, Rivers State)
and CN Onyearugha (Pediatrics, Abia State University Teaching Hospital Aba, Abia State, Nigeria)

Abstract
Background: Low birth weight deliveries are major causes of a huge health burden on poor economies around the globe. It is even more worrisome in developing countries.
Materials and Methods: The obstetric records of all low birth weight (LBW) deliveries were reviewed from 1st June 2005 to 30th May 2009.
Results: The prevalence of LBW deliveries was 8.3%. Of the LBW babies, 68.4% were preterm, 53.6% were small for gestational age (SGA) and 12.6% were products of multiple gestations. Predominant factors associated with LBW delivery included nulliparity, low parities (1 and 2), parturient aged 25‑35 years (80.6%), hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, and short birth spacing (84.4%).
Conclusion: Most LBW babies were preterm delivered by low parity parturient aged 25-35 years with short inter‑pregnancy intervals. Effective family planning and antenatal services provided particularly for these categories of potential parturient could help to curb the incidence.

culled from http://www.ajol.info/index.php/njcp/article/view/89093/78652

The Development of Academic Journals in Institutions of Higher Learning in Kano State, Nigeria

2013-06-12T08:58:00.000+01:00

The Development of Academic Journals in Institutions of Higher Learning in Kano State, Nigeria

Ahmed Mohammed
Department of Library and Information Sciences
Bayero University
Kano, Nigeria

Introduction

Academic journals are a major medium through which research findings are published. Through publication in such journals, researchers communicate their methodologies and findings. The modern process of scholarly communication relies heavily on books, monographs, and conference proceedings, but most commonly on academic journals (Oluronsola 2001). The journal is fundamental to scholarly communication. In addition, the status conferred by publication in highly-rated journals is essential to the career of academics. Journals have remained essentially unchanged in form and function since their beginning. Science as we know it is scarcely imaginable without the scholarly journal. It is of immense important to note that, through journal, researchers and academics access important information about recent developments in their field. Studies by Olurunsola and Opaleke (1997) reveal the importance of publishing in scholarly journals for promotion and tenure. The primary function of academic journal is to report on original research, making it available to the rest of the scholars within the discipline, many are published by professional associations or universities.

The Concept and History of Academic Journals

Koepf (2001) describes journals as having a "serious look." Articles are written by scholars within specific disciplines, the language used is specific to the discipline covered. It assumes some knowledge on the part of the reader. Kronick (1976) maintains that a journal is usually addressed more limited audience than a newspaper does and is not as firmly bound to events of the day. Milne (1999) defines scholarly communication as "the social phenomenon whereby intellectual and creative activity is passed from one scholar to another." This can be formal or informal. Formal communication usually involves journal articles. According to Yahaya (1993), a journal refers to those periodicals created by any of the following:

A constituted body: an educational institution, ministry, board, bureau, council, commission, library, center, academy, division, or department.
A specialized group: scientists, historians, educators, economists, archaeologists, linguists, folklorists, medical doctors
An interest group: student associations, religious group, trade union.

Abba (2004) describes journals as periodicals issued by academic communities for a particular purpose or audience. This paper considers academic and scholarly journal to be the same: publications dealing with matters of current interest to groups such as faculty members. The history of academic journals can be traced to the 16th century AD. Wells (1999) reports that until the late seventeenth century, communication between scholars depended on personal contact and meetings arranged by learned societies (e.g. the Royal Society of London). As the membership of these society increased, it was harder to attend the meetings, and proceedings circulated as a record of the meeting. The proceedings became a place to publish papers that had not been presented at the meeting. Thus, the beginning of what we now recognize as scholarly journals.

Ornstein (1963) states that, "on January 5, 1665, Denis de Sallo published the first western scholarly journal, titledJournal des sçavans." MacDonell (1999) argues that theJournal des sçavans was not regarded as publication of academic community until 1903 when it came under the auspices ofAcademic inscriptions et Belles-lettresof the Institute de France. According to Ornstein (1963) the major objectives of theJournalwere:

Publish current events in academia
Provide obituaries of famous men.
Catalogue and short description of books
Publish experiments in physics and chemistry, observations of astrological phenomenon.
Print decisions of tribunals and Universities.

MacDonell (1999) notes how learned societies in other countries created journals on the model of theJournal de sçanvans. In Africa, the history of academic journals is quite remarkable. A considerable number of journals exist in Africa; for example, theJournal of Negro History, a quarterly publication founded in 1916 by Carter G. Woodson to correct through scholarship white racist views of African American history and culture (Myers 1999). From its inception, the publication has discussed the full range of black experiences from the sixteenth through the twentieth centuries. Contributors highlighted the struggle and achievements of African Americans under slavery, as well as reviewing books and compiling bibliographies of material from Africa and America. One of the most important contributions of the journal to the body of scholarship on African Americans was its publication of primary source material, which many white scholars believed did not exist. This journal revealed the existence of these sources and facilitated African American primary research.

African professional associations and learned society have long published research in journals and conference proceedings. Stilwell (2000) reports that theJournal of Librarianship and Archives has been published in Africa since 1933. Aina (1997) traces the origin of academic journals published in Africa, includingSouth African Journal of Library and Information Science, created in 1933,West Africa Library Association News (1954) andS.A. Archives Journal (1959). Olukoju (2004) traces the history of academic journals in Nigeria, reporting that:

In Nigeria the beginnings of academic research and publishing could be traced back to the establishment of University College, Ibadan in 1948. From then till the late 1970s, Ibadan was the fountain of academic research, particularly in humanities. Given the preoccupation with political independence, the focus on indirect rule and political history is quite understandable.

Olukoju further asserts that, "the Historical Society of Nigeria . maintained three credible publishing outlets for academic research," including theJournal of the Historical Society of Nigeria. Abayode (1978) observes further that, "it was . a respected scholarly publication that attracted articles beyond Nigeria though, with few exceptions, they focused on political issues."

The Birth of Academic Journals in Kano State

Bayero University was the first institution in Kano state to establish an academic journal. The Journal of Savanna and Sudanic Research, called Kano Studies, was founded in 1965, just a year after Abdullahi Bayero College, now Bayero University, was founded (Abba 2004). In a related development, Kano State government established institutions of higher learning beginning in 1975 (Danyaro1991).These institutions established many journals. The central concern of this paper is to determine their existence, title, and status, among other things.

Statement of the Problem

Scholarly journals are vehicles for communicating research findings. Such journals occupy the pinnacle in extending the frontiers of knowledge and are the principal medium for disseminating new knowledge. Aina () states that "the non-availability of periodical titles in libraries could pose a serious problem to the research efforts of scientists." Moreover, irregular publication of academic journals can create a serious problem to faculty at promotion time, because promotion often depends on publication. Zaharadeen warns that,

If we cannot maintain our local publications we will be failing ... to communicate ... with ... colleagues who cannot get easy access to journals from abroad, even where they include much of our local material. In addition, we need active locally based journals, with consistently good standards of writing and physical production, by way of maintaining our profile on the international scene.

In view of these problems, the researcher undertook an empirical investigation to find assess the situation and offer suggestions on how academic journals in institutions of higher learning in Kano state can be sustained.

Purpose of the Study

Objectives of this study:

1. To ascertain the existence of such journals in institutions of higher learning in Kano state.

2. To determine the name of the journals and the year they were established

3. To determine the status of the journals, i.e., whether ceased or active

4. To identify the problems associated with the journals

5. To recommend measures aimed at solving problems.

Research Questions

1. What academic journals exist in institutions under study?

2. How many of such journals are produced by institutions of higher learning and their names?

3. What is the status of the journals (ceased or active)?

4. What problems are associated with the journals produced by the institutions in question?

5. What measures can be taken to address the identified problems?

Methodology

The study used a survey, in which a questionnaire was designed to elicit information on academic journals in the institutions of higher learning in Kano state. The population for this study comprises fifteen institutions of higher learning. The respondents for the study include:

1. Heads of academic faculties or Schools

2. Heads of academic departments

3. Head of academic units/centers

Discussion of Findings

The responses indicated that five institutions produce academic journals. (See appendix for the list of the journals and their respective institutions.) Table 1 below summarises the data.

Table 1. List of Academic Journals in Institutions of Higher Learning in Kano State

Institution	Active journals	Ceased journals	University or College-based journals	Faculty/School/Unit-based journals	Departmental journals	Total
Bayero University, Kano (1965)	15	08	02	06	14	23
Federal College of Education, Kano (1993)	07	01	02	05	01	08
Kano state College of Education, Kumbotso, Kano (1998)	4	-	-	3	1	04
Federal College of Education Technical Bichi (2003/4)	1	-	-	01	-	01
Kano State Polytechnic (2004/5)	1	-	1	-	-	01
Total	27	9	5	15	16	37

Bayero University, Kano produces the largest number of journals, 23, including both ceased and active.

The study also reveals that academic journals in institutions of higher learning suffer from financial constraints. Olukoju (2004) rightly observes that the most fundamental challenge of academic journals is funding, along with low subscription numbers, lack of standard articles, and a lengthy peer review process. Treloar (1995) admits that, "There is a significant lag between completion of a paper and publication, sometimes years ." Other variables identified including problems of typesetting and low quality binding. A higher mortality rate among journals is another problem. In Africa, most scholarly journals suffer a variety of problems, most common being short life span. Aina and Mobuwanko (1996), Wise (1994), Akande (1980), Mohammed (2007), and Yahayas have all confirmed these findings.

Recommendations and Conclusions

Based on the findings revealed by the study, the following recommendations are offered:

1. Parent institutions should ensure that substantial amounts of money are budgeted to support the journal production and distribution, which will subsidise the subscription rates and thereby attract more subscribers.

2. Higher education institutions should consider a budget allocation for research and publication, to encourage faculty members to embark on research projects.

3. Lack of adequate and current materials in most of the libraries in institutions of higher learning does not permit or encourage academics to develop a culture of writing standard articles; libraries should be stocked with relevant and current literature to support academic pursuits.

4. Librarians in institutions of higher learning should make the case to administrators for the acquisition of current journals.

5. Peer reviewers should be encouraged to review and return manuscripts in a timely way.

6. The editors should publish only articles that meet publication criteria ( Iya: 2001) and improve the quality of binding to further attract patronage by both authors and subscribers.

7. Journals should make space for advertisements in order to boost the financial base of their publication. Advertisements could be for seminars, workshops conferences, newly-published books and journals, among others (Iya: 2001).

Scholarly journals are an essential avenue for disseminating research, and they serve as a medium of communication among scholars. They deserve to be maintained and sustained to scholars across disciplines.

References

Abba, I. A. (2004). University faculty-based journals. InConsolidating the Citadel: Bayero University, Kano (1994-2004) Edited by Attahiru M. Jega, Isa Alkali Abba, and Haruna Wakili. Kano: Centre for Democratic Research and Training Mambayya House, Gwammaja Bayero University, Kano.

Aboyade, B.O. (1978). Nigerian historians and the dissemination of historical information, inJournal of the Historical Society of Nigeria ix: 145-165.

Aina L.O. (1997).Research and writing skills workshop for librarians in Southern Africa: A workshop proposal. Gabone: University of Botswana, p.1-15

Aina, L.O., & Mabawanku, I.N. (1996). Management of scholarly journals in Africa: A success story, African Journal of Library, Archives and Information Science: 6(2): 63-83.

Aina, L.O. (1985). Availability of periodical titles cited in literature of Nigerians scientific research. InNigerian Libraries 10(1) January pp23-27

Akande, O. (1980). Publication of scientific journals in Nigeria: Problems and suggested remedies.Nigerian Libraries 16(1): 82-9.

Iya, J. (2001). TAMBARAI:Kano Journal of Education: The journey so farJournal of Symposium in Education.Available:http://www2.ncsu.edu/aern/jameya.html

Koepf, C. (2001). Serial publications. Available:http://informatic.buffalo.edu/faculty/ellison/syllbi/519Complete/fmat s/serials/serials.htm

MacDonell, K. (1999) Foundations of information technology. Available:http://www_presentations/k_Macdonell.origin.htm

Milne, P. (1999). Electronic access to information and it impact on scholarly communication. Available:http://www.edu.au/special/online99/psroceedings99/305b.htm

Mohammed, A. (2007). The management of academic journals as tools for information dissemination in institutions of higher learning in Kano State. MLS Thesis (Unpublished) Submitted to the Department of Library and Information Sciences, Bayero University, Kano Nigeria.

Myers, A. (1999).Journal of Negro History. InAfricana: The encyclopedia of African and African American experience. Edited by Kwame A. Appiah, Harvard and Henry Louis Gates Jr. -USA: Perseus Books Group p.1069-1072.

Olukoju, A. (2004). The crisis of research and academic publishing in Nigerian universities: The twentieth century and beyond. In African universities in the twenty-first century, Volume II (Knowledge and society). Edited by Paul Tiyambe Zeleza and Adebayo Olukoshi. Dakar Senegal: CODESRIA. pp.363-8.

Olurunsola, R., & Opaleke J.S. (1997). Getting published in library and information science journals: What editors have to say,Library Bulletin Nigerian University Library System 2(1&2): 54-62.

Olurunsola, R. (2001). Book reviews and professional development information: In local and foreign journals,Middle Belt Journals of Library and Information Science 1 (1&2): 113-118

Ornstein, M. (1963). Role of scientific societies in the seventeenth century. London: Archon Books, p. 308-212.

Stilwell, C. (2000). Venturing into academic journal publishing: Some issues and guidelines for new authors,Africa Journal of Library Archives and Information Science 10(2)(October): 167-175.

Treloar, A. (1995). Electronic scholarly publishing and the World Wide Web. Available:http://www.deakin.edu.au/people/aet#publications.html

Wells, A. (1999). Exploring the development of the independent, electronic, scholarly journal. Electronic Dissertations Library: University of Sheffield Department of Information Studies. Unpublished. Available:http://panizzi.shef.ac.uk/elecdiss/edl0001/index.html

Wise, M. (1994). Reports of the IFLA/RTELJ survey of the Library Association and other professional journals in Sub-Saharan Africa in survival under adverse conditions: Proceedings of the African library Science Journals Workshop. The Hague: IFLA. p.7-14

Yahaya I. Y. (1993). Problems facing the production and distribution of learned journals in Nigeria. In Bello, Sule, and Aug, AR (Eds.)Culture and the book industry in Nigeria (Proceedings of Nafest 83 Seminars Maiduguri Borno State) Lagos: National Council for Arts and Culture. p.17-23.

Zaharadeen, M.S. (1992). Opening Address: African Library Science Journals Workshop, Organised by IFLA Round Table of Editors of Library Journals and International Group of the Library Association, UK) Bayero University, Kano January 29-30, 1992. p. 1-4.

Appendix 1. List of Academic Journals Available in Institutions of Higher Learning in Kano State

Institution	Title	Publisher	Active or Ceased
Bayero University, Kano	a) Kano Studies: A journal of Savanna and Sudanic Research (1965	University	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	b) Harsunan Nijeriya (1971)	CSNI/BUK	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	c) The Journal of Education in Africa (1978)	Faculty of Education	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	d) Geography Journal (1978)	Department of Geography	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	e) Ganga: a journal of literature studies (1978)	Department of Nigerian Languages	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	f) Kakaki: a journal of creative writing (1979)	Department of English and European Languages (now English and French)	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	g) Journal of General Studies (1980)	General Studies Department/university	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	h) Gata nan (1980)	Department of Nigerian Languages	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	i) Journal of Tropical Architecture (1981)	Department of Geography	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	j) Nigerian Journal of French Studies (1980)	Department of European Languages now department of English and French	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	k) Dirasatul Arabiyya (1980)	Department of Arabic	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	l) Journal of Social and Management Studies (JOSAM) (1994)	Faculty of Social and Management Science	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	m) Journal of research in health and sports science (1996)	Department of Physical and Health Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	n) FAIS Journal of Humanities (1999)	Faculty of Arts and Islamic Studies	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	o) Bayero Business Review (2003)	Department of Business Administration	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	p) Bayero International Journal of Accounting Research (BIJAR) (2003)	Department of Accounting	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	q) Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) (2001)	Faculty of Technology	The maiden issue is in the process of publishing
Federal College of Education, Kano	r) International Journal of Pure and Applied Science (JOPAS) (2001) now available online @http://www.ijpas.com	Faculty of Sciences	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	s) Kano Journal of Education Studies (1994)	Department of Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	t) Biological and Environmental Sciences Journal for Tropics (BEST) (2004)	Department of Biological Sciences	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	u) International Journal of Adult Education and Community Development Services (JAECS) (2004)	Department of Adult Education and Community Services	The maiden issue is yet out
Federal College of Education, Kano	v) The West African Journal of Language, Literature and Critism: a Multi-Lingual Bi-annual) (WAJLIC) (1999)	Department of Nigerian Languages	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	Bayero Journal of Interdisciplinary studies (2007)	University Based Journal	Active

Institution	Title	Publisher	Active or Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	TAMBARI: Kano Journal of Education (A Journal of Federal College of Education, Kano) (1993)	College Journal	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	Women and Education: A journal of Federal College of Education Association, Kano (FEDWA) (1994)	College Journal	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kano	Nigerian Journal of Educational Research (1998)	School of Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	WAZOBIA (2000)	Department of Nigeria	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	Business, Agric, Home Economic and Fine/applied arts (BAHF) (2001)	School of Vocational Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	Nigerian Journal of Education Services (2002)	School of Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	Nigerian Journal of Educational Review (2002)	School of Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kano	Vocational Renaissance: A Journal of Vocational Education (2202)	School of Vocational Education	Active

Institution	Title	Publisher	Active or Ceased
Kano State College of Education, Kumbotso	Kano Journal of Arts and Social Sciences (1998)	School of Social Sciences	Ceased
Federal College of Education, Kumbotso	Kano Journal of Sciences (2001)	School of Sciences	Active
Federal College of Education, Kumbotso	Kano Journal of Vocational Education (2002/2003)	School of Vocational Education	Active
Federal College of Education, Kumbotso	School of Education department of Educational Psychology and Guidance and Counseling May (2005)		Active

Institution	Title	Publisher	Active or Ceased
Federal College of Education Technical Bichi	Bichi Journal of Education	College Journal	Active

Institution	Title	Publisher	Active or Ceased
Kano State Polytechnic (Central Administration)	TAMA Journal: a Multi disciplinary journal of Kano State Polytechnic	Polytechnic Journal	Active

culled from http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/ahmedmohammed.htm

Experience of Diasporic Nigerians watching Nollywood Films - ADEKUNLE DETOKUNBO-BELLO

2013-06-12T08:51:00.002+01:00

Experience of Diasporic Nigerians watching Nollywood Films
By ADEKUNLE DETOKUNBO-BELLO (London South Bank University, London)

Abstract
Cultural memory occupies an integral part of the diasporic community’s collective media activity in the 21st Century. It is observed that members of these groups demonstrate compassion and pride each time they individually or commonly experienced viewing their traditional films on television, video or at the cinema.
Academic attention has shifted rapidly towards Audience/Reception studies on this area of narratives and cultural forms as a result of this phenomenological development. A prominent example of this is Marie Gillespie (2000) study on how television and video are being used to re-create cultural traditions within the South Asian Diaspora in Southall, London. However, the popularity of ‘Nollywood’ video films – Nigerian Film Industry – amongst diasporic Nigerian- Londoners encouraged the researcher of this paper to develop a fresh investigation on: Why this new cultural narrative genre becomes so famous in London?
What sense does the Nigerian community in London make of these movies? How do they experience the video films? Focus group and interviewing methods serve as instruments for collecting data which involved five different groups of twenty two participants. The empirical research lasted for thirty days. The study purposely focused on Yoruba- Nigerians who are based in South East London being the primary target audience of the researcher. Some of the major outcome of the study as suggested by the participants indicate that the experience of watching these films remind them of ‘home’ and also give them sense of belonging. For instance, someone said, “when I watch them, they make me feel at home”, and another one said “the hairstyles of the actresses, dressing styles and the traditional costumes are great”, and one particularly said “I enjoy the incantations and verbal expressions”. The outcome of the study reflects the existence of cultural influence in the lives of migrants community wherever they find themselves away from their original homeland, if only a way of relieving nostalgic feelings.

culled from http://www2.lse.ac.uk/media@lse/events/MeCCSA/pdf/papers/Detokunbo-Bello,%20Experience%20of%20Diasporic%20Nigerians-new%20year%20day.pdf

The Energy Crisis of Nigeria - An Overview and Implications for the Future

2013-06-10T17:42:00.001+01:00

The Energy Crisis of Nigeria An Overview and Implications for the Future

The Role Of Deposit Insurance In Ensuring Financial System Stability In Nigeria - G. A. OGUNLEYE

2013-06-10T17:39:00.001+01:00

The Constitution Of The Federal Republic Of Nigeria 1979

2013-06-10T17:26:00.001+01:00

Nigerian Constitution 1979 from Location

Combating HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria: Responses from National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)

2013-05-16T13:52:00.002+01:00

Combating HIV/AIDS Epidemic in Nigeria: Responses from National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN)

Terhemba Nom Ambe-Uva
National Open University of Nigeria

Abstract

Universities have come under serious attack because of their lackluster response to HIV/AIDS. This article examines the response of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) and its strategic responses in combating HIV/AIDS epidemic. This is achieved by examining NOUN’s basic structures that position the University to respond to the epidemic; and second, by assessing HIV/AIDS strategies and policy framework the University has put in place. An interpretative epistemological stance was used for this study, and a qualitative research involving focus group discussion (FGD) and analysis of secondary data was carried out. Results showed that NOUN has identified the impact the epidemic has on the university, although it has yet to institutionalize an HIV/AIDS policy. NOUN’s Draft Service Charter, however, has identified the fight against HIV/AIDS as a core mandate of the University, and the introduction of HIV/AIDS certification programs can be viewed as proactive policies in response to the epidemic. Results of this study are discussed in terms of their relevance to future research and the impact such policy frameworks may have on combating the epidemic, both within the University and the wider community.

Keywords: National Open University of Nigeria; HIV/AIDS; epidemic; institutional policy; basic structures; Nigeria

Introduction

The article is part of a larger endeavor, the aim that was to explore the response of National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) in combating the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) epidemic. While an earlier study (Peters & Olugbemiro, 2005) focused on the efficacy of the introduction of Post Graduate Diploma (PGD) program in HIV/AIDS Education and Management at NOUN in fighting the HIV/AIDS epidemic, the study reported here focused on the strength of distance education (DE) in fighting the epidemic. Specifically, it analysed various policy frameworks put in place, and measured both staff and students’ perceptions about the University’s response to HIV/AIDS.

A recent study by Peters and Olugbemiro (2005) shows that the introduction of an HIV/AIDS program at NOUN would contribute to raising the level of awareness in the different segments of the Nigerian society, stimulate research, and create research networks on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. It also notes that the program would facilitate human resource capacity building and support positive behavioral changes. An earlier study by Aderinoye and Ojokheta (2004) investigated the links between DE and HIV/AIDS. This study shows that DE in Nigeria and throughout the continent of Africa is helping to democratize and spread knowledge, even to those living in remote, marginalized, and isolated communities. The Aderinoye and Ojokheta study also acknowledged that DE has helped individuals to acquire basic literacy and arithmetic skills, and in some instances, earn certificates in higher degrees, as well as obtain a multitude of broad-brush education skills that target whole populations (e.g., governance skills, life skills, AIDS education aimed at preventing and reducing its spread, improved farming techniques, etc.).

It is in recognition of the above that the University of Ibadan (a dual mode university) was the first university in Nigeria to establish a Diploma program in HIV/AIDS Education at the Distance Learning Centre to assist in developing the capacity of workers on HIV prevention. This challenge was soon taken over by NOUN (a single mode university) to introduce a postgraduate diploma in HIV/AIDS Education and Management. The success of this program has informed the decision of the University to introduce the program at the diploma level.

In another study, Pridmore and Yates (2006) examined the strengths of open, distance, and flexible education in HIV/AIDS prevention and mitigation. These scholars argue that to confront AIDS and meet Millennium Development Goals in countries where HIV/AIDS is prevalent, governments must go beyond current efforts and accelerate conventional responses. This can be achieved by increasing access and quality of education and schooling, raising public consciousness, and encouraging people to practice healthy behavior, through emerging accessible, flexible, and cost effective DE. Furthermore, growing evidence indicates that in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), a geography where teachers are in short supply and institutional capacity to support teaching training is inadequate; so where new teacher graduates replace those teachers who have fallen victim to the AIDS pandemic, DE remains an effective strategy for teacher training (Aderinoye & Ojokheta, 2004; UNESCO, 2002; 2001; Pridmore & Nduba 2000).

The question that demands our attention here is, ‘To what extent have universities recognized this ‘window of opportunity’ and have included HIV/AIDS not only in their curriculum, but also developed effective institutional policies to combat the epidemic?’ Available evidence suggests that universities are yet to take up this challenge fully. As noted by Kelly (2002), although there has been considerable tinkering around the edges, universities have yet to take the ‘bull by the horn’ to gain control over the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In some cases, universities have undergone what would be the medical equivalent to a botched heart operation. Moreover, none has received the heart transplant that they really need.

This study was conducted to shed light on the following questions:

· 1) How does education influence the HIV/AIDS epidemic? In addition, how has education itself been affected by HIV/AIDS?

· 2) What role can universities play in the fight against HIV/AIDS?

· 3) What efforts have NOUN, a single mode DE university, made in the fight against HIV/AIDS?

Research Approach

This study follows an interpretive and case-based research approach. Walsham and Waema (1994), who noted that the use of a single case as a basis for drawing inferences on a particular area of study is related to an interpretive epistemological stance, illustrate the qualitative and inductive nature of case-based research. Orlikowsi and Baroundi (1991) also maintained that case-based interpretive analysis involves inductive reasoning, which is guided and couched within a theoretical framework, which in turn, leads from the concrete case situation to the social totality beyond the individual case. Stake (1994) has listed the attributes of a case study to include uniqueness, functional specificity, integrated bounded system, and consistency. Noting that case studies can be either qualitative or quantitative, Stake adds that a case study is not a methodological choice, but a choice of objects to study. Given the research questions, the case study design research methodology was selected for this study.

Lincoln and Guba (1985) argue that the primary instrument in qualitative research is human – i.e., the researcher might pose certain problems in evaluating their study’s objectives as the ‘author.’ This situation is what B odker and Pedersen (1991) termed being a ‘cultural insider.’ However, by employing focus discussion groups and analyzing secondary data, it was determined that objectivity could be enhanced, because the focus of the research centered on the validity of the interpretation as distinct from qualitative research, which focus on questions and methods.

Background to the Study

HIV and AIDS constitute one of the biggest threats to the global agenda. HIV/AIDS have been noted to imperil not only humankind, but also humankind’s institutions. In short, HIV/AIDS undermines the very institutions that are designed to protect communities (UNESCO, 2000a), including educational institutions. Indeed, the epidemic is presenting enormous challenges to the higher education sector by weakening demand for – and access to – education by depleting institutional and human capacity, reducing availability of financial resources, and by impeding the delivery of quality education (UNESCO, 2006). Nonetheless, the World Education Forum, held in Dakar in April 2000, noted that a key objective of any international strategy must be to realize the enormous potential that the education system offers as a vehicle to help reduce the incidence of HIV/AIDS and to alleviate its impact on society (UNESCO, 2000a). Growing evidence indicates that education is one of the best defenses against HIV infection, because it equips young people with invaluable tools that increase self-confidence, social and negotiation skills, to improve earning capacity and family well-being, which in turn, fights poverty and promotes social progress.

Across 15 countries surveyed in Round 2 of the ‘Afrobarometer,’ (see http://www.afrobarometer.org/) evidence indicates that large proportions of Africa’s people have either lost family or friends to AIDS, or suffer under the burdens of AIDS by caring for sick family members or orphans (Afrobarometer, 2004). In most of these countries cited in the Afrobarometer, the HIV prevalence rate exceeds five percent, numbers that indicates that the epidemic is now undermining every aspect of society, including families, health, education, industry, and economic development (Kelly, 2003).

According to Piot (cited in Katjavivi & Otaala, 2003), education is at the core of one of the great challenges facing humanity, namely winning the fight against AIDS. Education is life sustaining because it gives children and young people the life-skills and tools they need to carve out their lives. Clearly, education is a lifelong source of comfort, renewal, and strength for people. Piot also noted that the world’s goals in promoting ‘Education for All’ and in turning back the AIDS epidemic are mutually dependent. Without education, AIDS will continue to spread. If AIDS remains out of control, education will be out of reach. The focus of this study is placed on the synergy between distance education and HIV/AIDS.

Education and HIV infection

Studies by Vandemoortele and Delamonica (2002) show the inverse association between disease burden and the level of education that exists for most infectious diseases. The incidence of malaria and cholera, for instance, are known to be negatively associated with the level of education – those who know less about malaria and cholera are more apt to become infected. For HIV/AIDS, however, there may be an exception during its initial introduction into a society because of its main propagation channel, but further down the road, the ‘education vaccine’ theory works. Indeed, it is often said that people ‘who wear a tie, do not die of cholera.’ Combined with macroeconomic policies, education is a key tool in promoting social wellbeing and contributing to poverty reduction. This is because education directly affects national productivity, which in turn determines overall living standards and a country’s ability to compete in the global economy (Krueger & Mikael, 2000). Investment in education is vital simply because it helps countries, like Nigeria, to achieve six of the eight-millennium development goals: 1) poverty reduction, 2) access to universal primary education, 3) gender equality, 4) reduced infant mortality, 5) improved maternal health, and 6) lower prevalence of HIV/AIDS. Making education available to both genders, boys and girls alike, has been proven to provide protection against HIV infection (World Bank, 1999). Evidence that education itself protects against HIV is strong. Data from the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the epidemic was just emerging, shows a positive correlation between the level of education and rates of infection. Kelly (2000) in a study in Zimbabwe found a marked decline in HIV prevalence rates in 15-19 year old males and females with a medium to higher-level education, compared to increases among those with lower educational levels.

Education is a central tool required to reduce the social and economic vulnerability of women. Evidence shows that education aimed specifically at girls and women can slow and even reverse the spread of HIV. Education does this by arming women with valuable life and decision-making skills – which all contribute to poverty reduction, gender equality, personal empowerment, and increased awareness of human rights issues. Women can then pass on to their children, partners, and friends these valuable skills and knowledge. Education enables women’s economic independence by delaying marriage, proactive family planning, and by increasing their ability to engage in paid work to support themselves and their families (UNAIDS, 2000; Gregson, Waddell, & Chandiwana, 2001).

The Impact of HIV Infection on Education

HIV/AIDS has had a pronounced affect on both the supply and demand for education. The epidemic can affect the performance of educators through increased deaths, absence, and the financial and emotional burden they face in caring for relatives and friends stricken by AIDS. For instance, it has been shown that the death of one teacher deprives a whole classroom of children. In 1999 alone, an estimated 860,000 children in SSA lost teachers to AIDS (Kelly, 2000b). In a recent survey in Nigeria, it was discovered that illness (of one’s self, relatives, or friends) combined with attending funerals, accounted for more teachers’ reported work absences than any other reason ( Ssengonzi, Schlegel, Anyamele & Olson, 2004). Death and illness are thus affecting education sector administrators, finance and planning officials, inspectors, and managers in many countries. These losses represent the loss of sector knowledge, and holds major negative consequences.

Table 1. School administrators’ reasons cited for the number of days missed

The impact of the epidemic on the demand for education is less clear, however. While Africa’s school age population will be smaller, it will nonetheless continue to grow. AIDS mortality does not have its primary effect on school-age children. And while an estimated 3.8 million children have been infected since the epidemic began, more than two-thirds have died. UNAIDS reports that in 1999, 570,000 children under 14 died of AIDS, the vast majority of them in SSA (UNAIDS, 2000). During this same time frame, approximately four times as many adults (age 15 to 49) died of AIDS. This fundamentally generates a cohort of AIDS orphans (a huge population that will require education) which will be put a further at risk of infection and death. In terms of monetary impact, HIV/AIDS is estimated to add between US $450 million and $550 million per year (US dollar values for 2000) to the cost of achieving the mandate set out in ‘Education For All’ (UNESCO, n.d.) in 33 African countries. This implies that the epidemic increases the total ‘Education For All’ financing gap for the countries by about one-third (World Bank, 2002).

HIV/AIDS and Universities

When a society needs to face a problem, it typically turns to its schools and asks what they are doing about it. In the context of HIV/AIDS, schools are expected not only to teach, but also instill in their students the skills, knowledge, and values that promote safe behaviors in order to protect themselves against HIV infection. Yet, there are more challenges to these responses from the universities, which themselves are not HIV-free. Kelly (2003) argues that despite the high prevalence of HIV/AIDS inside university populations (i.e., staff and students), it is apparent they have no institutionalized response to slow the scourge. Indeed, formal responses to the epidemic have not yet been integrated into their core operations. Universities instead are slow to react simply because they are embracing a ‘hush-up’ response to the epidemic.

A growing body of literature, however, shows that it is imperative that universities implement systemic institutional responses to stem the epidemic (Kelly, 2003; Katjavivi & Otaala, 2003; ACU, 2001; Anarfi, 2000; Mwape & Kathuria, 2000). Listed below are nine reasons that outline the demand for universities to reposition themselves to respond to this growing epidemic:

· 1) No university is immune to the disease

· 2) The disease has the potential to impair institutional functioning

· 3) The long lead time between initial HIV infection and the development of AIDS has major implications for universities

· 4) Their mandate of ‘service to society’ demands the engagement of every university to fight HIV/AIDS

· 5) Universities have a special responsibility for the development of human resources

· 6) Universities are crucial agents of change and provide leadership to effect such social change

· 7) Universities must be at the forefront in developing deeper understandings of HIV/AIDS

· 8) HIV/AIDS raises a host of complex moral, ethical, human rights, and legal issues that cry out for the kind of knowledge, understanding, and insights that universities are specially equipped to provide

· 9) HIV/AIDS is not a passing phenomenon, but one that is likely to negatively impact society for the remainder of this century

Recent literature shows that African universities are coming to the realization that HIV/AIDS is real and that death is now a daily reality for their staff, their students, and the communities they serve. Pioneering efforts by the Association of African Universities (AAU), the Association of Commonwealth Universities (ACU), and the South African Universities of Vice-Chancellors Association (SAUVCA), have impressed upon African universities the need to adopt a holistic response to the epidemic within their institutions and across the entire higher education sector. The Working Group on Higher Education (WGHE) for the Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA) decided to undertake case studies that examine the ways HIV/AIDS affects several universities in Africa, and to document these universities’ particular responses and coping mechanisms. Out of these case studies emerged a synthesis entitled ‘Challenging the Challenger: Understanding and expanding the response of universities in Africa to HIV/AIDS’ (Kelly, 2001). This report acknowledges that a thick cloak of ignorance surrounds the presence of the disease in the universities – a cloak of death that is lined with layers of secrecy, silence, denial, and fear of stigmatization and discrimination.

Responses from the Educational Sector in Nigeria

The above challenge from Kelly (2001) has spurred many African universities and the larger educational sector to respond to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In Nigeria, the Educational Research Network for West and Central Africa contains elaborate review of policy and research documents for the educational sector’s response to the epidemic. The alarming spread of HIV/AIDS, which saw the prevalence rate skyrocket from 1.8 percent in 1998 to 5.8 percent in 2001, compelled the Nigerian Government to shift its mechanisms and strategies to prevent the spread of HIV, mitigate its consequences, and provide care and support for those living with, or affected by, AIDS. It is within this context that education was identified as a central method for achieving the requisite behaviorial changes needed to stem the epidemic, both inside and outside the classroom. Consequently, the first national workshop on HIV/AIDS and education organized by UNESCO and Federal Ministry of Education (FME) with support from UNAIDS and UK’s Department for International Development, was held in Abuja, Nigeria, with the aim of identifying appropriate preventive education response to HIV/AIDS challenges in Nigeria (Ohiri-Anichi & Odukoya, 2004). As a demonstration of its commitment to addressing the epidemic on continental Africa, Nigeria hosted the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) Summit on HIV/AIDS in June 2001, during which the Abuja Declaration (2001) was made.

The Nigerian government also established an elaborate multi-sector response that focuses on prevention, treatment, and intervention. It established the Presidential Council on AIDS and the National Action Committee on AIDS, the latter comprised representatives from the Presidency, Federal Ministry of Health, Federal Ministry of Education, Federal Ministry of Youths and Sports, Federal Ministry of Finance, and other relevant federal, state, and local parastatals, NGOs, and international organizations working on HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. The HIV/AIDS Emergency Action Plan, coordinated by National Action Committee on AIDS, is the country’s current HIV/AIDS policy.

Tangible efforts have since been recorded by the educational sector in Nigeria in prevention, treatment, and intervention. A few worth mentioning in this study are:

· a) The Federal Ministry of Education has a full-fledged HIV/AIDS Unit, which supervises and coordinates all HIV/AIDS activities in Nigeria’s schools

· b) Following the approval of the National Council on Education in March 1999 at its 46th session for the incorporation of sex education into Nigeria’s national school curriculum, the Nigerian Educational Research and Development Council (NERDC) collaborated with other government agencies, NGOs, and UN agencies, to develop curriculum on sex education. Sex education is deemed critical in helping young people acquire adequate knowledge, skills, and responsible attitudes, needed to prevent sexually transmitted infections, including HIV/AIDS.

· c) In 2002, the National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) in collaboration with UNICEF introduced a peer education program entitled, ‘Empowering Youth through Young People.’ The objective of this program was to reach new graduates of university programs serving the one-year compulsory NYSC program with reproductive health and HIV/AIDS messages, train some to be trainers themselves, and for all to act as ‘peer educators’ in and out of school.

· d) Many NGOs, faith-based organizations, and educational institutions have been active in outreach programs, setting up youth counseling centers, promotion of behavior change via radio and television programming, peer education, discussions, awareness, and so forth.

· e) eUNESCO supported the establishment of a Preventive Education Unit at the National Teachers Institute (NTI), Kaduna (another single mode DE institution in Nigeria), to assist in the training of teachers in HIV/AIDS.

· f) In 2003, the National Institute for Educational Planning and Development (NIEPA) held two seminars in Abuja and Ondo to accelerate Nigeria’s educational sector’s response to HIV/AIDS pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa. The objectives of these seminars was to develop managerial capacity, prevention, planning and impact mitigation, and facilitate access to education for vulnerable children and orphans.

· g) In 2003, National Universities Commission/UNESCO/ National Action Committee on AIDS, established ‘Youth Friendly Centers’ in three universities: Ahmadu Bello University Zaria, University of Nigeria Nsukka, and University of Ibadan.

· h) The MacArthur Foundation grant funding to Nigerian universities such as University of Ibadan, Bayero University Kano, and others, to support and strengthen their human capital, institutional facilities, and university systems. The Foundation and the Association of African Universitis, gave the University of Ibadan, to conduct a ‘situation analysis’ of HIV/AIDS and the development of HIV/AIDS policy. AUU has since extended this grant to University of Ilorin.

· i) The National Universities Commission and UNESCO introduced HIV/AIDS training program for all staff of educational institutions in SSA, including primary, secondary, universities, polytechnics/tecnikons, and colleges of education. This program specifically targets teachers and teacher-trainers involved in the delivery of basic and higher education in Africa.

· j) Nigerian universities have also benefited from the initiative from African universities Training of Trainers Course (TOT) involving the UNDP and University of Natal for three individuals from each of 31 African universities identified on HIV/AIDS and development. The overall aim of TOT is to contribute to the prevention of HIV/AIDS amongst students and staff within a broader vision/framework designed to address issues of prevention, care and mitigation of the pandemic. The specific aims include: 1) train academic staff in methodology and methods of curriculum development and teaching HIV/AIDS; 2) empower university teachers to integrate HIV/AIDS into their own teaching and provide similar training to colleagues; and 3) enhance research related to HIV/AIDS within the university and among other related stakeholders.

· k) Some Nigerian universities have developed and implemented systematic programs to fight HIV/AIDS through the development of HIV/AIDS curriculum for inclusion in a compulsory general studies course.

As commendable as these efforts from the educational sector are, the former Minister of Education, O. Ezekwesili (2007), stated that HIV/AIDS requires imaginative and creative solutions, which demand that the regulatory agencies, the National Action Committee on AIDS, and the educational sector to think outside-the-box. Nigeria’s universities, therefore, are being called upon to show more commitment through the development of a comprehensive HIV/AIDS policies designed to fight HIV/AIDS.

National Open University of Nigeria: Background

The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is the only single mode, distance education university in Nigeria. The University was established on July 22, 1983, by the Open University Act, which subsists in the Law of the Federation of Nigeria (1980) Appendix III. After being closed for several years, the University was re-opened in 2002, and renamed the National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN). NOUN was re-launched upon Nigeria’s realization that distance education was becoming an increasingly important policy option for developing countries (Ambe-Uva, 2006). The adoption of distance education is a “. . . process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by ‘someone’ removed in space and time from the learner. The link between that ‘someone’ and the learner is therefore necessarily provided by different means of communication and instruction” (Perraton, 2001, p. 79).

A special case for the sustenance of an open university system in developing countries – and especially Nigeria – was made by Jegede (2007). Jegede noted that “ Nigeria is an enigma, displaying a glaring contrast of development and inadequacies cohabiting side by side in many spheres of life.” The inadequacies Jegede identified include:

· Using the human development index (HDI) (an index used to measure a country’s performance on four key indicators: life expectancy, GNP per capita, gross primary school enrolment, and access to safe water) Nigeria ranked 151 of 174 nations.

· Nigeria, described as country ‘too rich to be poor,’ is a land of abounding poverty with more than 70 percent of Nigerians living on less than US $1 a day.

· Nigeria, since independence, has been known for its quality education and its versatile, mobile, and exceptional people. Despite its ‘wealth,’ over 55 percent of Nigeria’s population is illiterate, while another 10 percent remain illiterate due to declining quality in education, or lack of access they need to acquire new skills, after their primary school education has ended.

Nigeria’s current context, therefore, is fertile soil for distance education to take root and thrive. Nigeria is currently characterized by population growth, growing demand for education, dwindling of financial resources, increasing fiscal constraints – all conditions that obstruct Nigerian’s access to basic and higher education. NOUN aims to meet Nigerian’s demand for higher education without compromising quality. Nonetheless, the majority of Nigerian people remain marginalized and hard to reach, that is the poor, illiterate, women, and those living in remote areas. Considering that Nigeria boast of 131.5 million citizens, with an HDI of 0.453, of which 52.2 percent live in rural areas (ADB, 2006:93-94), it is easy to see and to conclude that Nigeria needs to increase access to basic and higher education provisions for its people.

Table 2. Selected basic demographic and education indicators for Nigeria

Table 2 shows that uncertain health outcomes await Nigerian youths. Indeed, one-third of Nigeria’s population lives on less than US 1$ a day, and they lack human development (<0 .5000="" 2004="" a="" according="" achievement="" adjusted="" and="" attainment="" country="" development="" educational="" expectancy="" given="" human="" in="" income.="" index="" is="" life="" measurement="" o:p="" of="" real="" s="" terms="" the="" to="" undp="" which="">

Behind South Africa, Nigeria ranks second with the highest number of persons living with HIV/AIDS in SSA. At the end of 2003, approximately 5.4 percent of Nigerian in the age range of 15-49 were HIV-positive, an increase from 1.8 percent 15 years ago (FMOH, 2001; UNAIDS, 2004). Nigeria also has one of the fastest growth rates of new HIV infections and AIDS cases in West Africa. HIV/AIDS has now reached epidemic proportions in Nigeria, having already crossed the threshold of five percent. This means AIDS will soon be the leading cause of adult morbidity and mortality among those age 15-49, arguably the most productive people needed to support any society. This reality will have a devastating impact on all facets of Nigeria’s socio-economic fiber, and will hinder Nigeria’s progress in education – the very tool that Nigeria needs to teach its people and thus stem the spread of HIV/AIDS.

This epidemic’s impact is far reaching. At time of writing, HIV/AIDS is the world’s fourth largest killer, but it ranks number one in SSA (UNAIDS, 2002). In 2002, the region is home to only 7.5 percent of the world’s population, yet it accounts for nearly 70 percent of those living with HIV/AIDS, 70 percent of incident HIV infections, and 77 percent of the AIDS deaths (UNAIDS/WHO, 2002). As of 2002, approximately 29.4 million in SSA between ages 15 to 49 were living with HIV/AIDS, a staggering figure of nine percent of the adult population (UNAIDS/WHO, 2002). Whereas life expectancy in the sub-continent increased from 44 years in the 1950s to 59 years in the early 1990s, it plunged to 49 years and is projected to drop even further as the disease spreads (UNDP, 2000a). According to the World Health Organization (WHO, 2002), life expectancy in the region would currently be 62 years if it had not been for the HIV/AIDS epidemic. This means that Nigerian’s reduced life expectancy holds serious implications on the health and functioning of Nigeria’s universities.

Table 3. Life expectancy with and without AIDS in selected African countries

With the gloomy picture painted above, what basic structures does NOUN possesses that will position it to address the HIV/AIDS epidemic? How is NOUN positioned to deal with the epidemic within the university itself? And how can NOUN be of ‘service’ to the community it serves?

Basic Structures in Noun

The University has embraced a ‘learner-centered’ approach to learning. A learner-centered educational process is a departure from the conventional teaching and learning culture, in that one now employs a wide range of tools to effect learning outcomes. These tools recognize and are designed to support self-learning. They include printed course materials, tutor marked assignments, self assessment exercises and feedback systems, radio and television broadcasts, audio and video tapes, CDRoms, help from tutors, and individualized counseling and help, via telephone, facsimile, or electronic mail. These tools enable remote distant delivery to an ever increasing number of learners, despite physical distances.

Equally important, in a relatively large country such as Nigeria, the University’s geographic penetration of 18 study centers in 2003, to 27 study centers in 2007, shows that NOUN now services some of remotest the regions in Nigeria. It also shows the geographic extent to which the epidemic can attack the University, especially if concerted efforts are not made to stem the epidemic. As of 2007, NOUN has 35,000 students enrolled and is projected to grow to more than 100,000 by the year’s end (Jegede, 2007). The University is therefore an essential means of meeting the needs of Nigerians who, for reasons of distance, work or family commitment, cannot otherwise engage in educational opportunities. In other words, the University reaches people in communities in which they would otherwise be deprived of opportunities to learn. Moreover, NOUN’s expansion of its service area is expected to make a significant contribution in stemming the epidemic by increasing people’s access to education. Moreover, NOUN’s educational programmes are designed in such a way as to enable people to start applying what they have learned immediately (Jegede, 2003).

Table 4. Regional Distribution of NOUN Study Centers

The University also strives to ensure that those educated will remain in their local communities, thereby reducing localized unemployment rates which, in turn, will help to alleviate rural poverty, increase literacy, and hopefully stimulate and invigorate local economies (Jegede 2003).

The main strength of the University is that it is a fundamental tool needed to break the vicious cycle of poverty that has gripped many areas of Nigeria. NOUN aims to achieve this goal by increasing access to affordable, yet quality education that transcends all barriers.

Efforts of NOUN in Fighting HIV/AIDS

The University’s response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic is guided by NOUN’s Draft Strategic Plan (January, 2005 to December, 2009). This plan identifies the need to provide effective strategies to combat the epidemic, not only within the University itself, but to all the communities it serves. Even before the plan was drafted, however, NOUN was mobilizing against the scourge. In 2004, the School of Science and Technology organized a workshop on HIV/AIDS awareness. This workshop created awareness that underscored the fact that if left unchecked, HIV could very well impair the functioning of the University’s workforce.

Table 5. Economic impact of HIV/AIDS on NOUN’s workforce

The Draft Strategic Plan contains two areas related to fighting HIV/AIDS epidemic. First, the University mandate is to foster a conducive working environment for staff, students, and visitors. It will achieve this by embarking on internal training and retraining. Second, the Draft Strategic Plan spells out that the University must utilize its resources to enhance community development. Emphasis has been placed on the provision of educational opportunities for marginalized groups (i.e., youth and women), which is necessary to help them acquire relevant skills to deal with the HIV/AIDS epidemic.

Table 6. Selected sections of NOUN’s Strategic Plan related to HIV/AIDS

While the University is certainly on the right track, it must remain committed to the goals and targets set. For instance, while the HIV/AIDS policy is expected to be ready at the time of writing, that deadline has come and gone. For a young institution like NOUN, such a delay can be pardoned. Yet as NOUN extends its institutional reach and increases its enrolment, such a delay could mean that opportunities are being missed, that NOUN is not addressing the epidemic in a timely manner. The development of an institutional policy on HIV/AIDS should be on the front burner of the University’s plan of action. As noted by Saint (2004), a written institutional policy provides explanation for internal decisions and legitimacy for actions taken in the process of AIDS control and prevention. Such a policy, however, can only be as effective as the leadership that owns and supports it. Luckily, NOUN does not need to start from the scratch, as a major resource for preparing an institutional HIV/AIDS response can be found in the work of Chetty (2004), and the guidelines developed by ACU (2002). In addition, the Paris-based International Institute for Educational Planning has established a reference clearing house on AIDS and education (see http://hivaidsclearinghouse.unesco.org/ev/php). These can serve as reference documents for Universities engaged in drafting institutional policies on HIV/AIDS.

Since the University has yet to formally institutionalize an HIV/AIDS policy, staff and students response during a recent focus discussion group (FDG) indicated a lack of commitment on the part of staff and students, and a discontinuation in awareness and workshops. For instance, most staff (FDG-A) employed at NOUN after 2004 admitted that they have never heard about or discussed HIV/AIDS at the office. The staff focus group indicated that the University must adopt a scientific approach towards the fight against HIV/AIDS, because ‘prose alone’ – namely rhetoric – will not solve the problem. The freshmen (FDG-B) focus group noted that the HIV/AIDS program was not integrated into the students’ curriculum. The freshmen in this focus group admitted, however, that open dialogue between NOUN and students can facilitate this process. Lastly, the focus group comprised of students who have spent a minimum of two semesters at NOUN (FDG-C) either ignorantly – or apathetically – indicated that they do not need more education about the disease. One telling response was, “We do not have a student union, and our study groups are not only inept, but grossly inadequate to discuss with the university authority.”

Table 7. Focus Group Responses

The focus groups responses buttress the investigation made by the ADEA on Universities in Africa, and what the AAU synthesis report confirms to be true. Both acknowledged that universities in Africa have little knowledge about their HIV/AIDS status, and do not consider the epidemic as being relevant to their institution’s guiding mission and vision, and the challenges it faces. These reports also argued that no rigorous impact assessments by the universities themselves have been undertaken, and in cases where there are pockets of assessments, they are sporadic and uncoordinated responses that rely heavily on the initiative of concerned staff or students. This fact is frustrating efforts to ‘mainstream’ the institutional response across Africa’s universities, which in turn, limits understanding of the need to institutionalize such needed responses, thereby creating a vicious cycle of reification. And in many cases, uncertain leadership by top management is at the root of the problem (UNESCO, 2006).

NOUN has a Post-Graduate Diploma (PGD) in HIV/AIDS Education and Management, which aims at providing students with in-depth knowledge in HIV/AIDS education and management. NOUN delivers this diploma via open and distance learning. The program is designed to raise the level of awareness of different segments of the Nigerian society to the reality of HIV/AIDS epidemic, by stressing the need for education and management of this fatal disease. Specifically, the program seeks to:

· a) Increase awareness and sensitization among the general population and strategically target stakeholders

· b) Develop institutional and national capacity to cope with the training, knowledge sharing, and management, required to educate Nigerians about HIV/AIDS

· c) Enable the students to be very resourceful and possesses broader scope of knowledge in HIV/AIDS

· d) Equip students with relevant skills they need to impart knowledge professionally to people they serve

· e) Equip students with relevant skills needed to impart healthy habits to target populations

· f) Equip students with counseling abilities, so they can have a more positive influence to those infected with the HIV/AIDS virus

As noted by Peters and Olugbemiro (2005), however, the program is currently being ‘patronized’ mostly by those already working in the healthcare sector. If the objectives of the program are to be realized, there must be a shift in clienteles and this can be achieved by adopting a more rigorous approach for marketing the program, that targets audiences beyond healthcare practitioners.

In addition, in recognition of the special needs of distance learners, NOUN has established the Directorate of Learner Support Services (DLSS). The DLSS plays a supportive role and provides the much needed people, structures, and environment for both students and staff. The director also serves as the intermediary between students and the institution. Student counselors are important arm of NOUN’s Learner Support Services. Apart from supporting students through their academic work, Learner Support Services provides counseling and guidance related to Sexuality Education, HIV/AIDS awareness, Peer Education, and other professional consultations to staff and students who are engaged in distance education. Counselors are also responsible for keeping in touch with distance learners, and provide ‘early warning signals’ regarding difficulties with studies and behavioral problems. NOUN has since pushed ahead of conventional universities, through its provision of two counselors for each NOUN study centre, a move that was recently applauded by the Nigerian Psychological Association (NPA).

There is also a growing number of published and unpublished research works on HIV/AIDS in NOUN. Some of those dedicated individuals who have researched and published works in this area come from NOUN’s School of Education, Directorate of Examinations and Evaluation, and the Vice-Chancellery. An institutional effort, however, needs to be put in place by the Regional Training and Research Institute for Open and Distance Learning (RETRIDAL) to promote research on the nexus between HIV/AIDS and the distance mode of learning.

Despite these invaluable efforts, in the absence of a holistic HIV/AIDS policy, the efforts of the University in the realm of teaching, research, and services can become sporadic, uncoordinated, and reliant on the initiatives of a few dedicated staff and students (UNESCO, 2006). NOUN must also build a bridge to link and coordinate with the university’s internal environment with its external environments where the virus is flourishing and gaining an upper hand. In an environment that traditionally fosters discussion and debate, challenges timeworn ways of thinking and being, and offers responses to some of society’s most pressing concerns, NOUN is in a good position to ask much needed questions about the epidemic and explore ways in which distance education can be used to create a difference in the fight against HIV/AIDS.

Observations show that NOUN has identified the impact that HIV/AIDS has had, and will continue to have, on society. Identifying a problem does not guarantee a solution, however. Diagnosis and prognosis are only the first steps in the right direction. Therefore, this article urgently calls for the institutionalization of a policy framework for a comprehensive response addressing prevention, treatment, care, and social support.

Conclusion

As the HIV/AIDS epidemic continues to spread in Nigeria, the emerging literature on HIV and education seems to have reached the consensus that HIV/AIDS can both have a devastating impact on education and can be positively impacted by education. It also shows that distance education can respond flexibly to the needs of working adults to help them obtain the training they need and to provide opportunities for even the most disadvantaged populations (Pridmore & Yates, 2006; Pridmore & Nduba, 2000).

Furthermore, it has been shown that the capacity of open and distance learning to support large-scale campaigns – i.e., HIV/AIDS education – is significant in the context of continuing education (UNESCO, 2002).

This article attempts to provide a systematic approach to universities’ response to the epidemic, using NOUN as a case study. Although the issue of universities’ response to the epidemic began to draw attention from scholars and commentators (Kelly, 2003; Katjavivi & Otaala, 2003; ACU, 2001; Mwape & Kathuria, 2000), these studies tended to centre on the institutional efficacy of universities. Whereas the current literature informs us of the need for universities to advance the frontiers of knowledge in the fight against HIV/AIDS, this paper places the research issue into a much narrower perspective by considering NOUN’s basic structures, which naturally better positions it to fight this destructive epidemic. This research strategy generated insightful findings, some of which have been reported here. Findings show that within a few years of establishment, NOUN had already committed itself to the fight against HIV/AIDS via workshops and awareness creation, and had put in place Learner Support Services, where student counselors provide knowledge to students about HIV/AIDS and behavioral change, and has introduced a PGD program in HIV/AIDS Education and Management. NOUN’s failure to institutionalize its HIV/AIDS policy, however, shows that it has not addressed HIV and AIDS in depth and scope, even though its structure as a distance education provider positions it better to wage such a war. Failure to take a leadership role may also endanger NOUN, considering the number of students it serves and it far flung geographical distribution and impact. Findings also suggest that NOUN has not yet made concerted efforts to provide knowledge about HIV/AIDS among its own staff and students, although its PGD program is instructive and a positive step forward. Across Africa, studies have repeatedly shown that universities have been inept in the fight against HIV/AIDS, and most have made very little effort to draw-up a policy framework that adequately addresses the epidemic (ACU, 2001; Kelly, 2003). Clearly, new policy initiatives concerning these issues are needed (ACU, 2002). In considering these initiatives, it would be helpful to consider five key components:

1. Responsibility of staff and students

2. Provision of prevention, care, and support services

3. Employment policy

4. Enrolment policy

5. Integration of HIV/AIDS education into teaching, research, services, and activities in all schools, centers, institutes, units, and departments

It is important to introduce a caveat in conclusion. Institutionalizing an HIV and AIDS response in NOUN would require it to do much more than just producing high quality research and supporting peer education and awareness raising campaigns. It will require serious self-reflection and analysis on the impact the epidemic can have on NOUN – specifically the extent student and staff illness and death can have on the inner workings of the institution, and how this will affect the ‘supply and demand’ side in NOUN’s provision of quality education. Moreover, will NOUN be able to keep in place the much needed mechanism required to provide prevention, care, and support services to its staff, students, and the surrounding community it serves (UNESCO, 2006).

References

Abuja Declaration (2001, April). Abuja declaration on HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and other related infectious diseases. Retrieved November 13, 2007 from:http://www.uneca.org/ADF2000/Abuja%20Declaration.htm

ACU (2002). Commonwealth Universities in the Age of HIV/AIDS: Guidelines towards a strategic response and good practice. London: Association of Commonwealth Universities.

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Academic Libraries in Nigeria in the 21st Century

2013-05-16T13:39:00.000+01:00

Bappah Magaji Abubakar

Department of Library and Information Science,

Bayero University, Kano-Nigeria

P.M.B. 3011, Kano

Introduction

Nigeria is the most populous country in Africa that is geographically and well located on the West African coast. It has a great diversity in the area of its natural components that comprises of varied topography, climatic conditions as well as vegetational patterns. With a population of 140 million people, Nigeria is the largest country in Africa and accounts for 47 percent of West Africa’s population (World Bank, 2010). In terms of land mars it covers an area of about 924, 000km and is bordered on the north by the Niger Republic, on the east by Chad and Cameroon, on the south by the Gulf of Guinea, and on the west by the Republic of Benin (Diso, 2005). Nigeria is blessed with abundant natural resources that spread across its 36 states as well as its Federal Capital Territory (FCT), Abuja.

Nigeria has a number of universities attached with academic libraries. At present there are about eighty nine (89) universities in Nigeria (Lawal, 2007). Also there are a number of polytechnics and colleges all attached with academic libraries. Nigeria’s university system is been supervised by the National Universities Commission (NUC), a parastatal body under the Federal Ministry of Education; while the National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) and the National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) supervises polytechnics and colleges respectively.

Academic libraries are libraries attached to tertiary institutions such as universities, polytechnic institutions, colleges of education, colleges of agriculture, colleges of technology and also research institutes (Akporhonor, 2005). Singh and Kaur (2009) stressed that preservation and access to knowledge and information is the main mandate of academic libraries along side supporting the mission of their parent institutions which is teaching and research.

Academic libraries are at the forefront of providing information services to their respective communities which comprises of students, lecturers, and researchers in order to support their teaching, learning and research needs. Scholars have emphasized on the crucial role of academic libraries in research and scholarship in institutions of higher learning. Many a times academic libraries are referred to as the heart or nerve centres of institutions of higher learning where all academic activities revolved.

Paradigm Shift in Academic Library Services

With the advent of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs), the role and position of libraries has dramatically changed. Etim (2004) cited in Okon (2005) observes that the rapid pace of development in the field of information technology and the advent of networked information services have prompted a comprehensive review of the Library and Information Sciences (LIS) profession. The global trend is now characterized with a fundamental shift from traditional information environment to an e-environment where emphasis is placed more on the acquisition of e-resources such as e-books, e-journals as well as online databases. However, traditional library and information services and functions are still relevant.

Today, the contemporary practice in academic library services in the 21st century is being propelled with an information explosion, and the inclusion of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in all aspects of library services. Kumar (2009) notes that academic libraries are changing dramatically by adopting new means of technology in all activities of print to e-environment where a variety of manual method, are replaced by computerized system which provides opportunity for online accessibility.

Libraries are now expected to provide to users a range of information and communication technologies necessary for retrieving information quickly from both immediate and remote databases, as well as creating a need for library cooperation and consortium initiatives (Okiy, 2005)

The present-day academic library services in the 21st century is focusing more on the area of digital, virtual or libraries without borders all of which have transformed academic libraries and led to transition and transformation in the academic library environment. The transition and the transformation are accompanied with sophistication in the changing pattern in the information needs of users which is growing rapidly. Singh and Kaur (2009) observed that there is a paradigm shift from stand alone libraries to library and information networks; from printed publications to digital documents; and from ownership to access. The transition according to them is as a result of the impact of ICTs, the Internet and the web which is affecting all types of libraries.

Developments in ICTs have now offered academic libraries an exciting and challenging opportunities that requires them to respond positively in all facets of their services and functions if they are to remain relevant in the 21st century. Thus, academic libraries must devise means of survival.

Academic Libraries Situation in Nigeria

Academic libraries in Nigeria are at a crossroads. This is because they are operating in an era of dwindling finances where resources (financial and materials) are not forthcoming. Nigerian academic libraries derive the greater part of their funds from the government (both Federal and State). Okiy (2005) notes that of all the different types of libraries in Nigeria, only university libraries have a clearly defined policy of funding, because they are allocated 10% of the recurrent annual budget of their parent institutions. However, it is regrettable that such monies are not forthcoming as most university administrators tend to flout that decision (Okiy, 2005; Yetunde, 2008)

The situation in private universities also tends to portray a gloomy picture as the story seems to be the same. Yetunde (2008) observed that in most private universities in Nigeria the founder and the board of trustees usually determine the share of university library’s budget which in most instances is not adequate. This ugly situation affects the efficiency and effectiveness of their functions.

However, despite the not so encourage situation in terms of funding, recent efforts made in the area of Internet and ICTs in academic libraries in Nigeria has been reported in the literature (Womboh and Abba, 2008; Fatoki, 2005; Etim, 2006; Ani et al, 2005) where academic libraries made series of attempts to adopt the technologies for improved services. Although despite the efforts, very little success has been recorded. A lot still needs to be done.

Providing current awareness services to an ICT driven target academic community requires dynamic, innovative, timely and adequate communication technologies (Fatoki, 2005). However, most academic libraries in Nigeria are severely constrained by a number of factors that includes erratic internet services, lack of hardware and software and in most instances the non-availability of the said ICTs in most academic libraries.

Besides, there is difficulty in the importation of books and journals from abroad due to the high rise in foreign exchange. This has deterred many academic libraries from acquiring current and relevant titles that will support the academic programmes of their parent institutions. Thus the efforts of most academic libraries in providing modern information services is thwarted by the existence of the aforementioned problems whose genesis is that of inadequate funding. Also IT literacy among academic librarians in most libraries is still at the peripheral level. Nok (2006) observed that many staff of university libraries are not computer literate as such they find it difficult to cope with the requirements of the electronic age.

However, the recent establishment of digital libraries in three (3) universities in Nigeria i.e. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria (A.B.U.); University of Lagos; and the University of Nigeria Nsukka (UNN) by the MTN Nigeria, which has been reported by IT News (2010) can be considered as a stepping stone towards provision of viable and vibrant academic library services that are desired in the 21st century Nigeria.

The Way Forward

For Nigerian academic libraries to provide the desired information services to their respective communities, that will match the requirements of the 21st century, emphasis should shift towards:

Academic libraries should explore more alternative sources of funding as over reliance on the government on monies that are not forthcoming may not provide the desired solutions.

New initiatives are required in the form of consultancy services, marketing of information products as well as other income generating services.

The need for the committees of university librarians, and their counterparts in polytechnics and colleges to sensitize their respective institution’s administrators on the central role of academic libraries in teaching, learning and research activities in academic communities.

More emphasis should be placed on the provision of online access and services such as OPAC, e-journals, e-books, and networked information services.

Improvement in ICTs such as the Internet, Intranet, hardware and software as well as Internet band with.

The need for the Nigerian Library Association to be proactive in the 21st century.

Improvement in ICT training for academic librarians

Finally, government must realize the central role of academic libraries to national development which requires provision of more funds for academic library development in the country.

Conclusion

Digital revolution has dramatically changed the face of libraries in the 21st century. This posed a challenge to academic libraries to digitize their services and resources through appropriate ICT application in order to remain relevant. However, academic libraries in Nigeria are faced with enormous problems notably that of lack of proper funding. Despite that, they must against all odds try to measure up with their contemporaries elsewhere. Their ability to overcome some of the major challenges undermining their efforts in providing the desired services to their communities in this information age should therefore serve as one of the coping strategy methods for the 21st century academic library service in Nigeria.

References

Akporhonor, B.A. (2005). Library Funding in Nigeria: Past, Present and Future. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 18 (2), 63-70

Ani, J., et al. (2005). Adoption of Information and Communication Technology in Academic Libraries: A strategy for Library networking in Nigeria. The Electronic Library, 23(6), 701-708

Diso, L.I. (2005). Information production, transfer, and delivery: Mass Information work and television journalists’ dilemma in Nigeria. International Information and Library Review, 37, 285-286

Etim, F.E. (2006). Resource sharing in the Digital Age: Prospects and problems in African Universities. Library Philosophy and Practice, 9(1)

Fatoki, O.C. (2005). Prospects of GSM technology for academic library services. The Electronic Library, 23(3), 266-273

IT News Africa (2010). http://www.itnewsafrica.com accessed 14/1/2010

Kumar, M. (2009). Academic Libraries in electronic environment: Paradigm shift. A paper presented at the International Conference on Academic Libraries (ICAL) held at the University of Delhi, India. P. 105

Lawal, O.O. (2007). Standards for Library and Information Science Programmes in Nigerian Universities. A lead Paper presented at the conference of the National Association of Library and Information Science Educators (NALISE), Nigeria held at Imo State University, Owerri. P. 4

Nok, G. (2006). The challenges of computerizing a University Library in Nigeria: the case of Kashim Ibrahim Library, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Library Philosophy and Practice, 8(2)

Okiy, R.B. (2005). Funding Nigerian Libraries in the 21st century: will funding from alternative sources suffice?. The Bottom Line: Managing Library Finances, 18(2), 71-77

Okon, H.I. (2005). Effective Communication and Smooth Administration of Academic Libraries in the 21st Century: A new Paradigm in Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice, 8(1)

Singh, J. and Kaur, T. (2009). Future of Academic Libraries in India: challenges and opportunities. A paper presented at the International Conference on Academic Libraries (ICAL) held at the University of Delhi, India. P. 52

Womboh, B.S.H. and Abba, T. (2008). The state of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Nigerian University Libraries: the Experience of Ibrahim Babangida Library, Federal University of Technology, Yola. Library Philosophy and Practice.

World Bank Report on Nigeria (2010). Nigerian Investment.com. available at: http://wwww.nigerianinvestments.com/index.php

Yetunde, Z.A. (2008). A study of internally generated revenue (IGR) by University Libraries in Nigeria. Borno Library, Archival and Information Science Journal, 7(1), 1-14

Curled from: http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/abubakar.htm

8000 Ogoni cases go to Nigeria's human rights panel (Archive)

2013-05-16T13:19:00.000+01:00

Subject: 8000 Ogoni cases go to Nigeria's human rights panel

From: dawnstar@xxxxxxxxxxxxx

Date: Mon, 23 Aug 1999 16:59:00

Perhaps some day TOTAL will be found guilty of direct and indirect

violations of human rights and obliged to remunerate the victims in a

human rights damage settlement involving billions of dollars, equal to

and more than the sum of what they have already invested in the

regime-partnered project. Since the world knows well enough what's going

on, anything less than that is sheer hypocrisy. Is Burma headed to a

Mandela turn the page and forget the past, heal the wounds solution, or

more on the lines of what's now going down in Nigeria. Something to

think about. Or will TOTAL and the FRench try to broker a deal in their

best interests, a peace and profits deal. Who knows? In any case, the

Nigerian example should not be overlooked as a sign of the

times.Remember, apart from Shell, Nigerian drug gangs were high on the

list of world drug traffickers.

MOSOP International Secretariat wrote:

Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP)

27 Odu Street, Ogbunabali, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria

Ph/fax (+234) 84 230 250 e-mail: mosop@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

Press release 13th August 1999

MOSOP Files 8,000 cases before Human Rights Panel

The Nigerian Human Rights group MOSOP, today filed a massive record of

human rights abuses which have occurred in the south western region of

Ogoni since 1990. The submission includes testimony of over 3000

serious incidents, primarily at the hands of the Rivers State Internal

Security Task Force which occupied Ogoni between 1994 and 1998.

The submission to the "Oputu Panel" which is to look into human rights

abuses under Nigeria's military governments since 1984 compliments

earlier submissions for the reversal of verdicts against nine Ogoni

activists hanged in 1995, which included MOSOP president Ken Saro Wiwa

for which the chambers of Chief Gani Fawehinmi has been retained. The

submission also refers to the international observers (Michael

Birmbaum -of The Bar Human Rights Committee of England and Wales) and

investigations by the United Nations (Report of the Fact Finding

Mission of the Secretary General April 1996) which variously found

serious fault with the trial of Saro Wiwa and other activists.

Speaking from Port Harcourt MOSOP Acting President said,

"Today MOSOP is putting the cost of freedom before the Nigerian

people. The people of Ogoni have paid a heavy price for their

resistance to oppression by military rulers."

"These Ogoni cases are a challenge to the Oputu panel and the justice

system in Nigeria. If there cannot be justice for such flagrant cases

of abuse how can we expect to find justice for any Nigerian citizen?"

" We are asking the Panel to recognise the degree to which the

government of General Abacha instituted a reign of terror against a

peaceful population. This was not a case of neglect. The record we

present today is one of soldiers shooting law abiding citizens,

looting property, detaining individuals at will, and torturing those

it suspected of being MOSOP activists."

The MOSOP record of incidents in Ogoni includes graphic descriptions

of incidents where soldiers acted with complete disregard for even the

most basic rights.

One incident describes how a senior military officer personally

ordered the shooting to death of a 14 year disabled boy at point blank

rage. Other reports detail the numerous raids on Ogoni villages in

which villagers were randomly shot, raped and assaulted.

The sacking of 10 Ogoni villages who are still homeless till date in

the Ban-Ogoi area by Nigerian troops is also highlighted as well as

the incident in which Ogoni residents at the Port Harcourt Water front

were sacked. Government’s inquiry report dismissing suggestion

of ethnic clashes and describing the incident as a well organized

military raid in defenseless Ogoni residents are also catalogued.

Commenting on action that the panel can take Mr Mitee said,

"We believe that it is morally right that this panel at least pays a

visit to Ogoni to see some of those who have survived the abuse which

took place in our communities."

"It is also time for the Nigerian government to recognise that the

Ogoni case is different. Nowhere else in Nigeria did the government

set out to terrorise an entire law abiding population. "

"We hope that this panel will recognise the seriousness of the

unaddresssed abuses and make the strongest possible recommendations to

President Obasanjo. Those who have suffered under the last regime have

little reason for confidence in law and order. We believe that a just

response is essential to restoring peace to our country."

While presenting the report in two large packs to the Commission in

Abuja, the Vice President of MOSOP, Dr. Olua Kamalu urged the

commission to arrange for hearings in Bori to enable thousands of

Ogoni petitioners to testify before it as it will be practically

impossible for us to travel to Abuja and Lagos to make our cases.

Also, he presented a request before the panel to waive the requirement

of submitting 10 copies of each abuse case to the Commission. Adding

that the peasant economy of Ogoni will collapse if we are to submit 10

copies of each of the over 7,000 copies presently collated.

Also speaking on the issue, the MOSOP President, Mr. Ledum Mitee said

"the volume of Ogoni petitions only confirms the well known fact: that

under military rule especially under Abacha’s, the Ogoni people

bore the brunt of the worst forms of human and environmental rights

abuses in Nigeria to the extent that we became the standard by which

human rights abuse in the country was measured. The Ogoni case will

present probably the stiffest test for the Commission and the country

as a whole."

Editor's Notes

MOSOP is the campaign organization representing the people of Ogoni,

living in the south western region of the Niger Delta. Since 1990

MOSOP has campaigned for the environmental and human rights of the

Ogoni people after devastating effects from oil exploitation by the

Nigerian government and multinational oil operator Royal Dutch Shell.

For further information please contact:

Bari ara Kpalap, MOSOP Advocacy officer (+234) 84 230 250

Ledum Mitee Acting President MOSOP (+234) 84 232 609

London Lazarus Tamana/Chris Newsom (+44) 181 563 8614

(+44) 7887 504 014 mobile

Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People (MOSOP) Nigeria,

27 Odu Street, Ogbunabali, Port Harcourt, Nigeria:

Tel/ fax. [+234] 84 230 250 Tel.

e-mail: mosop@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx

MOSOP International secretariat:

Suite 5, 3 - 4 Albion Place, Galena Road, London W6 0LT, United

Kingdom.

Tel. (+44) (0)181 563 8614 Fax. (+44) (0)181 563 8615

http://www.oneworld.org/mosop/

e-mail: mosop@xxxxxxxxxx

--------------------------------------------------------

"Lord take my soul, but the struggle continues"

Ken Saro-Wiwa, the gallows, November 10th 1995.

Ogoni is a land of half a million people in the Niger Delta region of

Nigeria. Since 1958, oil companies such as Shell have exploited

Ogoni's oil wealth, while the Ogoni people have suffered economic

deprivation, the environmental devastation of our land and the

discriminatory policies of successive Nigerian governments. The

Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People demands economic

justice, human rights - including the right to choose the use of our

land and its resources - and to a future free from violence. MOSOP is

the democratic voice of the Ogoni people.

Curled from: http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199908/msg00753.html

Women Entrepreneurship and Development: The Gendering of Microfinance in Nigeria

2013-05-16T13:01:00.001+01:00

Presented at the 8th International Interdisciplinary Congress on Women,

21-26 July, 2002, Makerere University, Kampala-Uganda.

Ngozi G. Iheduru (Mrs.)

Head, Department of Accountancy

Abia State University

Uturu, Nigeria

Introduction

This study is an attempt to investigate the ways in which microfinance programmes, both governmental and non-governmental, have driven financial sustainability and integrated community development among women in Nigeria. In the process the study examined the extent to which programmes have resulted in women's economic, social, and political empowerment. Women are generally considered to be at the lowest rung of the poverty ladder in Nigeria, the study extrapolated the effects of microfinance on the mitigation of poverty. Finally, the study examined the policy implications of microcredit financing of women economic activities within the broad framework of gender stereotypical milieu of these enterprises. In order to accomplish accomplish these goals, I explored the theoretical bases of microfinance analysis with the overarching context of gender/feminist literature. This approach is important because of the low economic status of women in Nigerian society. As I proceed to argue here that there is a general likelihood that the microfinance approach is targeted at women, I also explain the underlying rationale for this approach from the Nigerian perspective. To realize this and test our propositions, I selected three microfinance, one non- organization and two government assisted microfinance organizations: Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN), the Peoples Bank of Nigeria, and Family Economic Assistance Programme. The latter two are both federally operated institutions of the government of Nigeria aimed at providing credit to those who ordinarily would not get them and by so doing raise their economic status and help to eliminate poverty. The propositions that are made in this study are (1) there a direct relationship between microcredit availability and economic development; (2) there is a direct relationship between microcrdit and women empowerment in Nigeria; (3) the availability of microcredit facilitates income generating activities among people and contributes to their increased standard of living; (4) that there is an association between microfinancial institutions and the development of financial sustainability among Nigerian women; and (5) that microfinancial institutions are directly associated with women leadership development in Nigeria.

Emerging Theory of Microfinance

Recent developments in African and other developing countries reinforce the contention that microfinance or microcredit structures are essential for development of rural areas in consideration of the fact that areas of development in the these countries have been traditionally urban-centered. As has been argued by the United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF), "the development of microfinance institutions over the last two decades and a number of success stories have lent credence to the idea that microfinance is a major stimulus for development in the countries of the South, and that is a powerful instrument for combating poverty." Adopting rather economistic dimensions, this report suggests two basic assumptions why the development of microfinance has taken such a dramatic and important turn. These assumptions fit in with factor distribution and availability whereby the missing factor of production (from among land, labour, and capital), is supposed to be provided in order to give impetus to development. The first assumption is that "poor populations possess the capacity to implement income generating activities [but] that the main limitation to their initiative is the lack of access to capital." This limitation arises because of two main reasons: financial markets are still in their infancy; and that given their poor track record and lack of collateral, the existing financial institutions are reluctant to extend credit facilities to poor people or their organisations. Another factor is that often, mutual associations and thrift societies that have dealt with financial institutions have been huge failures. In spite of this negative evaluation, the idea persists that poor people given access to capital and guided properly are in a position to implement and manage income generating business enterprises. In other words, poor people too, have the capacity to run economic activities just like the rest of society given a congenial environment. The second assumption is that once the financial systems are established, the poor people "were able to use it (the financial tools) for productive purposes and progressively incorporate themselves into the financial milieu, repaying the loans, and accumulating savings."

It has been reported that at an international conference in 1998, "donors and governments renewed their commitments to advancing women, regenerating environmental resources and providing sustainable livelihood for all." The contention is that microfinace is at the core of each of these three goalls. This is because microfinance provides the means to generate income that eventually leads to a sustainable development. Invariably, microfinance programmes constitute and provide the drive to develop a "broad access" to the financial resources crucial to the poor (among whom women comprise the majority), in order to provide the basic requirements for sustainable development.

Microfinance programmes and institutions have gained widespread acceptance across Africa. Research demonstrates that large scale directed government credit programmes have proved far too costly to manage, as they have always been dogged by poor coordination, inadequate funding, administrative overlap, corruption, general inefficiency and ineptitude. With the help of external funding from bilateral and multilateral organizations most countries in Africa, including Nigeria have adopted microenterpreneurship as an alternative approach to development, in order to avoid these negative tendencies. The intent is to by-pass corrupt public officials, make credit directly available to the very poor and thereby promote their self-sufficiency. The World Bank, United Nationas Dvelopment Programme (UNDP), United States Agency for International Development (USAID), Canadian, Swedish and German governments have all made funds available to microfinance non-governmental organizations in Nigeria with varying levels of success.

Microfinance institutions have rapidly evolved in the last decade and have been able to "create significant income and employment opportunities for the poor in developing countries." The institutions have reached out to many disadvantaged microenterpreneurs and have them to build operational and financial self-sufficiency. In Nigeria's particular case, microfinance programmes founded on sound conceptual footings, and channeled through rural banking have failed because of these limitations. This is in spite of the "over-investment" in this sector by government as was identified by international financial institutions (the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund) and the consequent restructuring of the economy that Nigeria embarked on in the mid-1980s.

Other scholars and policy analysts have identified the inhibiting factors that make rural microfinance enterprises unsuccessful. Yaron identified "high risks" "heavy transaction costs," and "mounting loan losses" as some of the many factors that drained state resources, yet the programmes have reached only a fraction of the target population consequently have failed to provide financial self sustainability. The last decade has also witnessed the evolution of microfinance institutions that created significant and income opportunities for the poor in developing countries. These microfinance programmes have been noted to make great strides towards financial self sufficiency. Successful programmes often cited to buttress these assertions are the Grammen Bank in Bangladesh, BancoSol in Bolivia operated by ACCION, Bank Rakyat Indonesia's (BRI) Unit Desa (village bank) programme in Indonesia. The Grameen Bank is the foremost example of a rural-based microfinance institution. In a recent study, it was reported that the bank has helped to increase significantly household incomes, productivity, labour force participation, and rural wages thereby reducing the level of absolute poverty to a level of 75% lower than in villages without such programmes. After it transformed from a community-based lending institution to a for-profit commercial bank, the BancSol made loans to over 10,000 customers at repayment rates of over 99.5%. In addition to these successful examples, there are African cases such as the Kenya Rural Enterprise Programme (K-Rep), the City Savings in Ghana, The Centennial Bank in Uganda, The Community Bank in South Africa, and the People's Bank in Nigeria. The African microfinance institutions have not been objects of much research. However a recent report has it that K-Rep while not intending to transform to a commercial bank opted to use the banking framework to "fill an important gap that commercial banks have been unable or unwilling to fill in Kenya."

It has been identified that one of the problems that microfinance institutions have faced in Nigeria is that it has always included social welfare projects which divert attention from financial sustainability to welfare issues. Thus microenterprises had limitations in reaching their target populations, "the poorest of the poor." In order to remain relevant and to reach the relevant constituency, a microfinance institution must be able to provide the development activities necessary to generate financial sustainability. Thus the establishment of the Peoples' Bank of Nigeria provides legitimacy and a statutory affirmation of the need to raise the financial sustainability of the rural poor rather than make it donor-dependent. This is because microfinance programmes are said to promote democracy, free markets, and a strong middle class, and essentially complement the bottom-up development in the administrative structure of post structural adjustment economies.

Critics have been quick to point out that the rate of failure of microfinance programmes is an indication that they are not an appropriate policy tool. Some economists however, counter that "[microfinance] is an inappropriate policy intervention, and that it is macroeconomic reform and not microcredit delivery, that it is needed for cultivating entrepreneurship, and developing the private sector in low-income countries." The question however remains as to whether they help in poverty alleviation, especially in regard to women in Nigeria.

Women, Microfinance, and Development in Nigeria

It has been estimated that women comprise nearly 74% of the 19.3 million of the world's poorest people now being served by microfinance institutions. According to the State of the Microcredit Summit Campaign 2001 Report, this equals 14.2 million of the world's poorest women and these have access to financial services through microfinance institutions, banks, NGOs, and traditional or non-bank financial institutions. Also, a survey by the Special Unit on Microfinance of the United Nations Capital Development Fund (SUM/UNCFD) of 29 microfinance institutions revealed that approximately 60% of these institutions' clients were women. Six of the 29 focused entirely on women. Of the other 23 mixed sex programmes, 52% of clients were women. However, the percentage of women clients decreased when "only individual loans" or "relatively high minimum loans amounts" were offered. Similarly, according to the USAID's annual Microenterprise Results Report for 2000, approximately 70% of USAID-supported microfinancial institutions are women.

The Abuja Declaration on Participatory Development: The Role of Women in the 1990s noted that sustainable development only can be achieved with the full participation of women who constitute approximately 50 per cent of the population. And yet, their role in development has only gained serious attention only in the last few years…" The declaration also noted that:

"Women lacked access to resources including credit and technology: Because of the deterioration of the economic situation in the 1980s, the condition of women has been affected adversely… It has constrained governments from allocating the necessary resources to the multiple roles of women and their access to development."

The declaration urged African governments to initiate priority actions that would "substantially increase female extension agents and fully utilize them to establish cooperatives and rural banks for women." While African governments have made some feeble attempts to address the issues raised by this conference, substantial progress has not been made with respect to the general welfare of African women. In the area of microfinance and women's access to credit, most microfinance institutions systematically provide decreasing percentage of loans to women. In most cases it has been found that women have a smaller loan size ostensibly because women are considered to have a lower capital absorptive capacity than men. Consequently, the women's loan packages, programmes, and services are smaller thereby limiting the range of their economic activities and returns. Microfinance strategies have therefore been recognized by national governments, donor agencies, and NGOs as strategies for gender equality, poverty alleviation, community development, and above all for gender equality and women empowerment. It must however be recognized that the setting up of these structures and placing the strategies in the hands of women does not go far in addressing their empowerment and economic welfare in society. These strategies must include training, leadership training and involvement, ownership and control of credit institutions, and identifying the importance of women's economic contribution to the family and to the community and what difference these make to the development of the community and the country.

Recent research (World Bank, 2001) indicates that gender inequalities in developing countries inhibit economic growth. There is a correlation between gender discrimination and greater poverty, slower economic growth, weaker governance, and a lower standard of living of the people. A UNDP analysis similarly confirmed a "very strong correlation between its [UNDP's] gender empowerment measure and gender-related development indices and its Human Development Index." The report also indicates that about 70% of the 1.3 billion people living on less than $1 a day are women. Also, in their investigation on gender implications of irrigation policies in Nigeria, Oramah and Ogbu eloquently argued that "at the center of this inequity issue should be a gender consideration." Women's participation in development in Africa has been rated as low. This low participation has also been blamed for the less than satisfactory impact of public investments in development." Thus there is an apparent feminization of poverty calling for policies and measures through microfinance strategies that specifically address these dire needs of women. Lets now examine some microfinance programmes in Nigeria to determine their impact on women.

Select Microfinance Programmes in Nigeria

Three microfinance programmes in Nigeria for the period, 1985-2000 are examined in this study to provide evidence and test the propositions that microfinace are relevant institutions to the economic advancement of women, the rural poor, and communities in Nigeria. The survey of these programmes also is aimed at highlighting their role in the economic, social, and political empowerment of women during this period. Microfinance policies in Nigeria have been largely uncoordinated. This is partly a consequence of the long period of political instability in the country that literally corresponds to the period under review. However three microfinance institutions selected here are the Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN), an NGO; the People's Bank, a Federal government of Nigeria owned commercial-like bank with a rural focus; and the Family Economic Advancement Programme, a microcredit investment and poverty alleviation programmme also set up by the Nigerian government under the Family Support Programme of the General sani Abacha regime (1993-1998). The choice of these programmes results from the fact that they fit in with the microcredit model of microfinance institutions as represented by the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh.

According to this model developed by Pitt and Khandker, microfinance institutions:

lend only to the poor (mostly women),

deal with creditors in groups,

require creditors to deposit savings in the bank

use group peer pressure, arising from social moral force to ensure non-default in loan repayment, and

require good credit standing to secure subsequent loans by the group.

This model certainly draws on the informality of the "isusu" or "oha" financial system that has been described as Rotating Savings and Credit Associations (ROSCAs) where substantial success has been recorded in Nigeria. The isusu ia a common traditional financial system common in rural areas in the southern states of Nigeria. In the remaining part of this paper I will refer to this ATRBS as the isusu model of traditional microcredit to bring it back to its indigenous roots. This is especially so in terms of the low default rate attributable to social pressure from members against defaulting, and even in cases of default, the unconventional ways of recovering loans through sureties. The Grameen Bank model is thus very similar to the isusu model not only that it makes credit available to groups of poor rural persons, including women but also that the repayment mechanism is backed by a solidarity group system that hedges the credits against default through social mores rather than statutory sanctions.

Country Women Association of Nigeria:

The Country Women Association of Nigeria (COWAN) was founded by Mrs. Bisi Ogunleye in 1982 in Nigeria's southwestern Ondo State as an NGO. COWAN fits into the isusu model that has similarities to the Grameen Bank model. The clientele is rural and urban poor women through cooperative rather than individual memberships. As at 1997, the organization had 178,000 members belonging to some 35,000 working cooperative societies a far departure from the six cooperative member organisations at its founding. The primary goal of the organization is to promote "the well-being of women in agricultural, economic decision making for the total development of the capacities of women to contribute to self-reliance and sustainable development." Correspondingly, the specific objectives are to:

Empower rural women economically, socially, politically and thereby promote sustainable development;

Promote popular participation and bottom-up approach in decision making;

Develop skills, improve knowledge, promote culture and consultation in decisional process;

Give poor rural women a sense of belonging and the opportunity to benefit from and contribute to the development of Nigeria; and

Give the youth a sound knowledge of the local technology, tradition and culture that are sustainable for economic development.

COWAN has developed a layered management structure that emphasizes grass roots and multiple participation of members. Members earn their participation through the local or village level. This membership allows their primary group to carry them into membership at the highest level of the organization. At the village level, a group is made up of 10-25 members who must be consanguineously or socially related. That is to say they must be related by blood, belong to the same age cohort or age gradehave a business relationship that has made them familiar with one another. The essence of this is to provide the 'tie that binds' so that members come into membership with the same visions and expectations. Moreover, it provides a common platform whereby "needs, strategies, and solutions" of the group are shared. Above the group is the community level, which is made up of five local or village societies. The community coordinates and streamlines the activities of the village societies.

The third layer is the zonal or local government which consists of the societies and communities in between 3-10 local government areas. The area that a zone covers is a reflection of the number of societies and communities in existence, the pattern being that the more the cooperative societies involved in each local government area, the smaller the number of local governments in the zone. Fourthly, there is the state chapter comprising of all society presidents, community facilitators, and zonal coordinators as the management body. The national body is the entire COWAN members. It has an organizational body that comprises the National Coordinator and Matron, a 15-woman board of directors that makes the broad policies. There is also an executive committee on which sits a member from each state chapter. There are other administrative officers who handle the day-to-day affairs of the organization such as national secretary and financial secretary who necessarily are located at headquarters.

COWAN has received generous foreign donor support as well as support from local sources. In addition to these external funds, it raises internal funds through the isusu or African Traditional Responsive Banking system to support the technical and credit need of its members. It is reported that "COWAN pioneered the development of African traditional savings and credit into isusu as a linkage between formal and informal credit system." As in the traditional savings method, members are encouraged to save daily and this is made a condition for membership of the cooperative right from the village level to the state chapter. There are four types of savings services available to members. Educational savings schemes are provided through children whose parents are COWAN members. The aim is to ensure that women have the financial capacity to pay their children's school fees through targeted savings. Secondly, there is healthcare savings for medical emergencies for participating members. These two savings are significant considering that there is no educational financial assistance for students in Nigeria even though school fees are relatively low. Equally relevant is that there are no medical insurance or medicare policies for the people and medical savings is an attempt by citizens to bridge the gap. COWAN thus assists the women to provide for themselves what the government should be doing in the first instance.

Credit facilities are the areas where COWAN plays a critical role in the lives of rural poor women. It provides credit facilities for women involved in agricultural activities to enable them procure simple agricultural implements like hoes, knives, hiring of tractors and purchase of fertilizers. Credit facilities are also extended to people involved in cottages industries, such as oil-palm extraction and palm-kernel cracking and oil presses. In line with its policy of group membership through cooperatives, a credit facility is extended through the group and not directly to the individual. A group is usually made up of not less than five women and their group must have been in existence for three months for them to qualify. Within this period too, they must have been saving as evidence of their commitment to the microenterprise that they are to embark on. Thus, COWAN has a policy that graphically reads: No Savings No membership" and by implication non-qualification for any benefits of the organization.

A primary village group must belong to a Community Center and must have been a member for up to three months to qualify for inclusion in the community's application. A community center is comprised of five local groups that must have saved through the isusu or the village cooperative. A community may join with other Community Centers to invest in a medium community-based enterprise for no more than three Community Centers. There are loans to youths who qualify for membership through the proper procedures. To ensure that loan monies are effectively managed, beneficiaries must attend the Youth Option Life Plan training where they acquire the necessary skills. It is reported that since its founding in 1982, COWAN has disbursed N74 million (seventy four million naira) or roughly $100,000.00 (one hundred thousand dollars). Over 150,000 rural and poor families have benefited from the association's loan scheme.

COWAN uses the isusu or ATRB system of loans which incorporates the social force of society to ensure that persons in the cooperative are faithful to their promise. The repayment rate of the loans at COWAN are quite impressive. This is attributable to the fact that members are made to save with the organisation on a daily basis and have come to regard the organisation as theirs. With a network of groups and Community Centres spread out in 28 of Nigeria's 36 states, COWAN is probably the foremost microfinance institution that has clearly and predominantly addressed its activities, products and services specifically for the upliftment of women. It is involved through several approaches that foster grass roots participation in policies that address poverty alleviation among rural and urban poor women, promotes educational, health and food security of families, and the overall economic advancement of women.

There is need anyway for COWAN to develop a stronger management structure that will stand the test of time and continue to offer leadership in adapting a traditional financial services delivery system to a modern milieu. This will include an expansion of and reorganization of the management structure of the organisation that undoubtedly must include a strategy of succession beyond the founder. This will obviate any future succession struggle that could undermine and waste the organization.

Family Economic Advancement Programme (FEAP):

The Family Economic Advancement Programme was established by the government of the Federal Republic of Nigeria in 1988 in reaction to the increasing level of poverty occasioned by the implementation of the structural adjustment policies imposed by international multilateral and bilateral lending institutions on Nigeria. FEAP is a microcredit scheme which primary goal is to provide investment opportunities that will lead to economic growth. This aims at stimulating appropriate economic activities at the grass roots level and creating avenues for the people to earn higher incomes and thus raise their standard of living. Establishing small and medium scale industries that are based on the available raw materials are considered ways in which this could be accomplished. Such industries will provide managerial skills and economic advantages to the poor in the local areas. Though women were not specifically targeted, it was assumed that by the extension of the FEAP services to the rural areas, women would benefit being very well represented at that level. Some of the more obvious goals of the programme included:

To provide loans directly to people at ward (equivalent to the village or a combination of villages) level with the capital needed to establish small-scale industries or enterprises;

To provide employment opportunities at the lowest (ward) levels of the Nigerian society

To improve the standards of living of the people

To encourage producers at the lower levels to form cooperatives societies through which to promote development consciousness

To involve the private sector, state, and local governments in the funding of the production process; and

To reduce the rural to urban migration that leads to the congestion of the cities and impoverishment of the rural areas.

The FEAP program was created through funds allocation in the 1987 and 1988 federal Nigerian national budgets. Through these budgets, the Nigerian government under the Sani Abacha military regime made a generous allocation of $95 million for the take off of the programme. This intervention was meant to provide microcrdit financial services to individuals and small businesses. These services were to take up 85% of the capital, while 15% was to cover operating costs. Funding of projects was to pass through microfinancial arrangements with selected commercial banks. Like the NGO-sponsored COWAN organization, credit facilities are extended only to the cooperative societies of individuals with common interests and objectives. The cooperative societies must include both men and women as members each of whom will be held individually and severally responsible for the loans extended to the society. And once a loan has been granted, none of the five members of the cooperative society can withdraw from membership as they would still be bound by the loan agreement.

Individual cooperative societies are entitled to a maximum loan amount of N500,000 (five hundred thousand naira), which was adjudged adequate at the time to provide a working capital and funds for machinery, plants and other services. In order to verify the credibility of the applicants, application forms are submitted at the ward level for initial processing and approval. An important requirement required to be met was for the traditional ruler of the area to identify the members and the cooperative society and recommend them favourably to the bank for their projects to be funded. Applicants must also attach the copies of the certificate of cooperative registration as further proof of authenticity. After this initial process, it is then submitted to the participating bank.

A society must pay ten percent of the amount requested, as a good faith deposit to the bank, as a sign of commitment to the proposed project. Though there is no collateral required, this deposit and whatever equipment that are purchased form the only security required in addition to the identification provided through the wards and traditional rulers. The interest rate for the microcredit loans was pegged at 10% with an initial grace period of between three months to one year depending on the type of project, before repayment of the loan commences. All loans must however be fully paid back within three years of their initial lending and the banks have supervisory role over the loans and ensure compliance with the conditions for the facility. An analysis of the funding practices of the FEAP programmes indicates a strong resemblance to the isusu traditional banking system or the ATRBS, which involves and employs social mores to ensure compliance with formal banking rules. This is achieved through involvement of the village traditional leader whose identification, concurrence and support is required for the cooperative to be even recommended to the bank. The fact that group mechanism approach tends to bind people to the aspirations and interests of the group rather than the personalization of the credit facility. It can be argued that the FEAP programme built on the successes of the COWAN programme and with a substantial state generous funding support, it would be expected that FEAP will achieve more successes.

However, this programme does give specific consideration to women. Instead women are left to compete for resources with the men. Given the traditional ways in which women entrepreneurship has been looked at in Nigeria, one might be led to believe that in the final analysis the bulk of the credit facilities would go to men. This particular concern calls for more research. The possibility of this eventuality ever coming to light is now dim in view of the fact that the Sani Abacha regime that instituted the FEAP program was replaced by the Olusegun Obasanjo civilian administration and hence the cessation of operation of the programme.

In spite of the fanfare surrounding its creation and the political legitimacy that it bought the founders during the Abacha military regime in Nigeria, the fortunes of the programme appear to be waning. The coming into place of a democratic dispensation in 1999 has literally halted the huge government subvention that hitherto was given to FEAP. Moreover, most poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria have always been placed under the non-statutory office of the First Lady. Since coming into office of the Olusegun Obasanjo civilian administration in 1999, his wife the First Lady has set up her own trade mark outfit that has nothing to do with microcredit. The FEAP may die a natural death due policy discontinuity. The immediate organizational threat to FEAP may not be the lack of sound financial management practices but the "political origin and motives" behind its establishment.

The Peoples Bank of Nigeria:

The Peoples Bank of Nigeria (PBN) is the second example of government effort to promote rural financial intermediation with the objective of tackling poverty and promoting rural empowerment. The Federal Government established PBN in 1988. The budget of that year allocated a start-up capital of 30 million naira (equivalent to $1.36 million) to the bank. However, the enabling legislation did not come into effect until 1990 through Decree (now Act) 22 of that year. Government had come to the realization that the increasing pauperization of microentrepreneurs, mostly rural dwellers and women, was lowering the standard of living of the people. Policy makers and commentators also recognized that this group of people lacked the collateral that could secure them the loans that are usually obtained through conventional commercial banks. The enabling law specifically charged the bank to "meet the credit needs of small borrowers who cannot satisfy the stringent collateral requirements normally demanded by conventional banks." It was also set up to "provide small, quick, easy-to-obtain, short-term loans to small businesses without collateral requirement." The bank was to provide microcredit for the under-privileged persons in the Nigerian society to enable them initiate small-scale industries. The PBN like the NGO's is thus expected to facilitate access of the rural poor to microcredit. Initially the bank's branches were restricted to the rural areas but that was to change quickly with pressures from influential members of the political class. Loans granted at this time ranged from 50-5,000 naira but under pressure from big entrepreneurs generals, and politicians, this policy was changed in 1994 and the lending ceilings were abolished. Loans were thereafter considered on a case-by-case basis.

However, the bank grew rapidly as the idea was well received by the citizens. By 1996, the total braches of the bank rose to 275 and had about stabilized there. By 2001, the bank had added only four more branches to stand at 279 branches through-out the country. By 1994, it had 71 mobile banks which extended the bank's service by land and sea to the customer's front door. Its total assets had risen from N1,015 million in 1995 to N1,073 million in 1996. The rate of growth of the PBN had slowed considerably, the initial goal was to have a branch of the bank in each of Nigeria's 774 local government areas. Importantly 75 of the bank's customers are women who receive loans averaging N2000. Though repayment rates were poor initially (30%), that for the women averaged 93% as reported by the first president of the bank. Interest rates for the loans were fixed at 20% when commercial banks charged much higher.

While the PBN did not necessarily adopt the ATRB approach in its management, it used the mutualist and cooperative approach that did not emphasise the savings component. This sets the PBN apart from both the COWAN and FEAP. The management stuyle was therefore a mixture the Anglo-Saxon savings and loans method that took advantage of the mutualist approach through its emphasis on dealing with cooperatives. As has been expressed by a recent study of the bank, the fact that "government ministers sit on the board of the government sponsored but ostensibly independent [Bank] may signal the endorsement of the programs but may also provide a temptation to intervene in the program, perhaps to its detriment." Thus it can be argued that the complete domination of the board of the PBN by government officials through its whole ownership does not bode well for the future of the bank. Even presently there are no solid criteria for the opening and closing of branches but political considerations. Among limitations that the bank has faced in its short history are low repayment rate (about 30%), a lack of sustainability because of a heavy dependence on governmental subsidy and the general impression that government money is nobody's money. The same is not true of NGO and private bank's loans.

Regardless of this, the PBN has been a successful experiment in microcredit intermediation for the rural poor. Over 42,000 clients have saved with, and borrowed from the bank which totals over N565 million (about $5 million). The bank however, needs the restructuring and mainstreaming of its core services and products to address the very basis for its creation. As soon as it becomes less dependent on government subvention as well as develop local management capacity from among its varied clientele, it would be on its way to becoming a great microfinancial institution. It has to be noted though that until 1995, which corresponded with the first management change at the bank it had hitherto experienced a high debt burden as a result of high default rate. The controversial change of leadership in that year led to a re-direction in the bank's operational policies that were aimed at increasing efficiency. By June 1999, the changes had paid off. The bank's liquidity surged to N3000 million and loan repayment previously at 30% bounced to 87%.

Microfinance, Gender, and Empowerment

Women in Nigeria are considered to be the poorest of the poor. The State of Microcredit Summit Campaign 2001 Report defines "poorest" as "the bottom half of those living below their nation's poverty line." According to the World Bank, Nigeria has a national poverty line of 43% in the 1997 survey year. Within the country, 31.7% in urban areas and 49.5% in rural areas lived below the national poverty line. This means that about half of citizens considered "poorest" in Nigeria lived in rural areas. By 2000, Nigeria had plunged from the Human Poverty Index (HPI) ranking of 62 in 1998 to 151 in the world. Nigeria's HPI for 2001 deteriorated to a low 37.6%. This is in conformity with the Microcredit Summit Campaign definition of "poorest". The import of this is that the governments of Nigeria need to do more to deal with the ever-increasing incidence of rural poverty, especially as it affects women. In this regard, microfinance policies are excellent microeconomic tools for effecting the required change. Microfinance program when properly implemented, help not only to reduce poverty but contributes to the empowerment of women. They help place vital resources in the hands of rural women, which otherwise will not be available to them. This helps them increase their economic activities and raise their standard of living in the process. As a former president of the bank notes:

"the People's Bank of Nigeria is the first institutional bank to link loans, credits and financial services with improvements in health status and quality of life. In order to do so, the bank reached out to a wide range of partners including those in the essential sectors of health and education. Information on health status and health practices was included in loan applications, alongside economic information. To be eligible for loans, people had to register in functional literacy and health programmes in rural areas. "

The higher economic status, self-reliance and self-esteem, imbues them with power to make changes and choices about their lives. The choices now made extend to education, housing health-care, and political participation. Thus as a recent on-going study clearly states "in order for a woman to be empowered, she needs access to the material, human, and social resources necessary to make strategic choices in her life." By many women being able to make their own choices they become agents of change who, in turn, are able not only to challenge, but also to organize other women to challenge the social, economic, religious, and political structures of injustice that keep them down. The empowerment that is provided by financial access creates further synergies that lead to the acquisition of education and literacy, business training and management, and access to information. Poverty and powerlessness are directly associated with these factors. However the environment in Nigeria where women are still expected to perform their social functions sometimes detracts from these achievements. In other words gender stereotypes and expectations remain mired in tradition and will require further action on the part of government and society to break.

Conclusion

The development of sound microcredit or microfinance policies underlie the course of a good approach to solving the incapacitation of the poor in rural and disadvantaged areas of Nigeria to move out of poverty. For this to materilase, the people must develop the capacity to generate and maintain their means of livelihood and produce excess that will eventually lead to savings. Microfinance intermediation aimed at developing the rural poor and women's broad access to financial services provides the most basic conditions for sustainable livelihoods. Also, it must be noted that the gendering of microfinance is far from being the panacea for the immiseration of women and therefore comes short of the brillant approach to development as its proponents are wont to say. This is because microcredit intermediation is far from the being the brilliant predictor development alternative that it is sometimes depicted in development literature, among international donors, and scholars.

As the analysis of the Peoples Bank of Nigeria clearly demonstrates the role of rural and community banks in development can not be overemphasized. These microfinancial institutions mop up and allocate microcredit and thereby facilitate the capacity of the rural poor and women to embark on income yielding economic endeavours. As a recent study of community banks in Nigeria has shown, microenterprises have through loan availability been able to "sustain and …and promote rural development [and] for the first time, communities are realizing that they can advance their own economic fortunes." Community banks unlike the non-traditional banking and financial institutions have great potential for promoting rural development by incorporating the indigenous financial practices such as the African traditional responsive banking system and adopting a learning curve approach. That is to say with constant training, leadership and practice over time, the rural communities will imbibe disciplined banking habits and self reliance. Just like the community banks that were studied by Onugu, the performance of the PBN correspondingly has not measured up to expectation as much of its activities to trading concerns. Credit facilities to agricultural concerns are still limited in spite of that sector being the mainstay of the rural economy.

Three case studies discussed in this study indicate that "proper institutional design and adherence to appropriate policies have the potential to generate substantial achievements in terms of sustainability and greater institutional outreach." Structurally, the COWAN has a stronger management set-up, and save for the position of the founder that could generate a transition problem in future it has been more effective in providing targeted resources to the women. While the government sponsored microcredit financial services have larger funds to render the same services, their structural forms and the political considerations continue to hamper service delivery thus delaying the alleviation of poverty. Thus the direct fiscal intervention in the economy by these government owned bank and agency has been more disappointing and is a resemblance of previous efforts of the 1960s and 70s. The continuing problems of the PBN essentially result from the meddlesomeness of politicians and bureaucrats in its affairs. For instance the stacking of the board of the bank with politicians brings a lot of pressure that deflects from its stated goals.

Also the political instability in Nigeria has continually shaped the capacity of any direct government agency charged with extending credit facilities to women and the rural poor aimed at increasing economic activities and promoting rural economic development. That such an agency is always superintended by the first lade make it subject to the vagaries of the rapid political changes that Nigeria went through between 1983 and 1998. In the case of FEAP therefore, the attachment of this programme to the apron-strings of the first lady weakened this method of credit delivery. Each abrupt change in government also alters the microcredit programmatic arrangement. With the exit of the Abacha regime in 1998, the FEAP began a slow death. By 2001, mid way in the Olusegun Obasanjo administration, his wife and the new first lady had charted a new Programme, thus shunting the FEAP to the sidelines. The government itself under pressure from the civil society set up its own poverty alleviation programme that was not in any way connected to FEAP. If these programmes must succeed, government must create a favourable policy milieu and revamp its regulatory framework that supports in such a way that it supports rural financial markets and support grassroots approach to financial intermediation rather than embark on service provision by itself.

Curled from: http://www.gdrc.org/icm/country/nigeria-women.html

Umaru Musa Yar’Adua

2010-01-27T13:47:00.008+01:00

Umaru Musa Yar’adua was born in Katsina Town, Katsina State on 16 August 1951. He started his primary education at Rafukka Primary School, Katsina in 1958. He left Rafukka for Dutsinma Boarding Primary School in 1962 from where he completed his primary education in 1964.

Between 1965-1969, Umaru Yar’adua was at Government College, Keffi in present-day Nasarawa State for his secondary education. He then moved to the famous Barewa College, Zaria for his Higher School Certificate between 1970-1971. For his university education, Yar’adua attended the Ahmadu Bello University (ABU) Zaria from 1972-1975 where he obtained the B.Sc Education/Chemistry. He returned to the same University from 1978-1980 for his M.Sc Degree in Analytical Chemistry.

Umaru Yar’adua’s working career began at the Holy Child College, Lagos for the mandatory one year National Youth Service Corps (NYSC) between 1975 and 1976. He was a Lecturer at the Katsina College of Arts, Science and Technology, Zaria between 1976 and 1979. He moved to Katsina Polytechnic, also as a Lecturer in 1979 and was there until 1983 when he left the public service.

Yar’adua’s movement to the private sector started at Sambo Farms Ltd in Funtua, Katsina State as its pioneer General Manager between 1983-1989. He served as a Board Member, Katsina State Farmers’ Supply Company between 1984-1985, Member Governing Council of both Katsina College of Arts, Science and Technology Zaria and Katsina Polytechnic between 1978-1983, Board Chairman of Katsina State Investment and Property Development Company (KIPDECO) between 1994-1996.

Umaru Yar’adua served as a Director of many companies, including Habib Nigeria Bank Ltd. 1995-1999; Lodigiani Nigeria Ltd. 1987-1999, Hamada Holdings, 1983-1999; and Madara Ltd. Vom, Jos, 1987-1999. He was Chairman, Nation House Press Ltd, Kaduna between 1995-1999.

Yar’adua’s foray into party politics began as a Lecturer when he became an active member and mobilizer for the defunct Peoples’ Redemption Party (PRP). During the Transition Programme of President Ibrahim Badamasi Babangida, Yar’adua was one of the foundation members of the Peoples’ Front, a political association under the leadership of his elder brother, the late Major-General Shehu Musa Yar’adua. That association later fused to form the Social Democratic Party (SDP). Yar’adua was a member of the 1988 Constituent Assembly. He was a member of the party’s National Caucus and the SDP State Secretary in Katsina and contested the 1991 Governorship election, but lost to the candidate of the National Republican Convention.

At the inception of General Abdulsalam Abubakar’s transition in 1998, Yar’adua founded the K34 political association which later teemed up to form the Peoples Democratic Party (PDP). He contested and won election as Governor of Katsina State in 1999 and was re-elected in 2003.

(culled from http://www.yaradua2007.com)

In December 2006, Yar'Adua became the presidential candidate of the ruling PDP for the April 2007 presidential election through the scheming of the incumbent President Olusegun Obasanjo. He later won the presidential election with 70% of the votes, becoming Nigeria's first university educated leader in 40 years. On June 28, 2007, Yar'Adua publicly declared is assets to be NGN856,452,892 and became the first Nigerian President to do so.

He delights in referring to himself as a servant leader with the utmost regard for the rule of law, but his Achilles' heel has been his health. In March 2007 just before the April election, he was flown to Germany for medical reasons. He was absent at the United Nations General Assembly Meetings in September 2009, he had to travel to Saudi Arabia for a brief treatment. Currently, he is still in Saudi Arabia receiving treatment for pericarditis (inflamation of the pericardium, the fibrous sac around the heart) since November 23, 2009.

Of his seven point agenda for the development of the country, which are -

1. Adequate provision of power and energy,

2. Better food security and agriculture,

3. Creation of wealth and employment,

4. Provision of better mass transportation system (special emphasis on Rail),

5. Better land reform

6. Better security,

7. Qualitative and functional educational system

He achieved none, in fact some of the issues the have gone worse.

The promise of 6000MW electricity generation by the end of 2009 was unfulfilled. With the aid of the bank turmoil and recent global economic woes, the agricultural sector is worse off than ever and unemployment has increased. The roads are still bad except in Lagos and Abuja for obvious non-Yar'Adua initiated reasons. No change in the contentious 1978 Land Use Act. And insecurity has never been this high since the civil war days, even the Niger Delta amnesty is being threatened by inconsistency on the side of the government. The educational system is still as bad as before the present administration.

Due to the Supreme Court ruling that the Federal Ministries of Nigeria had 14 days, counting from 22 January 2010, to decide whether Yar'Adua is still capable of discharging the functions of his office on the testimony of five doctors including his personal physician, it is being rumoured that the Yar'Adua will be back in very soon.

UPDATE: He died on 5th May, 2010

Nigeria's Electricity crisis

2009-10-09T11:02:00.001+01:00

Nigeria, Africa's most populous country with over 140 million people has less than 40% of her population connected to the electricity grid with no electricity supply for more than 60% of the time. Nigeria has no enough electricity generated to meet the demand of her people.
The current administration of President Umaru Musa Yar Adua has put Power and Energy has number one in his seven-point agenda for the development of the nation. He is also currently aiming for 6000 MW electricity generation by December, 2009, but the current generation is at about 3000 MW. Ongoing extensive repair and upgrading is being done on the Shiroro power plants in Niger state and supply of gas to Egbin thermal station is being resumed after disruptions caused by the Niger Delta militants attack on oil and gas infrastructure. The bulk of the electricity crisis has been the structural deficiencies of our power stations and distribution system. The grid is actually powered by hydropower and thermal (which makes use of fossil fuel) power. Within each of these sources, there are structural problems that subtract from the overall efficiency of the energy producing capacity of each type of power station. Also, technological deficiencies are prevalent throughout the power system, both in the generation and transmission. For example, with modern technology, about 40% of the energy consumed in thermal plants can be converted to electricity, but in the absence of this technology (as is currently the case in Nigeria) this figure can be as low as 12%. Of that power produced, there is further loss through transmission. One estimate claims that between 30 and 35% of power generated in Nigerian power stations are lost in transmission. By comparison, power losses across line in the United States usually come to less than 1%, even across greater distances. Illegal users' tapping of the power lines also contribute to inefficiencies in the power system as they remain unaccounted for and even regarded as power loss. Underinvestment in modern technology, lack of modern standardized components and qualified maintenance staff have made the power problem in Nigeria intractable.

Although the government had long ago recognized the need for a better power system in the country, it has had great difficulty funding and organizing the needed restructuring and development. As an attempt to rectify this in 2005, the government divided the then National Electric Power Authority (NEPA) into two sections, one in charge of the generation of power and the other in charge of the distribution of power. As part of this division, the government sought to privatize the sectors in an effort to finance and organize the needed development of infrastructure. But the workers have vehemently rebuffed this gesture by the government for fear of imminent job loss. NEPA itself claimed that governmental agencies were their biggest debtor with over four billion Naira unpaid electricity bills.
The government's allocation to power has always been inadequate and often underemployed. The present administration is putting a lot into the improvement of the country's power situation by purchasing new power plant units, repairing old units and ensuring gas supply to the gas thermal stations. But if the underlying problems of corruption in the power sector, lack of qualified staff and illegal tapping of power by the consumers are not equally focused on, the problem will only degenerate.

Crude Oil Crisis in Nigeria

2009-10-08T17:33:00.001+01:00

Nigeria is the 12th largest producer of crude in the world and the 8th largest exporter, and has the 10th largest proven reserves. Nigeria – Butmen Corporation (a German company) was the first company to explore crude oil in Nigeria as far back as 1908 when traces of it was found at Araromi in the present Ondo state. This pioneering exploration was brief due to the World War 1 (1914 – 1918). But, in 1937 Shell started exploratory activities after been awarded the sole concession rights that covered the whole territory of Nigeria. The company operated under the Mineral Oil ordinance of No. 17 of 1914 and its amendments of 1925 and 1950 which stipulated that only companies registered in Britain or any of its protectorate with their principal officers being British, can explore oil in Nigeria.

Shell intensified its geographical surveys in the late 1940s till 1950s and then discovered its first commercial crude oil in 1956 at Oloibiri in the present Bayelsa State. On 1958, Shell started oil exportation from Oloibiri field at a rate of 5,100 barrels per day (bpd). In other to break shell's monopoly on oil exploration its concession right was reviewed and exploration rights were granted to other companies like Mobil, ELF, Agip, Gulf and Tenneco. By the time of Independence in 1960, oil production had been established and export was over 170,000 bpd.

All these oil production is from a small fragment of the nation amounting to about 7.5% of Nigeria's land mass and known as the Niger Delta. The Niger Delta consists of the present day Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers state with a population of about 31 million people (less than 20% of the nation's population).

1. Abia 2. Akwa Ibom 3. Bayelsa 4.Cross River 5. Delta 6. Edo 7. Imo 8. Ondo and 9. Rivers

Nigeria is currently the biggest oil producer in Africa with about two million bpd, all generated from the Niger Delta. Though oil exports account for more than 80% of our total export earnings, 85% percernt of this oil wealth is retained by a few comprising 1% of the national population. The pattern of the oil revenue allocation has been a major cause of agitation by the Niger Deltans who claim that the returns of their resource is used to develop the North. They claim that their lands are being snatched from them forcefully without compensation and their source of livelihood (fishing) is been destroyed by recurrent oil spillage. There has been about 7000 oil spills between 1970 and 2000, more than one each day. Also, more than 90% of the natural gas extracted in the oil wells are flared causing more environmental damage.
In a bid to protect their rights and seek justice, many groups both militant and non-militant has emerged in the Niger Delta with most active ones being the militant ones especially Movement for the Emancipation of the Niger Delta (MEND) and Niger Delta People's Volunteer Force (NDPVF). The militant groups are demanding for creation of additional states, amenities and jobs, contracts and oil concessions for faction leaders. And since 2005 they have been destroying oil production infrastructure of different oil companies, kidnapping oil workers for ransom and causing oil production shutdowns of up to 800,000 bpd, threatening the government's plan to increase production to four million bpd by 2010. Only some of those production losses have been offset by recent offshore developments.
Also on several occasion, the Nigerian government has deployed armed forces with heavy equipment to crush the militants, but they only seem to succeed in leveling communities. In 1995 it hung environmentalist and famous writer, Ken Saro-Wiwa and eight others from Ogoni for challenging the exploration of oil by Shell on Ogoni soil. In December 1998, the government massacred youths in Yenegoa, the capital of Bayelsa state, for demanding the control of the oil resources exploited on their ancestral lands. A few months later, it also sent troops to flatten Kaiama, a town in Bayelsa state where youths had weeks before made a declaration demanding the people's control of their oil resources. In November1999, the town of Odi, Bayelsa state in Niger Delta was burnt down by soldiers on the orders of the then President, Olusegun Obasanjo. Several hundred people, including women and children were killed in the streets as they tried to escape from their burning houses. Restive youths, protesting the neglect of the community after four decades of oil exploration in the area had murdered twelve policemen sent to restore order in the town the previous week. Obasanjo, rather than send special forces, dispatched troops commanded by an army colonel, who with a full complement of artillery, bombarded Odi, murdered hundreds, and subsequently torched down the town.
The damage crude oil has done in the Niger Delta is enormous, while the local indeginous people there have seen little if any improvement in their standard of living and still suffer the damage to their natural environment and source of livelihood. Nigeria, who at one time was the world's largest exporter of groundnuts, cocoa, and palm oil, and a significant producer of coconuts, citrus fruits, maize, pearl millet, cassava, yams and sugar cane has been experiencing a decline in agricultural exports since the exportation of crude oil.
That Nigeria is blessed with abundant natural resources and yet her people remain poor is regarded as resource curse. Looking at all these, one can easily conclude in his heart that maybe Nigeria would have been well off without crude oil.

References
International Crisis Group. "Fuelling the Niger Delta Crisis". http://www.crisisgroup.org/home/index.cfm?id=4394 Retrieved October, 2009.
Wikipedia. "Nigeria". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria Retrieved June, 2009
Wikipedia. "Niger Delta". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_Delta Retrieved October, 2009
Ransome-Kuti, Beko: "The Niger Delta crisis and Nigeria's future" http://www.humanrights.de/doc-en/countries/nigeria/background/niger_delta_crisis.html Retrieved October, 2009
Centre for Democracy and Development(CDD). "The lingering crisis in Nigeria's Niger Delta and suggestions for a peaceful resolution" http://cdd.org.uk/resources/workingpapers/niger__delta_eng.htm. Retrieved October, 2009

Nigerian Civil War

2009-08-13T12:05:00.001+01:00

The Nigerian Civil War was between 6 July, 1967 and 15 January, 1970 as the southeastern part of Nigeria attempted to secede. This was caused by the perceived marginalization of the Igbos who dominated the southeast by the then Major General Yakubu Gowon led military government that created a new 12-state structure in May, 1967. This new structure divided the eastern region into three states, two of them dominated by non-southeastern groups and it also severed the vast majority of Igbo from the profitable coastal ports and rich oil fields that had just been discovered in the region. This exclusion of the southeasterners from power made them fear that the oil revenues would be used to benefit areas in the north and west rather than their own areas. So on 30 May, 1967, Colonel Odemugwu Ojukwu the then military governor of the Igbo-dominated southeast declared independence as the Republic of Biafra.
War began on 6 July, 1967 when the Nigerian Federal troops led by Colonel Shuwa advanced south to retake the secessionist territory. The town of Nsukka in the northern part of the southeast was captured on 14 July. The Biafrans responded with an offensive on 9 July, 1967 moving west into the Mid-Western Nigeria across the Niger river and led by Lt. Colonel Banjo. A division of Nigerian forces led by Colonel Murtala Muhammed stopped them, forced them to retreat and retook Benin City on 22 September. Then Gowon launched another offensive into Biafra south from the Niger Delta to the riverine area using the Lagos Garrison command under Colonel Benjamin Adekunle. The Federal troops were repulsed thrice as they attempted to cross the River Niger in October, many of them were killed and their tanks and equipment were destroyed.
The Federal troops then settled down to a period of a siege by blockading Biafra. Though the Nigerian marines led by Major Isaac Adaka Boro had captured the Bonny, Okrika and Port Harcourt on 26 July, and the port city of Calabar was taken on 18 October by Colonel Benjamin Adekunle led forces. Also, the Biafran capital, Enugu city was captured on 4 October. But the Biafrans continued to resist in their core Igbo heartlands. The Federal troops made little progress at the start o f 1968 until April when they launched an offensive closing in on the Biafrans. Already, the blockade on the Biafran territories was causing widespread civilian hunger and starvation. Many volunteer bodies organised blockade-breaking flights into Biafra, carrying food, medicines and sometimes weapons. There were arms-carrying aircraft that closely follows the aid aircraft, making it more difficult to distinguish between aid aircraft and military supply aircraft. The Biafrans launched in June, 1969 a desparate offensive against the Nigerians in their attempts to keep the Federal troops off-balance, through the support of foreign mercenary pilots continuing to fly in food, medical supplies and weapons. Although the Federal troops were taken off-guard by the surprise, they soon recovered and held off the Biafrans long enough for the offensive to stall out. Then the Nigerian federal forces launched one of their final offensive the Biafrans on 23 December 1969 with a major thrust by the Nigerian marines led by Colonel Olusegun Obasanjo which split the Biafran enclave into two. Another offensive was launched on 7 January, 1970 which led to the surrender of the Biafran forces on 13 January, 1970 with Ojukwu fleeing to Ivory Coast.
During the three-year war thousands of lives were lost with most deaths caused by hunger and disease.

References
"Nigeria".Encarta. Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved June-2009
"Nigeria". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria. Retrieved June-2009

Nigeria today

2009-08-13T11:50:00.001+01:00

The most urgent issue in Nigeria currently is the issue of democracy, understood not only as an end to military rule but also as the establishment of responsive and responsible political institutions which promote a government that is accountable, prevent corruption, respect human and civil rights, and ensure popular sovereignty.

For most Nigerians however, the pressing problems of everyday survival remain the highest immediate priority. Since the oil boom of the 1970s, Nigeria's economy has been in crisis despite continued expansion in oil production. The SAP has not helped the Nigerian economy much and the political instability since the early 1990s has severely impeded the ability of successive governments to implement economic policies. Without the establishment of an accountable government, the chances of addressing other pressing problems-like the deterioration of living conditions and the collapse of once outstanding educational institutions-are very minimal.

Nigeria is also well endowed with abundant human as well as natural resources to address its problems. Many of its outstanding leaders have been kept in prison or in exile. The solution for addressing its problems and thus consolidate democratic governance in the federal republic lies in having a government that works on the principles of good governance and is most especially, accountable to the Nigerian people. Good governance in Nigeria is thus essential to its stability and growth and that of the economies of West African countries in the Sub-region.

culled from http://www.iss.co.za/Af/profiles/Nigeria/Politics.html

Introduction to Nigeria

2009-08-11T10:48:00.000+01:00

The name Nigeria comes from the river Niger which is one of Nigeria's main river. Nigeria got her independence on 1 October, 1960 from Britain, after about half a century under British colonial rule.

Nigeria is the largest country in West Africa, spanning over an area of 923,768 sq km and is bounded by Benin (773 km) to the west, Cameroon (1,690 km) to the east, Chad (87 km) to the northeast, Niger (1,497 km) to the north and the Gulf of Guinea on the south. The natural resources in Nigeria are petroleum, natural gas, tin, columbite, iron ore, coal, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc and arable land. And the only major natural disasters are periodic droughts and flooding.

Nigeria is by far the most populated country in Africa with over 140 million people (July 2008 est.) and a labour force of over 51 million people. The official currency is Naira (NGN) and kobo (k). Her official language is English, but with about 400 native languages including Hausa, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulfulde, Kanuri, Ibibio, Tiv, Efik, Edo, Nupe, Ijesa, Ijaw and Ondo.

Nigeria operates a federal form of government with 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory also known as FCT. The president, 109 senators, 360 members of House of Representatives and the 36 governors all have a four-year term but can be re-elected for another term though the president and the governors cannot serve beyond two terms. Though the national capital is Abuja, most economic activities and businesses are in Lagos.

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2009-08-08T12:04:00.001+01:00

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2009-01-08T12:03:00.000+01:00

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