Fertilizer and Petrochemical Industries

Operator Dictionary (E)

2009-08-15T01:55:00.002+07:00

ECONOMISER

Equipment for preheating boiler feed water by use of low grade flue gas.

EJECTOR

A device that uses the venturi effect to pull a partial vacuum. Usually driven by steam and associated with condensing plant.

A synthetic polymer with rubber‑like characteristics. Examples of commercial products are styrene‑butadiene rubbers, butyl rubber, chloroprene rubber, nitrile rubber, polyurethane rubber and silicone rubber.

ELECTRICAL ISOLATION CERTIFICATE

Permit required to isolate or de‑isolate any electrical equipment.

ELECTROLYSIS

Chemical decomposition by the action of an electric current.

EMULSIFIER

A substance used to promote or aid the emulsification of two liquids and to enhance the stability of the emulsion.

EMULSION

A dispersion of fine droplets of a liquid (the disperse phase) in the bulk of another liquid (the continuous phase) with which it is immiscible. A third substance, the emusifier, is sometimes necessary to keep the droplets dispersed as a stable emulsion.

END POINT

The point indicating the end of some operation or at which a certain definite change is observed. In titration, this change is frequently a change in colour of an indicator which has been added to the solution, or the disappearance or excess of one of the reactants which is coloured. In the distillation of liquids, such as gasoline, the end point is the maximum temperature which occurs during the test (F.B.P).

ENDOTHERMIC

Relating to or designating a reaction which occurs with the absorption of heat, so that the temperature of the reacting bodies is lowered (i.e. heating is required).

ENGINE OIL

A term applied to oils used for the bearing lubrication of all types of engines, machines, and shafting, and for cylinder lubrication in other than steam engines.

ENGLER DISTILLATION

A standard test for determining the volatility characteristics of a gasoline by measuring the percent distilled at various specified temperatures.

ENTRAINMENT

See CARRYOVER

EROSION

To gradually wear away e.g. Catalyst circulation causes erosion.

ETHANE C₂H₆

A colourless, odourless gas of the methane series. Along with methane one of the main constituents of natural gas.

ETHENE

The normalised name for ethylene. A hydrocarbon gas and first member of the olefin series.

EVACUATION

Act of pulling a vacuum on a vessel at atmospheric pressure ‑ thus evacuating the air/gas present.

1.18 EVAPORATION

The conversion of a liquid into vapour, usually by means of heat.

EVAPORATOR

A vessel which receives the hot discharge from a heating coil, and by a reduction in pressure, flashes off overhead the light products and allows the heavy residue to collect in the bottom.

EX SITU REGEN

Where catalyst is removed from a reactor and regenerated elsewhere (usually at a catalyst specialists own plant).

EXOTHERMIC

Relating to or designating a reaction which occurs with the evolution of heat, so that the temperature of the reacting bodies is raised (i.e. cooling is required).

EXPANSION JOINT

A joint or coupling designed so as to permit an endwise movement of its parts to compensate for expansion or contraction.

EXTRACT

The portion of an unrefined petroleum product (often a kerosene or a lubricating oil) resulting from a solvent extraction process and consisting mainly of those components which are best soluble in the solvent. Generally the extract, after removal of the solvent consists largely of aromatic hydrocarbons.

EXTRACTION

A fractionation process based upon the difference in solubility, in a given solvent, of the various constituents of the mixture to be fractionated. The process is, for example, used in the separation of de‑asphalted oil from short residue (see butane de‑asphalting).

EXTRACTION DEPTH

Depth to which DAO may be extracted from short residue on BDU unit ‑ the greater the extraction depth, the higher the DAO yield, although too deep an extraction may affect DAO specification.

EXTRACTOR

Column in which an extraction process (e.g. BDU) is carried out.

EXTRAORDINARY ITEMS

Items of expenses or income that are not related to the main activities/operations of the company.

EXTREME PRESSURE LUBRICANTS

A term applied to lubricating oils or greases which contain a substance or substances specifically introduced to prevent metal‑to‑metal contact in the operation of highly loaded gears and bearings. In some cases this is accomplished by the substances reacting with the metal to form a protective film.

About Lithium-Based Battery

2009-04-16T03:25:00.001+07:00

There is only one way to charge lithium-based batteries. The so-called 'miracle chargers', which claim to restore and prolong batteries, do not exist for lithium chemistries. Neither does super-fast charging apply. Manufacturers of lithium-ion cells have very strict guidelines in charge procedures and the pack should be charged as per the manufacturers "typical" charge technique.

Lithium-ion is a very clean system and does not need priming as nickel-based batteries do. The 1st charge is no different to the 5th or the 50th charge. Stickers instructing to charge the battery for 8 hours or more for the first time may be a leftover from the nickel battery days.

Most cells are charged to 4.20 volt with a tolerance of +/?0.05V/cell. Charging only to 4.10V reduced the capacity by 10% but provides a longer service life. Newer cell are capable of delivering a good cycle count with a charge to 4.20 volts per cell. Figure 1 shows the voltage and current signature as the lithium-ion cell passes through the charge stages.

Preparing new lithium-ion for use

Unlike nickel and lead-based batteries, a new lithium-ion pack does not need cycling through charging and discharging. Priming will make little difference because the maximum capacity of lithium-ion is available right from the beginning. Neither does a full discharge improve the capacity of a faded pack. However, a full discharge/charge will reset the digital circuit of a 'smart' battery to improve the state-of-charge estimation.

What happens if a battery is inadvertently overcharged?

Lithium-ion is designed to operate safely within their normal operating voltage but become unstable if charged to higher voltages. When charging above 4.30V, the cell causes plating of metallic lithium on the anode; the cathode material becomes an oxidizing agent, loses stability and releases oxygen. Overcharging causes the cell to heat up. If left unattended, the cell could vent with flame.

Much attention is focused to avoid over-charging and over-discharging.

Commercial lithium ion packs contain a protection circuits that limit the charge voltage to 4.30V/cell, 0.10 volts higher than the voltage threshold of the charger. Temperature sensing disconnects the charge if the cell temperature approaches 90°C (194°F), and a mechanical pressure switch on many cells permanently interrupt the current path if a safe pressure threshold is exceeded. Exceptions are made on some spinel (manganese) packs containing one or two small cells.

Extreme low voltage must also be prevented.

The safety circuit is designed to cut off the current path if the battery is inadvertently discharged below 2.50V/cell. At this voltage, most circuits render the battery unserviceable and a recharge on a regular charger is not possible.

There are several safeguards to prevent excessive discharge. The equipment protects the battery by cutting off when the cell reaches 2.7 to 3.0V/cell. Battery manufacturers ship the batteries with a 40% charge to allow some self-discharge during storage. Advanced batteries contain a wake-up feature in which the protection circuit only starts to draw current after the battery has been activated with a brief charge. This allows prolonged storage.

Lithium Ion (Li-Ion)

Lithium Ion batteries are very different. You should not deliberately discharge a Li-Ion cell. In fact, if you were to manage to run one flat, it would probably be damaged. There is electronics inside each Li-Ion battery to protect it from such abuse, but don't take the risk!

To keep your Li-Ion battery in good shape, simply charge it overnight before it runs down. If a full battery at all times matters to you, you can top it up whenever you like, but you'll probably get a longer service life from it if you only recharge it when it is getting a bit low.

Storage

Batteries of any type don't like to be left discharged. In general, if you have a spare battery, it is probably best to use it alternately with its partner.

Declining years

Li-Ion batteries can fail suddenly, possibly because the electronics inside it have gone wrong, but in general they simply fade away. Because the capacity falls gradually over the charge cycle life, when to replace it is a matter of when the charge capacity is no longer sufficient for your needs. Never try to revitalise a Li-Ion battery in any way, or expose it to excessive heat: the very high power density of Li-Ion makes such actions very dangerous.

Summary :

Never discharge your battery fully as safety circuits can fail when a low charge is left in your battery
As a rule try to charge your battery when it reaches approximately 20%
As soon as a Li-ion battery is created from the factory, the life of it decreases ever so slowly so buying a spare and not using it as much does not see much better life
If you need to store a Li-ion battery that is not used, charge or discharge it to approximately 40% and store in a cold environment such as a fridge to prolong battery life
Li-ion do not need priming and do not have a memory effect as did Nickel Cadium Batteries did
Li-ion batteries prefer a partial discharge instead of a full discharge

Operator Dictionary (D)

2008-12-20T09:28:00.006+07:00

DAMPER
Usually a flap or shutter to control air flow in a furnace (may be in the supply and/or the flue ducting).

DEACTIVATION
Reduction in catalyst activity by poisoning or coating of catalyst particles by contaminants, or by a change in the physical structure of the catalyst particles.

DEADWEIGHT
The amount of cargo, stores and fuel which a vessel carries when loaded to the appropriate draught allowed by law. The difference between deadweight and displacement is the actual weight of the vessel.

DEARATOR
Device for the steam stripping of 0₂ and other gases from boiler feed water.

DEBTORS
Accounts receivable.

DECOMPOSITION
The breaking up of compounds into smaller chemical forms through the application of heat, change in other physical conditions, or introduction of other chemical bodies.

DEFERRED TAXATION
Provision for tax payable in the future, but deferred in the current year because of timing differences between the Company's accounts and the accounts required by the Inland Revenue Department.

DEHYDRATION
The removal of water from crude oil, from gas produced in association with oil, or from gas from gas‑condensate wells.

DEHYDROCYCLISATION
Any process involving both dehydrogenation and cyclisation reactions.

DEHYDROGENATION
A reaction process in which hydrogen atoms are eliminated from a molecule.

DEIONIZED WATER
Water that has had all the free ions removed by ion‑exchange, also called demineralised water.

DEISOLATION
The opposite of isolation i.e. To energise a piece of equipment.

DEMISTER
Any device used to stop passage of liquid droplets e.g. a demister section in a vacuum column is to stop the asphaltenes from the residue getting into the waxy distillate.

DEMULSIFIER
An additive used to prevent the formation of an emulsion ‑ applicable in crude/water emulsions in desalter.

DEMURRAGE
Amount payable to ship owner for failure to load or discharge ship within time allowed.

DENITRIFICATION
Removal of nitrogen compounds on feedstock by hydrogenation. N₂ + 3H₂ = 2NH₃.

DENSE BED LOADING
Catalyst loading system of "raining" the catalyst onto the bed which achieves a higher loaded density than "sock" loading.

DEOXYGENATION
Removal of oxygen on feedstock by hydrogenation. 0₂ + 2H₂ = 2H₂0.

DESALTING
A process to remove inorganic salts and other impurities from crude oil by mixing with water followed by settling in an electrostatic field.

DESULPHURISATION
The removal of sulphur or sulphur compounds from a charge stock.

DESUPERHEATER
Equipment used to reduce the temperature of superheated steam.

DETERGENCY
The ability of a substance to clean and to wash away undesirable substance. Detergents may be either oil‑soluble or water‑soluble. Soap and synthetic detergents help to wet, disperse, and de-flocculate solid particles. Oil‑soluble detergents are used in motor oils to disperse, loosen, and remove carbon, dirt, etc. from interior surfaces of internal‑combustion engines.

DETERGENT OIL
A lubricating oil possessing special sludge‑dispersing properties for use in internal‑combustion engines. These properties are usually conferred on the oil by the incorporation of special additives. Detergent oils hold sludge particles in suspension and thus promote engine cleanliness.

DETONATION
Detonation or knocking is the sharp metallic sound emitting from the cylinders of spark‑ignition engines under certain conditions. It occurs when conditions in a cylinder are such that self‑ignition of an unburnt mixture of fuel and air takes place. It reduces power output.

DEW POINT (at a given pressure)
The temperature at which a vapour, contained in a closed vessel under the given pressure, will form a first drop of liquid on the subtraction of heat. Further cooling of the vapour at its dew point results in condensation of part or all of the vapour as liquid. The dew point of a normal gasoline is approximately the same as the temperature at which 70% by volume distils over in the ASTM‑distillation test. The dew point of a pure compound is the same as its boiling point.

DEWAXING
The process of removing paraffin wax from lubricating oils.

DIESEL ENGINE
As internal‑combustion engine in which air drawn in by the suction stroke is so highly compressed that the heat generated ignites the fuel, which is automatically sprayed into the cylinder under high pressure.

DIESEL FUEL
A general term covering oils used as fuel in diesel and other compression ignition engines.

DIESEL INDEX
A measure of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel; the index is calculated from a formula involving the gravity of the fuel and its aniline point (API gravity times the aniline point (determining by ASTM D611‑47T) divided by 100).

DIFLUOROETHANE
A catalyst promoter used on the Hydrocracker.

DILUENT
A liquid used to dilute or thin out another liquid.

DIPPING
A process for measuring the height of a liquid in a storage tank. This is usually done by lowering a weighted graduated steel tape through the tank roof and noting the level at which the oil surface cuts the tape when the weight gently touches the tank bottom (see Ullage).

DISTILLATE
The liquid obtained by condensing the vapour given off by a boiling liquid. Also the top product taken off a fractionating column; and in its broadest sense: any fraction other than the bottom product of the fractionator.

DISTILLATION
(fractional) A fractionation process based on the difference in boiling point of the various constituents of the mixture to be fractionated. It is carried out by evaporation and condensation in contact with reflux. When applied to the separation of gasoline, kerosene, etc., from a crude oil, to leave a residual fuel oil or asphaltic bitumen, the process is frequently called topping. Distillation is normally carried out in such a way as to avoid decomposition (cracking); in the case of the higher boiling distillates, such as long residue, this is accomplished by carrying out the distillation under vacuum (which requires a lower temperature).

DISTILLATION CURVE
Curve made by plotting the percentage of gasoline (or other petroleum product) distilled versus the temperature.

DISTILLATION LOSS
The difference, in a laboratory distillation, between the volume of liquid originally introduced into the distilling flask and the sum of the residue and the condensate recovered.

DISTRIBUTOR (LIQUID/GAS)
A device for distributing a 2 phase flow correctly within a vessel, i.e. encouraging separation. DISULPHIDE A compound containing a ‑S‑S‑ linkage. Such compounds are colourless liquids completely miscible with hydrocarbons and insoluble in water. The lower members, when pure, possess a nauseating sweet odour which is particularly clinging and penetrating. Although disulphides are normal constituents of the lighter distillates, they are also formed as a result of the oxidation of mercaptans. Sour distillates become sweetened in this way.

DIVIDEND COVER
Net profit after tax and before extraordinary items Dividend for year.

DIVIDEND YIELD
Market Price of Shares (cents).
Dividend Paid (cents).

DOCTOR SOLUTION A
solution (sodium plumbite) made from lead oxide and sodium hydroxide, used to treat gasoline or other light petroleum distillates to remove mercaptan sulphur. The "doctor test" is used for the detection of sulphur compounds in light petroleum distillates which react with sodium plumbite.

DOCTOR TREATMENT
A process of sweetening sour gasoline’s ‑ by conversion of the mercaptans ‑ by means of a solution of lead oxide in caustic soda, together with sulphur.

DOLPHIN
Separate pile in jetty system ‑ used for mooring.

DOWNCOMER
A means of conveying liquid from one tray to the next below in a trayed column.

DOWNSTREAM
Towards the later end of the process e.g. final blending, product tankage. In the business sense ‑ Marketing of finished products, filling stations etc.

DRAW OFF
A connection which allows liquid to flow from the bottom of a vessel or to remove the contents from a draw off tray.

DRY GAS
Natural gas which does not contain liquid hydrocarbons at storage pressure. Also often used for a petroleum gas consisting of no other compounds than inert gases (e.g. hydrogen, nitrogen, etc) and the light hydrocarbons methane, ethane, ethene, propane, propene (sometimes also: hydrogen sulphide).

DUAL PURPOSE KEROSENE
An export grade Kero that meets both premium and Avtur specifications.

Coal Gasification Could Fuel Clean Coal

2008-11-03T09:45:00.004+07:00

There is a growing consensus that increased demand for electricity will cement coal's place in the energy portfolio for years to come. In fact, more than half of the electricity produced in the United States comes from coal. With demand for electricity expected to double by 2050 and renewable resources still years away from offsetting increased demand, it is clear -- coal is here to stay.

But can 'dirty' coal be used cleanly? The answer may be a resounding yes if gasification becomes common place, researchers said February 15 at the 2008 Annual Meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston.

"Coal gasification offers one of the most versatile and clean ways to convert coal into electricity, hydrogen and other valuable energy products," said George Muntean, staff scientist at the Department of Energy's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory.

"Gasification provides significant economic and environmental benefits to conventional coal power plants," Muntean said. Rather than burning coal directly, gasification breaks down coal into its basic chemical constituents using high temperature and pressure. Because of this, carbon dioxide can be captured from a gas stream far more easily than from the smokestacks of a conventional coal plant.

"If we plan to use our domestic supply of coal to produce energy, and do so in a way that does not intensify atmospheric CO2 concentrations, gasification is critical," Muntean said. "It has the potential to enable carbon capture and sequestration technologies and play an important role in securing domestic sources of transportation fuels."

Many experts predict that coal gasification will be at the heart of clean coal technology if current lifespan and economic challenges are addressed. One significant challenge is the historically short lifespan of refractories, which are used to line and protect the inside of a gasifier. Currently, refractories have a lifespan of 12 to 16 months. The relining of a gasifier costs approximately $1 million and requires three to six weeks of downtime.

"Gasification happens in an extreme environment so the lifespan of refractories is historically low," said S.K. Sundaram, PNNL staff scientist. "Refractory lifespan must be increased before we can realize the promise of clean coal."

During the symposium, S.K Sundaram highlighted two advanced gasifier models developed at PNNL that provide a scientific understanding on when and why refractories fail at such high rates. The data collected from these models could enable advanced or alternative gasification technologies to be produced. Use of these models could extend refractory lifespans by 3 years.

"Advances in modeling will help us better understand some of the key challenges associated with coal gasification -- refractory durability and lifespan," Sundaram said. "This will help reduce the capital costs of operating a coal gasifier."

During the symposium, researchers at PNNL also highlighted advances in millimeter wave technology that could be used for real-time measurement of critical parameters (temperature, slag viscosity, refractory corrosion) inside a gasifier. The millimeter wave technology, developed at PNNL, has been used for a number of different applications, from airport security to custom fit clothing. Although in the early stages of development for this application, the technology shows promise to increase the efficiency and safety of coal gasifiers.

"Advances in gasification will help us meet demand for clean energy worldwide," Sundaram said. "Science and technology are paving the way for cleaner coal for future generations."

got it from here

What is Hot Tapping ?

2008-10-30T08:07:00.003+07:00

A few week ago we've have problem in our heat exchanger, there was a leakeage in the tube side. We realize that the consequences of a shutdown would not be practicable. So the management decide to use the hot tapping methode to reduced the leakage.

Hot tapping, or under-pressure drilling, is a method of making a connection to existing pipelines or tanks while that existing system is under pressure. This method employs a drilling or tapping machine, a full-ported valve and a pressure-containing fitting to the existing pressurised system. The end result a new branch connection abstracted from the original pipe while the line is still operational.

A necessary element in most hot-tap connections is the full-ported valve, which can become a control valve for the new connection, and allows the drilling machine to be removed after the cutting operation. Gate valves and other full-ported valves with flanges and screwed connections; typically include 150lb through 900lb ANSI ratings.

PHL purchases its machinery from leading international suppliers of hop tap equipment and therefore has access to the latest developments in this fast-moving engineering process. PHL is therefore able to put a wider range of solutions together, testing the boundaries, whilst maintaining good practice and adhering to our stringent safety codes.

The overall process is completed without any leakage or interruption to the flow of liquid. It is possible to perform a hot tap on pipes from 1" to 48" with pressure ratings up to 1480 psi and temperatures up to 700 degrees Fahrenheit.

The types of pipes that this method can be applied to is almost unlimited:

Cast iron
Ductile iron
Non ferrous metal
Mild steel
Plastic
Reinforced concrete

Contact Us

2008-10-16T10:41:00.003+07:00

Operator Dictionary (C)

2008-10-13T20:09:00.002+07:00

C1,C2,C3,C4,C5
A common way of representing fractions containing a preponderance of hydrocarbons of 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 carbon atoms, respectively, without reference to hydrocarbon type.

CALIBRATION
The determination of fixed reference points on the scale of any instrument by comparison with a known standard and the subsequent subdivision or graduation of the scale to enable measurements in definite units to be made with it. Also the process of measuring or calculating the volumetric contents or capacity of a receptable.

CALMING SECTION TRAYS
Fractionating trays characterised by the presence of calming sections on a tray of the grid, sieve or valve variety (hence the names: c.s. gridtray, c.s. sieve tray and c.s. valve tray). Calming sections are actually downcomers, carefully designed and distributed over the tray area so as to ensure the best distribution of liquid.

CALORIE
The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water through 1C (from 14.5°C to 15.5°C). In calculations the k calorie, equal to 1,000 calories is often used. 1,000 kilocalories = 3,968 Btu.

CALORIFIC VALUE
The calorific value of a combustible material is the quantity of heat produced by complete combustion of unit weight of the material. The units in which the calorific value is usually given are (a) calories per gram and (b) British Thermal Units per pound. The systems may be converted by the relationship: 1 calorie per gram = 1.8 Btu per lb.

CANDLEPOWER
The illuminating power of a standard candle employed as a unit for determining the illuminating quality of kerosene and other illuminants. One international candle or one American candle equals

CAPILLARITY
That physical action by which the surface of a liquid, where it is in contact with a nonhorizontal solid surface (as in vertical capillary tube), is elevated above or depressed below the level of the liquid. Its magnitude is determined by the interfacial tensions involved.

CARBON
A nonmetallic element existing in diamonds, graphite, and numerous amorphous forms; combined as carbon dioxide, carbonates, and in all living things. Carbon is unique in forming an almost infinite number of compounds (it is present in all organic compounds).

CARBON (FIXED CARBON)
In the case of coal, coke, and bituminous materials, the solid residue other than ash contained by destructive distillation.

CARBON DEPOSIT
Engine deposits containing soot from over rich fuel mixtures and the carbon residue and tars from decomposed lubricating oil. Road dust, metal particles, gum and tarry substances also form a part of such deposits.

CARBON DIOXIDE
A heavy, colourless gas, CO2, which will not support combustion. Dissolved in water, it forms carbonic acid. It is exhaled by lung possessing animals as a waste gas, but is inhaled by certain plants which absorb its carbon and release its oxygen as a waste gas.

CARBON MONOXIDE
A colourless, odourless gas, CO; a product resulting from the incomplete combustion of carbon. It is very poisonous.

CARBURETTOR
A device for metering the correct mixture of air and gasoline to an internal combustion engine.

CARRYOVER
Relatively nonvolatile contaminating material which is carried over by the overhead effluent from a fractionating column, absorber, or reaction vessel. It may be carried as liquid droplets or finely divided solids suspended in a gas, a vapour, or a discrete liquid.

CASCADE TRAY
A fractionating device consisting of a series of parallel troughs arranged in stair step fashion. Liquid from the tray above enters the uppermost trough. Liquid thrown from this trough by vapour rising from the tray below impinges against a plate and a perforated baffle. Liquid passing through the baffle enters the next lower of the troughs.

CATALYSIS
The alteration of the rate of a chemical reaction by the presence of a "foreign" substance (catalyst) that remains unchanged at the end of the reaction.

CATALYST
In technology this word means a substance added to a system of reactants which will accelerate the desired reactions, while emerging virtually unaltered from the process. The catalyst allows the reaction to take place at a temperature at which the uncatalyzed reaction would proceed too slowly for practical purposes. Used extensively in secondary processes.

CATALYST POISON
Generally, coverage of the catalyst surface with nonreactants. If a large fraction of the catalyst surface is covered selectively by any one strongly adsorbed chemical, the catalytic reaction will be drastically reduced in rate. This circumstance is called poisoning, and self poisoning can result when one reactant or product is much more strongly adsorbed than another reactant. May be reversible, but can destroy entire catalyst inventory.

CATALYTIC PROCESS
Any process which employs catalysis. Examples : Hydrocracking, Platforming and hydrotreating.

CATALYTIC REFORMING
Process of changing the molecular structure of the components of straight run gasoline or of a gasoline fraction by subjecting the gasoline to thermal treatment in the presence of a catalyst (for example platinum). By this process the anti knock performance of the gasoline is improved.

CATHODIC PROTECTION
Method of protecting tanks, ships, pipelines and jetties against corrosion. By reversing the electric current which flows away from a corroding metal, a corrosion process can be arrested.

CAUSTIC SODA
The name used in industry for sodium hydroxide (NaOH) on account of its property of corroding the skin. It is strongly alkaline. Used extensively in water treatment or pH control in process units.

CENTRIGRADE (CELSIUS) SCALE
A thermometer scale on which the interval between the freezing point and boiling point of water is divided into 100 parts or degrees centigrade, so that 0°C corresponds to 32°F and 100°C to 212°F. Also called Celsius after Anders Celsius who first described it.

CENTIPOISE, CENTISTOKES
A Centipoise (cP) is 1/100th of a poise (P) which is the fundamental unit of dynamic viscosity in the centimetre gram second system of units. The viscosity of water at 20°C is approximately 1 cP. The centistokes (cS) is 1/100th of a stoke (S) which is the fundamental unit of Kinematic viscosity in that system. The two c
viscosity’s are related by the density, i.e. number of centistokes = number of Centipoise divided by liquid density (in g/cm3).

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR
A machine in which pressure is built up by means of rotating fans or blades.

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
A pump that derives its pressure increase from the centrifugal force generated when the impeller throws the liquid outwards at high speed.

CENTRIFUGE
A whirling instrument for separating liquids and solids or liquids of different specific gravity by use of centrifugal force.

CERAMIC BALLS
Balls of chemically inert ceramic, used as filler and support in reactors etc.

CETANE NUMBER
The cetane number of a diesel fuel is a number equal to the percentage by volume of cetane in a mixture with alph methyl naphthalene having the same ignition quality as the fuel under test.

CFR ENGINE
A standard single cylinder variable compression engine developed by the Co operative Fuel Research Council, to determine the anti knock value of motor gasoline’s or the ignition quality of diesel fuels.

CHANNELING
Non uniform flow of process fluid through (e.g.) a reactor bed.

CHARACTERISATION
Identifying a feed or product by its properties e.g. distillation, carbon: hydrogen ration, density etc.

CHAR VALUE
In the 24 hours kerosene burning test the amount of char formed on the wick under prescribed conditions is measured and reported as mg/kg.

CHECK VALVE (NON RETURN VALVE)
An automatic valve which permits fluids to pass in one direction but closes when the fluids attempt to pass in the opposite direction.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD)
Total amount of oxygen needed for oxidation of all organic matter in water to CO2 and H2O.

CHLORINATION
A chemical reaction in which chlorine reacts with hydrocarbon and one or more of the hydrogen atoms are replaced by atoms of chlorine, or chlorine reacts with an unsaturated hydrocarbon and two chlorine atoms (one molecule) are added to the double bond.

CHROMOMETER See Colorimeter

CLADDING
A homogeneous bonded or resistance welded metallic liner applied to a base metal such as carbon steel. Used in lines, vessels, and heat exchanger equipment to reduce corrosion and increase service life. Also called clad lining.

CLAUS PROCESS
Process for the manufacture of sulphur from H2S, comprising oxidation of part of the H2S to SO2 in a thermal reaction stage, followed by catalytic reaction of the remaining H2S with the SO2 formed to give sulphur.

CLEAR GASOLINE
A gasoline which is free from anti knock additives such as tetraethyl lead. In making comparative engine tests between leaded and unleaded fuels, the clear, unleaded gasoline is sometimes referred to as straight gasoline base, base fuel, or as gasoline "neat".

CLOUD POINT
The temperature at which a fuel, when cooled, begins to congeal and present a cloudy appearance owing to the formation of minute crystals of wax.

COAGULATION
The precipitation from solution or suspension of fine particles which tend to unite in clots or curds.

COALESCER
A vessel packed with steelwool, glasswool, polypropylene wool or felt used to remove fine droplets of treating liquids or water from a petroleum product.

COASTAL TANKER Ltd (CTL)
A Company responsible for coastal tanker movements in NZ

COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION
The ratio of the increase of length, area, or volume of a body for a given rise in temperature (usually 1°F) to the original length, area, or volume of the body.

COFFERDAMS
The empty spaces fore and aft in a tanker, which traverse the whole breadth of the vessel and isolate the cargo tanks from the rest of the ship (fire protection).

COKE
Hard carbon deposit, usually formed by the unintentional thermal cracking of heavy residues.

COKE DRUM
A vessel in which coke is formed or collected and which can be cut off from the process for cleaning.

COLD FILTER PLUGGING POINT
The highest temperature at which a fuel ceases to flow through a test filter.

COLORIMETER
An instrument for determining the colour of oil product by measuring the percentage transmission of monochromatic light through the liquid.

COMBINED FEED RATIO (CFR)
The ratio of the 2nd to 1st stage feed on the Hydrocracker.

COMBUSTION
The process of burning; rapid oxidation caused by the union of the oxygen of the air with a material.

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
The space in which the process of burning takes place e.g. in a jet engine.

COMPATABILITY
Ability of additives or products to mix together without separation or reaction.

COMPOUND
A substance formed by the combination of two or more ingredients in definite proportions by weight, and possessing physical and chemical properties entirely different from those of the ingredients. e.g. table salt, paint.

COMPRESSION
In general, the act of increasing the pressure on gas or vapour. It is usually attended by a reduction in volume.

COMPRESSION IGNITION
The combustion which takes place when fuels are injected in a fine spray into the hot compressed air (500°C) in the cylinder of a diesel (compression ignition) engine. The heating of the air is due to its rapid compression by the piston.

COMPRESSION RATIO
The ratio of the cylinder volume when the piston of an engine is at the crank end of the cylinder, to the volume when the piston is at the head end.

COMPRESSOR
A device which draws in air or other gases, compresses it and discharges it at a high pressure.

CONDENSATE
Liquid hydrocarbons which are sometimes produced together with natural gas. In general: the liquid that is formed when a vapour cools.

CONDENSATION (PHYSICAL)
The transfer of a material from the vapour phase into the liquid phase, for example by the withdrawal of heat.

CONDENSER
A special type of heat exchanger for the removal of heat from e.g. the top of a fractionating column.

CONDENSER BOX
A large box shaped structure in which the condenser, which may consist of coils or tubes, is submerged in a heat absorbing medium, usually water.

CONDUCTIVITY
A materials ability to conduct an electrical charge. Important in water treatment (as an indication of impurities) and some hydrocarbons (static risk).

CONGEAL
To change from a liquid to a semi solid or solid state.

CONTINUOUS CATALYST REGENERATOR
see Fluid bed operation.

CONTINUOUS DISTILLATION
An operation in which the steps of charging, heating, vapourisation, fractionation, and collection of products are performed continuously rather than in a batchwise manner. The unit employed is known as a continuous still.

CONTROL LOOP
Combination of control signal, feedback signal and instrumental response that characterises an automatic control system.

CONTROLLER
The actual control instrument is the controller. However, the word is often used in reference to the control valve that acts on the process.

CONVECTION
The flow of heat through liquid or gas by actual mixing of the fluids (physical turbulence).

CONVECTION SECTION
That portion of the furnace in which tubes receive heat by convection from the flue gases (contrast with radiant section).

CONVENTIONAL PRODUCTS
Petroleum products which are manufactured from crude oil by physical separation processes. (See primary processes).

CONVERSION PROCESSES
Manufacturing processes which involve a change in the structure of the hydrocarbons (See secondary processes).

COOLER
A heat exchanger whose primary purpose is to reduce the temperature of one of the passing fluids.

COOLING TOWER
A unit or structure, for the purpose of cooling by evaporation.

COPPER STRIP CORROSION
A qualitative method of determining the corrosivity of a product by its effect on a small strip of polished copper suspended or placed in the product. One of the kerosene quality tests.

CORRECTED ENERGY & LOSS (CEL)
Yardstick used for monitoring refinery efficiencies.

CORROSION
The gradual eating away of metallic surfaces as the result of chemical action such as oxidation. It is caused by corrosive agents such as acids.

COUNTERCURRENT FLOW
A system in which one fluid flows in one direction and another fluid flows in the opposite direction e.g. in a heat exchanger, in which the direction of flow of the cold oil is opposite to that of the hot oil.

CRACKING
Process whereby the large molecules of the heavier oils are converted into smaller molecules of the gasoline type. When this is brought about by heat alone, the process is known as thermal cracking. If a catalyst is also used the process is referred to as catalytic cracking (in speech generally abbreviated to cat. cracking) or Hydrocracking if the process is conducted over special catalysts in a
hydrogen atmosphere other processes include visbreaking and hycon.

CREDITORS
Accounts payable.

CREEP
Change in the micro structure of a metal. The continuous stretching which occurs when metal is under stress or pressure, especially apparent when at high temperatures.

CRITERIA REFERENCED INSTRUCTION
Method of instruction based on meeting specific criteria.

CRITICAL PRESSURE
The pressure necessary to condense a gas at the critical temperature.

CRITICAL TEMPERATURE
The maximum temperature at which a gas can be liquefied by pressure (critical pressure); above this temperature the gas cannot be liquefied, no matter what pressure is applied.

CRITICAL VELOCITY
The rate of flow in a pipe at which streamline flow changes into turbulent flow.

CRUDE NAPHTHA
Light distillate made in the fractionation of crude oil.

CRUDE OIL TYPES
See appropriate sub heading for description.
Paraffin base crude oils
Asphaltic base crude oils
Mixed base crude oils

CRUDE WAX
Crude wax, also called petroleum wax or slack wax, is an unrefined mixture of high melting hydrocarbons, mainly of the normal straight chain type, still containing a fairly high percentage of oil. It is obtained by filtration (as such, or after addition of a solvent) from high boiling distillates or residual oils. Slack wax is primarily obtained as by product in the manufacture of lubricating oils. The crude wax made from distillate oils is refined to make a range of microcrystalline waxes.

CRYSTALISATION
A fractionation process based on the difference in freezing point of the various constituents of the mixture to be fractionated. The process is, for example, used in the separation of paraffins from lube oil (de waxing).

CUSTODY TRANSFER TANKS
Tanks which receive products from external sources or deliver products to external sources.

CURRENT RATE
Current Assets
Current Liabilities

CUT
Refinery term for a fraction obtained direct from a fractionation unit. Several cuts can be blended for the manufacture of a certain product.

CUT POINT
(Between two process streams). The boiling point at atmospheric pressure of the component distributed in equal percentage in both process streams.

CYCLISATION
A reaction, for example, platinum catalysed, by which a straight chain paraffin hydrocarbon is converted into a naphthene and then into an aromatic: i.e. The process of changing an open chain hydrocarbon structure to a closed ring, e.g. hexane to benzene. Accompanied by production of Hydrogen.

CYCLONE SEPARATOR
A conical vessel provided with a tangential inlet for a gas stream containing finely divided solids or liquid droplets, normally designed with a centrally located overhead gas withdrawal line. Powdered solids or coagulated liquids are separated by centrifugal force and pass downward along the incline (conical) to a centrally located outlet. In catalytic cracking, a pipe, known as a dip leg, is connected to this bottom outlet and serves to convey the solids back to the catalyst bed.

Eid Mubarak

2008-09-28T15:47:00.000+07:00

Introducing The Next Generation Of Chemical Reactors

2008-09-24T20:55:00.003+07:00

Unique nanostructures which respond to stimuli, such as pH, heat and light will pave the way for safer, greener and more efficient chemical reactors.

Being developed by a consortium of UK universities, the nanostructures can regulate reactions, momentum, and heat and mass transfer inside chemical reactors. This technology will provide a step change in reactor technology for the chemical, pharmaceutical and agrochemical industries.

Professor Yulong Ding of the Institute of Particle Science and Engineering at the University of Leeds explains: “This research programme is an important step towards producing the next generation of smart “small footprint”, greener reactors. The responsive reaction systems we are investigating could make the measurement systems currently used in reactors redundant.”

The technique is being developed through a collaborative research programme initiated by Professor Ding together with Dr Alexei Lapkin at the University of Bath, and Professor Lee Cronin at the University of Glasgow.

The programme involves designing and producing molecular metal oxides and polymers as building blocks, and engineering those blocks to form nanoscale structures, which are responsive to internal and / or external stimuli such as pH, heat or light. The structures can be dispersed in fluid, or coated on the reactor walls.

As conditions inside the reactor change, the nanostructured particles will respond by changing their size, shape, or structure. These changes could in turn alter transport properties such as thermal conductivity and viscosity, and catalyst activity – and hence regulate the reactions.

Professor Ding also believes that these systems also have the potential to eliminate the risk of ‘runaway’, where a chemical reaction goes out of control.

The three-year programme, funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), brings together leading experts in the fields of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Particle Science & Engineering. (Science Daily)

The Dangerous about Ammonia

2008-09-22T00:04:00.006+07:00

As a plant operator, we should know the dangerous of the product that we have made. Bellow there's some description about ammonia hazards and the preventive acts that should we take in order to work safely in ammonia plant... Okey...Let's go on...

ANHYDROUS AMMONIA SAFETY

Definition
Anhydrous Ammonia is a compound formed by the chemical combination of the two gaseous elements nitrogen and hydrogen. Anhydrous means “without water” and when used with the word ammonia indicates that the water content is less than 0.2 percent. This distinguishes it from aqueous solutions of ammonia.

Approximately 80% of all ammonia produced in this country is used in agriculture to replenish nitrogen in the soil. Ammonia is also used as a refrigerant, in pH control efforts, explosive manufacturing and chemical manufacturing.

PRIMARY HAZARDS

Ammonia acts as an irritant to human tissue in varying degrees depending upon concentration and exposure. The pungent and distinctive odor of the vapor, even at low concentrations, provides adequate warning so that no person will voluntarily remain in concentrations which are hazardous. Ammonia is classified by the U.S. Department of Transportation as a NONFLAMMABLE GAS. Conditions favorable for ignition are seldom encountered in normal handling due to its narrow range of susceptibility. In the presence of a flame or spark at about 1200 degrees F, ammonia vapor will ignite, but only within the limited range of 16-25% of ammonia in air by volume. The heat generated by combustion is insufficient to maintain a flame which therefore will extinguish upon ignition source removal.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Depending upon concentration and time, the effects of exposure to ammonia vapor vary from none or only mild irritation, to obstruction of breathing from laryngeal and bronchial spasm, to edema and severe damage of the mucous membranes of the respiratory tract possibly with fatal results.

Ammonia in the presence of water is highly alkaline. Contact of the skin or mucosa with liquid ammonia or a high concentration of vapor can result in a caustic burn. Liquid ammonia in contact with the skin can cause frostbite.

Exposure levels of ammonia vapor which are tolerated by some persons may produce adverse reactions in others. Persons having chronic respiratory disease or persons who have shown evidence of undue sensitivity to ammonia should not be exposed to ammonia.

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF AMMONIA

Effect PPM Ammonia in Air by Volume

Least perceptible odor ..................................................................................5 PPM
Readily detectable odor.................................................................................20 - 50 PPM
No discomfort or impairment of health for prolonged exposure ..................50 - 100 PPM
General discomfort and eye tearing;no lasting effect on short exposure ......150 - 200 PPM
Severe irritation of eyes, ears, nose and throat; no lasting effect.................400 - 700 PPM
Coughing, bronchial spasms....................................................................... 1,700 PPM
Dangerous, less than 1/2 hour exposure may be fatal............................2,000 - 3,000 PPM
Serious Edema, strangulation, asphyxia, rapidly fatal..........................5,000 - 10,000 PPM
Immediately fatal Over ........................................................................10,000 PPM

EXPOSURE LIMITS

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations require that an employee’s short term exposure limit (STEL) for ammonia should not exceed a time-weighted average (TWA) of 35 ppm ammonia in air by volume in any 15 minute period. The American Conference of Government and Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) has established an exposure limit of 25 ppm ammonia in air by volume as an 8 hour time weighted average (TWA).

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

Persons working with ammonia under routine circumstances of operation and maintenance should wear flexible fitting, hooded ventilation goggles and rubber or plastic gauntlet gloves impervious to ammonia A full face shield may be worn over the goggles for additional protection, but not as a substitute for the goggles.

FIRST AID PROCEDURES

Ammonia is one of the most water soluble of all gases. Accordingly, the best means of providing first aid for an injury caused by ammonia contact with the eyes or skin is to flush immediately with large quantities of clean water. Promptness in initiating treatment, using adequate quantities of water and continuing its application for at least fifteen minutes or longer if necessary, are all essential in successful first aid management of an eye or skin injury resulting from contact with ammonia. Cool coffee, tea and even a fruit flavored beverage are all reported as having been used with good effect in starting first aid treatment when water was not immediately available. A physician must be called promptly for any person who has been burned severely or overcome by ammonia. The physician should be given a complete account of the cause of injury. Speedy removal of the patient from the contaminated location is important to avoid aggravation of the injury.

EMERGENCY MEASURES

Every plant, warehouse, office or other facility is susceptible to emergency situations which can result in property damage and/or bodily harm to employees, visitors or even neighbors. Management bears responsibility within its own organization for the development and implementation of comprehensive and effective plans designed to protect the safety of human life, physical assets and the environment to the greatest degree.

No single plan for ammonia safety will serve the needs of all companies. Each organization must assess the various potential emergency conditions that might occur and develop a program to suit its own requirements. When an ammonia leak occurs, trained personnel authorized to handle such situations should take immediate steps to locate and control the condition. If an extensive leak occur, all persons in the path of the vapor should be warned. Local emergency authorities should be contacted to manage evacuation.

With good ventilation or rapidly moving air currents, ammonia vapor, being lighter than air, can be expected to dissipate readily to the upper atmosphere. Further action may not be required other than to stop the leak. If necessary, the concentration of ammonia vapor in the air can be reduced effectively by the use of an adequate volume of water applied through a spray or fog nozzle.

Water should not be applied to a liquid spill unless at least 100 parts of water to one part of ammonia are available.

LEAK DETECTION

An ammonia leak is readily detectable by its characteristically pungent odor. A small leak may often be detected by holding a moist strip of phenolphthalein or litmus paper near the suspected leak source. The rapidity and intensity of the color change in the paper will give some indication of leak proximity or size. In the presence of ammonia, phenolphthalein paper will turn from white to pink or deep red.

Sulfur dioxide may also be used to locate ammonia leaks; sulfur dioxide vapor reacts with ammonia to form a telltale dense white cloud. Care must be exercised to avoid breathing sulfur dioxide vapor as it is also highly irritating. It should be noted that a gas mask canister which is specific for ammonia will not offer protection against sulfur dioxide.

LEAK CONTROL

If a leak occurs in equipment or piping, shut off the ammonia supply and carefully vent all ammonia from the system before attempting to dismantle any part or make repairs. Since the presence of frost on an external surface indicates that liquid ammonia is vaporizing in the system, the frost should be allowed to dissipate before breaking any connection.

Pressure Relief Device — A leak or discharge through a pressure relief device, such as a pressure relief valve or hydrostatic relief valve, may occur if the pressure within the equipment, piping, tank or container exceeds the rated pressure setting of the device or if the device is faulty.

Reducing the pressure within the system may permit the device to reset. Under no circumstances should you attempt to plug, cap or otherwise tamper with a pressure relief device. Pressure relief valves should be replaced at 5 year intervals as suggested by the manufacturer.

FIRE EXPOSURE

An ammonia container should be kept cool with water spray until well after the fire is extinguished. Firefighting personnel should be equipped properly with protective clothing and respiratory equipment.

EMPLOYEE SAFETY TRAINING

Safety in working with ammonia depends on more than just the availability of personal or emergency protective equipment and clothing. Employee training in safe operation procedures, in first-aid measures, and in the use of suitable and properly maintained operating and protective equipment must be included as an essential element in any comprehensive safety program.

Such safety training is the responsibility of management and should be given to new and old employees at periodic intervals to maintain high proficiency levels. Written and oral instructions should be followed by drills regarding the emergency alarms, safety showers, other water sources, first aid supplies, and shut-down equipment such as valves and switches.

Training should also stress the avoidance of body contact with liquid ammonia or inhalation of gas and the necessity of reporting of equipment failures to appropriate supervisory authority.

AMMONIA CHARACTERISTIC

With increasing temperature, ammonia in the liquid phase expands. For example, at 60 degrees F the pressure in the storage tank is 93 psig. If the temperature reaches 100 degrees F the pressure in the tank increases to 200 psig. When pressure is released, liquid ammonia quickly converts to a gas. One gallon of liquid ammonia will turn to a vapor cloud that is just less than 5 feet by 5 feet by 5 feet or 113 cubic feet in size. This conversion will freeze atmospheric moisture forming a white colored cloud. Ammonia has a vapor density of 0.597 compared to air at 1. Ammonia vapors will rise and easily travel with any wind present.

Ammonia is one of the most dangerous chemicals in use today. At room temperature and normal atmospheric pressure, ammonia is a pungent, colorless gas approximately 40% lighter than air. Compressed and cooled, ammonia gas condenses to a colorless liquid about 68% as heavy as water. At atmospheric pressure, the liquid boils at -28oF.

so as to protect critical body areas which are most vulnerable to contact with ammonia should a minor leak occur.

Operator Dictionary (B)

2008-09-21T17:24:00.006+07:00

BACK PRESSURE

1. The pressure on the outlet or downstream side of a flowing system.
2. In an engine, the pressure which acts adversely against the piston, causing loss of power.

BAFFLE
A partial restriction, generally a plate, located so as to change direction, guide the flow, or promote mixing within the equipment in which it is installed.

BALANCED DRAUGHT
A method of furnace air control using both forced and induced draught fans.

BAR OVER
To manually or mechanically rotate a compressor or turbine to ensure free movement or enable even heating/cooling.

BAROMETER
An instrument employed to determine atmospheric pressure.

BAROMETRIC CONDENSER
A device for condensing steam by direct contact with water. It produces a partial vacuum in refinery equipment such as a vacuum distillation unit.

BAROMETRIC LEG
Water filled tube for sealing vacuum systems.

BARREL
A standard measure of crude oil quantities; equivalent to 35 imperial gallons, 42 US gallons or 159 litres.

BASIC SEDIMENT AND WATER
The heavy material which collects in the bottom of storage tanks, usually composed of oil, water, and foreign matter. Also called bottoms, bottom settlings, etc. It is measured in all incoming feedstocks.

BATCH
Any quantity of material handled or considered as a unit in processing.

BATCH PROCESS
Any process in which a quantity of material is handled or considered as a unit. Such processes involve intermittent, as contrasted to continuous operation.

BATTERY
A series of individual items of refinery equipment operated as a unit.

BATTERY LIMITS
A term used when a unit or a battery is to be built in a refinery by an outside contractor or construction company. It specifies the area within which the contractor shall supply all services, and defines the limits beyond which this shall be done by the refinery. Also defines plant interface limits.

BEARING
A support for holding a shaft in its correct position.
Examples: journal bearings to confine radial motion, thrust bearings to control axial movement, and "rolling element" bearings which are used in both services.

BENZENE C6H6
The parent compound of the aromatic hydrocarbon series. It is used in the manufacture of a large number of chemicals including phenol, styrene, detergent alkylate and insecticides and is a major component of platformate.

BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD)
Important water test that shows the amount of bio-degradable matter in the water. Amount of oxygen required by aerobic organisms for breakdown of organic matter in water over a 5 day period.

BIODEGRADATION
Degradation of solid materials by bacterial consumption.

BIOTREATER
Process for biological degradation of effluent water.

BITUMEN
A non crystalline solid or semi solid cementitious material derived from petroleum, consisting essential of compounds composed predominantly of hydrogen and carbon with some oxygen and sulphur, it gradually softens when heated. Bitumen’s are black or brown in colour. They may occur naturally or may be made as end products from the distillation of, or as extracts from, selected petroleum oils.

BLACK PRODUCTS
Fuel oils, bitumen’s and residues.

BLEEDING
Divert or release a small portion of the material contained in a line or vessel, usually by opening a valve slightly.

BLEND
Any mixture prepared for a special purpose, e.g. the products of a refinery are blended to suit market requirements.

BLENDED FUEL OIL
A mixture of residual and distillate fuel oils.

BLENDING
Mixing of the various components in the preparation of a product of required properties.

BLENDING STOCK
Any of the stocks used to make commercial gasoline. These include: straight run gasoline, cracked gasoline, and synfuel among others.

BLENDING VALUE (ANTI KNOCK)
Some anti knock blending agents possess the property of apparently increasing the rated octane number of certain gasoline base stocks to a higher octane number than their own value in terms of octane numbers. This property is known as the blending value.

BLOCK VALVE
A valve used for isolation of equipment.

BLOCKED OPERATION
The use of a single process unit alternately in more than one operation.

BLOWBACK
A system in which a liquid or a gas is continuously bled through the lead lines of an instrument meter into the main line. This prevents the main line fluid from coming in contact with the meter body, thus eliminating vaporisation, corrosion or plugging.

BLOW BY
In internal combustion engines, the escape of combustion gases or unburned fuel from the combustion chamber past the pistons and rings into the crankcase during the power stroke or the compression stroke.

BLOWDOWN
The act of flushing or clearing a piece of pressurised equipment by blowing to a drain (or similar). Term is often used by Boilermen, continuos blowdown indicating blowdown from the Steam Drum or Scum level, and Intermittent Blowdown from the bottom header of a boiler.

BLOWER
Usually an enclosed fan used in a forced/induced/balanced draught furnace to provide the combustion air.

BLOWN BITUMEN
A type of bitumen prepared by the oxidation of short residues, normally by blowing air at an elevated temperature.

BLUE SMOKE
A blue exhaust smoke from a diesel engine, indicating that only a part of the fuel is being burned; also called cold smoke.

BOILING POINT (AT A GIVEN PRESSURE)
The temperature at which a liquid, contained in a closed vessel under a given pressure, will form a first bubble of vapour on the addition of heat. Further heating of the liquid at its boiling
point results in evaporation of part or all of the liquid.

BOILING RANGE
Petroleum products (which are mixtures of many compounds, each having a different boiling point) do not have a simple boiling point but have a boiling range instead, i.e. the temperature range from boiling point to dew point.

BOMB
A small pressure vessel, such as used for taking samples of HP gases and LPG.

BOND

1. Chemically, a unit link between atoms. In graphic chemical formulas, it is often represented by a short line or dash.
2. Electrically, a common grounding system e.g. Bonding wires used between fuel tanker and petrol station ground tanks or airport delivery systems and aircraft.

BOOSTER STATION
An auxiliary station consisting of suitable storage tanks, motive power and pumps for pumping oil through pipelines.

BOTTLED GAS
Ordinarily, butane or propane, or butane propane mixtures, liquefied and bottled under pressure for domestic use.

BOTTOMS
The bottom product from a distillation of petroleum; also the liquid layer left in a tank or similar container after draining to the level of the pump suction.

BOX IN
To isolate a piece of equipment, usually by block valves.

BOX UP
The act of closing up a piece of refinery equipment following construction, maintenance, inspection etc.

BRAKE HORSEPOWER
That horsepower delivered by an engine to a brake or dynamometer. It is less than the indicated horsepower by the amount lost in transmission bearings, gear teeth, belts, etc.

BREAKER POINT
The point of contact actuated by a cam to break the primary circuit in the ignition system and thereby cause a current surge in the secondary circuit which produces the spark.

BREATHING
When a storage tank containing volatile products is heated by solar radiation, some of the liquid contents evaporate. The excess vapour thus formed is blown out to the atmosphere. On cooling, the less volatile components of the vapour contents condense and a slight vacuum is created, causing air from outside to be sucked into the tank. This double action is referred to as "breathing" of the tank. The movement of gas (oil vapours or air) in and out of the vent lines
of storage tanks as a result of alternate heating and cooling.

BRINE
Water which is nearly saturated with salts.

BRITISH THERMAL UNIT (BTU)
The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1lb of water through 1°F. 1.000 Btu = 252 kcal. 2.50 BRITOLITE A drying solvent used by BP. Manufactured from hydrocracked Naphtha and Tops.

BUFFER

1. A vessel for temporary storage of liquid (buffer drum).
2. A chemical used to maintain another within set limits of (e.g.) pH.
3. A device to polish the floor.
4. An old Navel name for a person in-charge of the deck of a Ship.

BUG COUNT
Microscopic estimation of active bacteria in a sample.

BULK CRUSHING STRENGTH
Test to determine the mechanical strength of a catalyst.

BULK DENSITY
The weight of solid particles which can be held by a container of known dimensions compared to the weight of water which can be held by the same container.

BUND WALL
Same as Fire Wall.

BUNKER FUEL
Any fuel oil or diesel fuel taken into the bunkers of ships.

BURNING OIL
An illuminating oil, such as kerosene, mineral seal oil, etc. suitable for burning in a wick lamp.

BUTANE C4H10
Commercial butane is a mixture of two gaseous paraffins, normal butane and isobutane. When blended into gasoline in small quantities it improves volatility and octane number. Butane can be stored under pressure as a liquid at atmospheric temperatures ("bottled gas") and it is widely used for cooking and domestic heating.

BUTANE DE ASPHALTING
A solvent extraction process whereby a short residue is split into components having low (D.A.O.) and high (Asphalt) asphaltic content by contact with liquid butane.

BYPRODUCT
A secondary or additional product not of primary importance. (e.g. Sulphur).

Molybdenum and it's uses

2008-09-20T18:10:00.003+07:00

Molybdenum is from the Greek word molybdos meaning “lead like.” It is directly mined and is a byproduct of copper mining. It was used very infrequently up until the 19th century when Schneider and Co decided to use Molybdenum as an alloying agent in steel. Today there are many uses of molybdenum.

Molybdenum is still used as an alloy agent in steel. All high strength steel contains from .25% to 8% molybdenum which contributes to the hardenability of the steel. It also improves the strength of steel under high temperatures and improves resistance to corrosion.

Steel with molybdenum is used in architectural applications near the ocean; and in environments where road salts are used and there is heavy industrial pollution. The Petrons Towers in Kuala Lumpur are a great example of the use of molybdenum stainless steel.

Nuclear energy applications also use molybdenum as do many aircraft parts and missile parts. It’s a catalyst in petroleum refining; in fact it is one of the most valuable. It is also used as a filament material in electrical applications and on electrodes for glass furnaces that are electrically heated. It is a good lubricant that will work in temperatures much higher than oil without decomposing.

Its uses are actually more in-depth than one might think. You’ll find it commonly used within the power industry, chemical processing industry, water industry, and wastewater industry. It is also used in construction, building, and architecture; which one might have guessed considering its association to steel. And you will find it in the food industry which seems a bit unusual.

Molybdenum is used to harden and strengthen cast iron. It accomplishes this by changing the pearlite temperature. The use of molybdenum eliminates the need for special heat treatments.

Molybdenum is also used in nickel based alloys, which includes jet engines. It strengthens the nickel alloy and extends the service temperature. This combination is considered a super alloy. Over 1/3 of a jet engine’s weight is made up of this super alloy.

Molybdenum is a silvery white metal that is very hard. However it is more ductile and softer than tungsten. It has a very high melting point. In fact the only other two metals that have a higher melting point are tantalum and tungsten. Its prime use is in the hardenability and tempering of metals such as steel. It is not a product most of us will ever have direct involvement with but we will likely encounter it in a more subtle manner.

Hydrogen The Future Energy Sources For Fuel

2008-09-20T15:15:00.003+07:00

Burned or used in fuel cells, hydrogen is an appealing option for
powering future automobiles. This nontoxic gas could serve as a
pollution-free energy carrier for machines of many kinds. When it
burns, it releases no carbon .dioxide, a potent greenhouse gas.
And if hydrogen is fed into a fuel cell stack a battery like device
that generates electricity from hydrogen and oxygen it can propel an
electric car or truck with only heat and water as by products. Fuel-
cell powered vehicles could offer more than twice the efficiency of
today's automobiles. Hydrogen could, therefore, help ease
environmental problems, including air pollution and its hazards.

Weight for weight, hydrogen contains three times the energy of
gasoline (petrol) but it is impossible to store hydrogen gas as
compactly as the conventional liquid fuel. One of the most challenging
technical issues is how to efficiently and safely store enough
hydrogen onboard to provide the driving range and performance the
motorists demand. Feasible storage devices hold sufficient hydrogen to
support today's minimum acceptable travel (driving range--almost 500
kms)--on a fuel tank that does not compromise on luggage room. These
tanks have to be filled or recharged in a few minutes. Lot many
researchers in the U8 Internal Energy Agency are expending
considerable effort to overcome these limitations. Infact, 17
governments are committed to advancing hydrogen and fuel-cell
technologies. In 2005 the US Department of Energy provide4 $ 30
million to fund the 80 research projects.

A 500 km. minimum driving range is one of the principal operational
aims of the auto industry. Engineers believe that a~allon of gasoline
is equal,on an energy basis, to a kilogram of hydrogen.(One US gallon
is almost 3.8 litres) Whereas today's automobile needs about 20
gallons of gasoline to travel 500 km.,the typical fuel-cell vehicle
would need only 8 kilograms of hydrogen. Several automakers have
tested about 60 hydrogen -fuelled prototypes and demonstrated driving
ranges of 200 to 300 kms.

By 2010 some auto companies expect the first production of fuelcell
cars to hit-the road. A hydrogen storage system must carry enough fuel
for at least a 500 km trip and also be light enough to haul around a
car. For a system weighing 600 kilograms (a reasonable~ size of a
vehicle) ,six kgs. would be stored hydrogen. Liquified stored hydrogen
can improve it's stored energy density and could be used in cars, it
drawbacks notwithstanding. Neverthe less, One world-renowned
carmakerBMW is pushing this technology onto the road. The vehicle
called HYDROGEN-7 will incorporate an ,internal combustion engine
capable of running on either gasoline for 500 Kms.or on liquid
hydrogen for 250 kms.

Chemical compaction: to raise energy density scientists have been able
to take advantage of the chemistry of hydrogen itself. In it~ liquid
phase, hydrogen molecules contain two bound atoms each. But when
hydrogen molecules are chemically bound to certain other elements,
they can be packed even closer together than in liquid hydrogen.

Operator Dictionary (A)

2008-09-20T14:23:00.006+07:00

While working we often heard many kind of technical terminology. Sometime we don't understand the meaning of that word. Now i try to describe some of the terminology. I arrange it by letter, now we start from alphabet A. Other alphabet will describe in another posting... I hope it will be useful. Cheerrs :)

ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Pressure measured with respect to zero pressure, as distinct from pressure measured with respect to some standard pressure such as atmospheric pressure. Thus, 2 Bar gauge (i.e. atmospheric) is equivalent to 3 Bar absolute. (Atmospheric pressure being 1 bar absolute).

ABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE
A temperature at which zero is a condition absolutely free of heat and equivalent to -459°F or –273°C. To convert temperature on Fahrenheit or centigrade scales to degrees absolute, add 459 or 273 respectively.

ABSORPTION PROCESS
A separation process, a weak chemical reaction, by which certain components of a gas are condensed in an absorption liquid (lean oil) with which the gas is brought into contact. The absorption liquid with the absorbed components is called fat oil. The fat oil leaves the bottom of the absorber and is separated from the absorbed components in a following fractionator (Regenerator) whence the fresh lean oil is returned to the absorber. For example, Adip and Sulfinol Processes for H2S + CO2 removal.

ACCELERATOR
1.A substance that hastens a reaction, usually by acting as a catalyst, as in the vulcanization of rubber.

2.Any of several automobile attachments for increasing the speed at will, especially a foot-operated throttle.

ACCUMULATOR
A vessel for the temporary storage of a gas or liquid; usually used for collecting sufficient material for a continuous charge to some refining process.

ACETYLENE C2H2
A highly unsaturated hydrocarbon gas usually made by the action of water on calcium carbide and by pyrolysis of natural gas. It is largely used in industry for cutting and welding metals. Several important intermediates have been synthesised from acetylene but a cheaper route via ethylene has now been developed for many of them.

ACID
A member of an important and fundamental category of chemical substances characterised by having an available reactive hydrogen and requiring an alkali to neutralise them. Acid solutions usually have a sour, biting and tart taste, like vinegar.

ADDITIVE
A substance added to a product in order to improve its properties.

ADIP
Shell trade name for aqueous DIPA solution.

ADIP TREATING
A process for removal of hydrogen sulphide from hydrocarbon gases and LPG by a specific regenerable solvent.
Carbon dioxide and, to a certain extent, carbonyl sulphide can be removed at the same time. The solvent employed is an aqueous DIPA solution.

ADSORPTION PROCESS
A fractionation process based on the fact that certain highly porous materials preferentially adsorb certain types of molecules on their surface, e.g. PSA units.

AEROBIC
Existing in the presence of oxygen.

AEROMETER
An instrument for ascertaining the weight or density of air or other gases.

AGGREGATE
As applied to non-bituminous materials, the inert material, such as sand, gravel, or broken stone, with which cementing material is mixed to form a mortar or concrete.

AIR-BLOWN ASPHALT
Asphalt produced by blowing air through residual oils or similar mineral oil products at moderately elevated temperatures.

AIR HEAT EXCHANGER
A heat exchanger in which air is used as the cooling medium.

AIR SWEETENING
In this process sour gasoline fractions are sweetened by dissolving air in the hydrocarbon phase followed by contacting with a strong NaOH aqueous solution. The reaction products formed are disulphides which dissolve in the sweetened gasoline and water remaining in the aqueous phase.

ALCOHOLS
A class of organic compounds containing oxygen (as a hydroxyl), of which ethyl alcohol (the alcohol of potable spirits and wines) is the best known. They can react with acids to form esters. They are largely used as solvents.

ALGAE
Plants of the group comprising practically all seaweed’s and allied freshwater or nonaquatic forms, such as pond scum’s, stoneworts, etc.

ALIPHATIC HYDROCARBONS
Hydrocarbons in which the carbon atoms are arranged in open chains, which may be branched. The term includes paraffins and olefins and provides a distinction from aromatics and naphthenes which have at least some of their carbon atoms arranged in closed rings.

ALKALI
In chemistry, any substance having marked basic properties. In its restricted and common sense, the term is applied only to hydroxides of ammonium, lithium, potassium, and sodium. They are soluble in water, they have the power of neutralising acids and forming salts with them and of turning red litmus blue. In a more general sense, the term is also applied to the hydroxides of the so-called alkaline earth metals - barium, calcium, and strontium.

ALKALI TEST
A test to determine the presence or absence of free alkali in finished oils after chemical purification.

ALKALINE
Having the properties of an alkali; opposite to acidic.

ALKALINITY
The amount of free alkali in any substance.

ALKYLATION
A reaction in which a straight-chain or branched-chain hydrocarbons group, which is called an alkyl group or radical, is united with either an aromatic molecule or a branched-chain hydrocarbon. Used for detergent or petroleum manufacture. Usually catalysed by Hydrofluoric or Sulphuric acid.

ALLOY
A substance composed of two or more metals, or of a metal and a nonmetal, intimately united, usually by being fused together and dissolved in each other when molten.

AMERICAN PETROLEUM INSTITUTE
An association incorporated in the United States, having as its object the study of the arts and sciences connected with the petroleum industry in all its branches and the fostering of foreign and domestic trade in American petroleum products.

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR TESTING MATERIALS
An association incorporated in the United States for promoting knowledge of the properties of engineering materials and for standardising specifications and methods of testing.

AMINE
Hydrocarbon with attached Ammonia group having absorbent properties, making it useful in treatment processes (ADIP, SULFINOL).

AMMONIA (NH3)
Ammonia is manufactured by the direct combination of hydrogen and nitrogen under pressure over a catalyst. Anhydrous ammonia is mainly used for the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers, but is used at NZRC for pH control in various processes. A colourless, gaseous compound, NH3 is of extremely pungent smell and taste and is very soluble in water.

ANAEROBIC
Existing in an oxygen free condition.

ANALYSIS
The process of determining the composition of a substance by chemical or physical methods.

ANHYDROUS
Free of water.

ANILINE POINT
The minimum temperature for complete miscibility of equal volumes of the chemical aniline and a petroleum product. In conjunction with API gravity the aniline point may be used to calculate the net heat of combustion of aviation fuels or the diesel index of diesel fuels. The lower temperature at which an oil product is completely miscible with aniline in a 1:1 volumetric ratio.

ANNEALING
Heating and slowly cooling to increase the ductility or remove internal stresses, as of metal or glass.

ANTIFOAM AGENT
An additive used for controlling foam. Antifoam agents are used in some lubricating oils. At PIM, used UCON or AMEREL

ANTI KNOCK
An adjective signifying resistance to detonation (pinking) in spark ignited internal combustion engines. Anti knock value is measured in terms of octane number of gasoline engines and of cetane number for diesel fuels.
ANTI KNOCK AGENT
A chemical compound such as tetramethyl lead which, when added in small amounts to the fuel charge of an internal combustion engine, tends to lessen knocking.

ANTIOXIDANT
A chemical added to gasoline, lubricating oil, etc. to inhibit oxidation.

ANTI STATIC ADDITIVE
An additive for reducing static properties, notably in Kerosene.

API GRAVITY
In the USA an arbitrary scale known as the API degree is used for reporting the gravity of a petroleum product. The degree API is related to the specific gravity scale (15°C/15°C) by the formula:

141.5
Degree API = Sp. Gr. 15°C/15?C 131.5

AROMATIC BLEND
A mixture made by the addition of a component or stock essentially aromatic in nature to impart to the mixture some property of the aromatic.

AROMATICS
A group of hydrocarbons characterised by their having at least one ring structure of six carbon atoms, each of the latter having one valency outside the ring. If these valencies are occupied by hydrogen atoms, hydrocarbon radicals, or inorganic groups one speaks of condensed aromatics. These hydrocarbons are called aromatics because many of their derivatives have an aromatic odour. They are of relatively high specific gravity and possess good solvent properties. Certain aromatics have valuable anti knock characteristics. Typical aromatics are: benzene, toluene, xylene, phenol (all mono aromatics) and naphthalene (a di aromatic). Aromatics can cause smoke and freeze point problems in Kerosene.

ASH
The solid residue left when combustible material is thoroughly burned.

ASH CONTENT
The percent by weight of residue left after combustion of a sample of a fuel oil or other petroleum oil.

ASPHALT
This term may have several meanings:

1.It refers to a mixture of bitumen and mineral aggregate, as prepared for the construction of roads or for other purposes.

2.In the United States it refers to the product which is known as bitumen elsewhere. Black to dark brown solid or semisolid cementitious material which gradually liquefies when heated and in which the predominating constituents are bitumens. These occur in the solid or semisolid form in nature: are obtainable by refining petroleum; or are combinations with one another or with petroleum or derivatives thereof.

ASPHALTENES
Polyaromatic constituents of asphaltic bitumen characterised by being insoluble in aromatic free low boiling petroleum spirit, but soluble in carbon disulphide.
ASPHALTIC BASE CRUDE OILS
Crude oils which contain little or no paraffin wax but usually contain asphaltic matter. Now often referred to as naphthene base crude oils.

ASPHALTIC BITUMEN
The full name for bitumen adopted by the Permanent International Association of Road Congresses.

ASPIRATOR
An apparatus which serves to create a partial vacuum through pumping a jet of water, steam, or some other fluid or gas past an orifice opening out of the chamber in which the vacuum is to be produced.

ASSOCIATED NATURAL GAS
Natural gas associated with oil accumulations by being dissolved in the oil under the reservoir temperatures and pressures (solution gas) and often also be forming a gas cap of free gas above the oil (gas cap gas).

ASTM DISTILLATION
Any distillation made in accordance with an ASTM distillation procedure; and, especially, a distillation test made on such products as gasoline and kerosene to determine the initial and final boiling points and the boiling range.

ASTM GUM TEST
1.An analytical method for determining the amount of existing gum in a gasoline by evaporating a sample from a glass dish on an elevated temperature bath with the aid of circulating air.

2.Any gum test carried out in accordance with an ASTM gum test procedure.

ASTM MELTING POINT
The temperature at which wax first shows a minimum rate of temperature change, also known as the English melting point.

ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
1.The pressure of air.

2.More specifically, the pressure of the air at sea level.

3.As a standard, the pressure at which the mercury barometer stands at 760mm, or 30in. (equivalent to approx. 14.7 psi).

ATOM
The smallest complete particle of an element which can be obtained, yet retain all physical and chemical properties of the element. According to present theory, the atom consists of a nucleus of neutrons and positively charged protons, surrounded by negatively charged particles called electrons.

ATOMISE\
To divide a liquid into extremely minute droplets, either by impact with a jet of steam or compressed air, or by passing through some mechanical device.

ATTEMPERATOR\
Same as Desuperheater,you can see in the desuperheater glossary (me2d will post it later) :)

ATTRITION\
The act of wearing out by rubbing or grinding, or the state of being so worn or ground. Granular catalysts or absorbents may suffer such attrition as a result of movement.

AUTO IGNITION POINT
The temperature at which the vapour given off by a sample will ignite in air without any ignition source.

AVERAGE BOILING POINT
Unless otherwise indicated, the sum of the ASTM distillation temperatures in steps of 10C from the 10 percent point to the 90 percent point, inclusive, divided by 9. Sometimes half the initial and half the maximum distillation temperatures are also added, and the sum then divided by 10.

AVGAS
High octane aviation gasoline for piston type engine.

AVIATION GASOLINE
Any of the special grades of gasoline suitable for use in certain aeroplane engines.

AVTAG
Wide range aviation turbine fuel, gasoline type, about identical to the JP 4 type fuel.

AVTUR
Kerosene type aviation turbine fuel, (Jet A1).

AZEOTROPE
Two (or more) components are said to form an azeotrope if there is a mixture of those components which has no boiling range but whose boiling point and dew point are the same.

AZEOTROPIC DISTILLATION
A distillation process characterised by the fact that the relative position of the components boiling points is influenced by the addition of a compound which selectively forms an azeotrope with one or a group of the components. The added compound is called the azeotrope former. E.g. furfural, used in the extraction of aromatics, forms an azeotrope with water.

Floc and Flocculation Processes

2008-09-20T13:53:00.000+07:00

The physical separation of the solid phase from the water in order to improve the quality of water by flocculation (the formation of particles known as "flocs" which settle or in flotation processes rise), occurs in both organically contaminated and inorganically contaminated raw water and is the simplest yet one of the very most important water treatment process.

Flocculation may occur naturally in liquids. However, when referred to in the context of water treatment processes includes both the physical pollutants present in the raw water and the addition of additional solids by the precipitation of dissolved pollutants. These pollutants are most often organic in nature, such as in sewage (wastewater) treatment.

The precipitation process may also be chemical as in potable water treatment but both produce a solid phase that requires separation, however, the purpose of creating the floc is always to bind together the contaminant for ease of subsequent removal.

To achieve the separation a number of different processes are used and these include sedimentation, filtration (surface and depth) and flotation. The required degree of liquid/solid separation is achieved by choice of the flocculant to enhance key characteristics within the flocculated solids.

These are specific to the separation process chosen and are described as follows:-

- sedimentation (settlement) is aided by large compact flocs which have high densities and low amounts of drag

- flotation which requires small low density flocs with relatively open structures which aid contact between the flocs and the bubbles which will remain caught within the floc structure for long enough to float them to the surface for removal

- filtration is best achieved by large, strong porous flocs with low surface charges

- sludge thickening works best with compact flocs and a high solid to liquid ratio is clearly preferred to aid water content reduction during the process, again low charge surfaces assist.

It is also worthwhile to consider the character of flocculated suspensions by splitting them into four groups by considering size, shape, strength and charge.

Size is the most important feature of a floc as size relates closely to removal efficiency. For maximum efficiency of solids removal it is important to avoid as far as possible the generation of fine particles (less than 10 um) where removal efficiency starts to deteriorate and the charge of the surfaces becomes increasingly important.

Fine particles are created by floc breakage which occurs when the hydrodynamic stress applied at the surface of the floc particle is sufficient to overcome the bonding strength of the connections within the flocs. Two specific mechanisms have been identified and are commonly classified as surface erosion or large scale fragmentation.

Surface erosion relates to the stripping of small particles from the extremities of the floc's surface resulting in an increase in the primary particle concentration.

In contrast, large scale fragmentation relates to the floc being cleaved into a number of smaller flocs without an increase in primary particle concentration.

The strength of a flocculated suspension is usually determined by applying a known shear rate to the systems and measuring the response. A number of techniques have been tried in the literature but the majority of studies use an impeller based system connected to a particle size instrument.

Comparison of the two mechanisms of floc fragmentation suggests that organic flocs are more prone to erosion than large scale fragmentation. The explanation of this is partly due to the difference in the shape of the flocs formed under the different conditions.

The factors we have described in this article form the introductory principles from which the science of flocculation has been developed to enhance this most simple and extremely useful of water treatment processes.

Natural Gas

2008-09-20T12:55:00.000+07:00

Like oil, natural gas is a product of decomposed organic material. It is a byproduct of plants and animals that decomposed without the presence of oxygen. As they were covered with sediment they became trapped. That is why natural gas is called a fossil fuel.

Natural gas is similar to oil, in many ways. The gas is often found mixed with oil or floating on top of underground pools of oil. The gas and oil are both extracted by drilling.

Natural gas didn't used to be regarded as a useful resource and was burned off as it was extracted from the ground. Imagine that? It wasn't until it was regarded as a useful fuel source that pipelines were developed for its transport.

It's not entirely clear how much natural gas remains in the ground. As far as experts can tell, there should be a supply of at least 60 years from now. It is estimated that Russia has vast supplies along with many more undiscovered sources in the world. This prediction puts the supply out to a couple human lifetimes from now. Who knows what the world will be like, that far into the future.

Natural gas was first used to provide light for houses and buildings, but it was manufactured from coal and oil. So the construction of pipelines began in the 50s and covered most of the nation by the 80s. Pipelines are still being added to this day.

Nearly 70% of US homes are heated with natural gas. The best home furnaces are over 90 percent efficient at utilizing the heat from the gas.

Even though natural gas is a fossil fuel and is made mostly of carbon, byproducts from gas are much less than coal or oil. Compared to coal, natural gas produces 43% less carbon byproducts for each unit of energy produced and 30% less than oil. A coal plant produces large amounts of ash where natural gas does not. However, burning gas still produces nitrogen oxides byproducts, contributing to smog and acid rain.

The natural gas market continues to grow at a rapid pace. Gas turbines have added to this. The turbines are less expensive than adding coal plants, for the production of electricity.

A fuel cell is a different approach to turn gas into electricity. Fuel cells convert natural gas directly into power without combustion. A molecule of gas is made up of carbon and hydrogen. When the hydrogen is separated from the carbon and fed into a fuel cell, it combines with oxygen to produce water, electricity and heat. The carbon is released as carbon dioxide, although in much smaller quantities than from gas turbines. Fuel cells are highly efficient, converting about 60 percent of the gas energy into electricity. They are totally silent and can be made in different sizes. They can be made small enough to power a car or large enough to provide electricity, heat and hot water to apartment buildings or factories.

Natural gas in the future may be produced from biomass. Biomass can be animal waste, sewage or trash. When these items decay, methane is given off. The methane can be captured and burned for heat or power.

Save The Environment, Why Waste?

2008-09-18T22:33:00.000+07:00

Generally in fertilizer or petrochemical industries there's always by-product that became waste. This waste is very danger to the environment, we should be aware about this waste. Here's some word that explain the waste. Hope be usefull...

I. Waste in Nature

Waste is considered to be the by-product of both natural and artificial processes: manufacturing, chemical reactions, and events in biochemical pathways. But how do we distinguish the main products of an activity from its by-products? In industry, we intend to manufacture the former and often get the latter as well. Thus, our intention seems to be the determining factor: main products we want and plan to obtain, by-products are the unfortunate, albeit inevitable outcomes of the process. We strive to maximize the former even as we minimize the latter.

This distinction is not iron-clad. Sometimes, we generate waste on purpose and its fostering becomes our goal. Consider, for instance, diuretics whose sole aim to enhance the output of urine, widely considered to be a waste product. Dogs use urine to mark and demarcate their territory. They secrete it deliberately on trees, shrubs, hedges, and lawns. Is the dog's urine waste? To us, it certainly is. And to the dog?

Additionally, natural processes involve no intention. There, to determine what constitute by-products, we need another differential criterion.

We know that Nature is parsimonious. Yet, all natural systems yield waste. It seems that waste is an integral part of Nature's optimal solution and that, therefore, it is necessary, efficient, and useful.

It is common knowledge that one's waste is another's food or raw materials. This is the principle behind bioremediation and the fertilizers industry. Recycling is, therefore, a misleading and anthropocentric term because it implies that cycles of production and consumptions invariably end and have to somehow be restarted. But, in reality, substances are constantly used, secreted, re-used, expelled, absorbed, and so on, ad infinitum.

Moreover, what is unanimously considered to be waste at one time or in one location or under certain circumstances is frequently regarded to be a precious and much sought-after commodity in a different epoch, elsewhere, and with the advance and advantage of knowledge. It is safe to say that, subject to the right frame of reference, there is no such thing as waste. Perhaps the best examples are an inter-galactic spaceship, a space colony, or a space station, where nothing "goes to waste" and literally every refuse has its re-use.

It is helpful to consider the difference in how waste is perceived in open versus closed systems.

From the self-interested point of view of an open system, waste is wasteful: it requires resources to get rid of, exports energy and raw materials when it is discharged, and endangers the system if it accumulates.

From the point of view of a closed system (e.g., the Universe) all raw materials are inevitable, necessary, and useful. Closed systems produce no such thing as waste. All the subsystems of a closed system merely process and convey to each other the very same substances, over and over again, in an eternal, unbreakable cycle.

But why the need for such transport and the expenditure of energy it entails? Why do systems perpetually trade raw materials among themselves?

In an entropic Universe, all activity will cease and the distinction between waste and "useful" substances and products will no longer exist even for open systems. Luckily, we are far from there. Order and complexity still thrive in isolated pockets (on Earth, for example). As they increase, so does waste.

Indeed, waste can be construed to be the secretion and expulsion from orderly and complex systems of disorder and low-level order. As waste inside an open system decreases, order is enhanced and the system becomes more organized, less chaotic, more functional, and more complex.

II. Waste in Human Society

It behooves us to distinguish between waste and garbage. Waste is the inadvertent and coincidental (though not necessarily random or unpredictable) outcome of processes while garbage is integrated into manufacturing and marketing ab initio. Thus, packing materials end up as garbage as do disposable items.

It would seem that the usability of a substance determines if it is thought of as waste or not. Even then, quantities and qualities matter. Many stuffs are useful in measured amounts but poisonous beyond a certain quantitative threshold. The same substance in one state is raw material and in another it is waste. As long as an object or a substance function, they are not waste, but the minute they stop serving us they are labeled as such (consider defunct e-waste and corpses).

In an alien environment, how would we be able to tell waste from the useful? The short and the long of it is: we wouldn't. To determine is something is waste, we would need to observe it, its interactions with its environment, and the world in which it operates (in order to determine its usefulness and actual uses). Our ability to identify waste is, therefore, the result of accumulated knowledge. The concept of waste is so anthropocentric and dependent on human prejudices that it is very likely spurious, a mere construct, devoid of any objective, ontological content.

This view is further enhanced by the fact that the words "waste" and "wasteful" carry negative moral and social connotations. It is wrong and "bad" to waste money, or time, or food. Waste is, thus, rendered a mere value judgment, specific to its time, place, and purveyors.

Valve Automation with Pneumatic Actuators

2008-09-18T22:17:00.000+07:00

Knowing the mechanism of tools that we often operate in plant maybe some information that will be usefull for us. And now me2d trying to write about the pneumatic valve. This valve is the valve that we commonly see at our plant. Here is some explanation about the valve

Pneumatic Actuators

The Pneumatic Actuators are energized by compressed air, or non-aggressive gas, this means that a pressure supply system is required to operate the actuators. For Actuators with larger stroke volumes the European Union requires CE-certification according to the PED.

Quarter Turn

Pneumatic Quarter Turn Actuators are mainly used for automation of ball Valves, Butterfly Valves, Plug Valves and Dampers. The advantages for this type of Actuator are that they are less sensitive for intensive cycling than the Electric Actuators and also very reliable thanks to a minimum of moving parts. These actuators are more or less considered as maintenance-free.
Therefore these types of Actuators are the absolute most popular solution for process automation in all kinds of industries such as chemical, petrochemical, water treatment, oil and gas, off-shore, district heating, steel and metal, pulp & paper, food & brewery etc, etc.

The Pneumatic Quarter Turn Actuators are available both as Double Acting and Single Acting with spring return.

Dominating Designs

The two dominating designs are the Rack&Pinion design and the Scotch-Yoke design.

Rack&Pinion

Rack & pinion design actuators have pistons with Rack and a Drive shaft with Pinion giving a linear torque output over the 90° travel for double acting actuators. The single acting spring return actuators have a torque output that decrease at the end of the travel in both directions.
With a constant air supply flow capacity the turning speed of the shaft is constant over the full 90° travel. This can affect the service life of the actuator-valve package in a negative way because of hard acceleration and retardation in the end positions.

The rack & pinion design is mainly used for actuation of smaller valves.

Scotch-Yoke

Scotch-Yoke design has pistons with piston rollers aligning in the slot of the scotch-yoke connected to the drive shaft. The power transmission works as a variable lever over the 90° travel, starting with a long lever, in the mid position a short lever and in the end position a long lever.

This gives, for both double acting and single acting actuators, a high torque output at the end positions where most valves require higher operating torque.
With a constant air supply flow capacity the turning speed of the shaft is starting smoothly, then accelerating and at the end of the travel slowing down again. This favourable turning speed has a positive effect on the service life of the actuator-valve package.

Scotch-Yoke actuators are available with canted yoke and with symmetric yoke.

Canted Scotch-Yoke

Canted Scotch-Yoke gives a higher Break- away torque than end of travel torque and covers most butterfly valves and ball valves.

Symmetric Scotch-Yoke

Symmetric Scotch-Yoke gives same torque in both end positions and is used for plug valves and metal seated ball valves.

Double Acting

A Double Acting Pneumatic Actuator is pneumatically operated in both turning directions and will by loss of Air Supply Pressure stay in position. Depending of how the Solenoid Valve or the Positioner that Controls the Actuator is set up the actuator can set the valve into a decided end position Open or Closed by electrical signal failure.

Single Acting Spring Return

A Single Acting Pneumatic Actuator is pneumatically operated in one direction and by a spring return function in the other direction.
A spring return Actuator is normally used for applications where a Fail Safe function is required. The function can be Fail Close or Fail Open. This means that if there is a major air supply failure the safety function of the actuator will operate the Valve to the decided safety position by the spring return function.

Multi Turn

Multi Turn Pneumatic Actuators are used for Gate Valves, Globe Valves, Plug Valves, Dampers and other applications where multi turn function is required, for example quarter turn valves with reducing gear boxes. The multi turn pneumatic actuators are only available as double acting but can be equipped with air bottles for emergency operation in case of air supply failure.

Controlling and Signalling

Pneumatic Actuators are often fitted with Control and signalling accessories as Limit Switch Boxes, Solenoid Valves and Positioners. The Actuators can be connected to almost any digital Control System or Monitoring system such as AS-Interface (ASI-bus), Profibus, Foundation Fieldbus, Interbus, Modbus, Device Net, HART-protocol, etc, etc, by the use of suitable Communication accessories.

General Process of Urea Production

2008-09-18T00:04:00.000+07:00

So now we have ammonia. But what can we do with it? One option is to convert it to urea. Urea is an interesting substance. It is an organic chemical, which is also produced in the human body to dispose of nitrogen. It is also the chemical which proved wrong the common belief in the 18th century, that organic substances cannot be created from inorganic raw materials. In 1828, Friedrich Wöhler was the first to synthesize urea from inorganic compounds. At the end of the 19th century, a method was discovered to synthesize urea from ammonia and carbon dioxide. This process is still the basis for modern urea production.

Although urea is still used as fertilizer on a large scale, it is also a raw material for many other industries. Chemicals made from urea include urea formaldehyde, which is used to glue the wooden chips together in chipboard, and melamine, which is used as a finish on chipboard panels. Urea is also used in toothpaste and chewing gum (I bet you didn't know that!) and some pharmaceuticals.

Technical stuff

Urea is synthesized from ammonia and carbon dioxide. Since carbon dioxide is a waste material from ammonia plants and carbon dioxide is expensive to transport, it is convenient to build ammonia and urea plants on the same location. The two raw materials react in a high pressure reactor. The reaction takes place in two stages in the same reactor. First, an intermediate is formed, called ammonium carbamate. If the mixture remains in the reactor long enough, the second reaction takes place: ammonium carbamate splits into water and urea. Since Murphy Law is always present, the ammonium carbamate is only partly converted, so at the top of the reactor we have a liquid containing urea, ammonium carbamate, water and ammonia. Ammonia? Yes! By adding more ammonia to the reactor then theoretically necessary, more ammonia carbamate is converted to urea (If you have some degree in chemical engineering you'll understand. For all others: believe me, it's true).

The next step is to separate the urea and water from the remaining ammonia and ammonium carbamate. There are several ways to accomplish this separation. Depending on age and make of a urea plant you will find different techniques. The one described below is somewhat older, but still accurate for a lot of urea plants.

After the liquid mixture leaves the reactor, we reduce the pressure. If we keep the temperature high enough during this "decompression", the ammonium carbamate will fall apart in ammonia and carbon dioxide. Both ammonia and carbon dioxide are gaseous at this temperature and pressure, so these gasses will "evaporate" from the liquid mixture. This separation process is called decomposition (because the ammonium carbamate decomposes into ammonia and carbon dioxide) and is executed in vessels called decomposers. Usually the pressure is reduced in a few steps in different decomposers. After the last decomposer, all we have left is a mixture of urea and water or, since urea readily dissolves in water, a urea solution.

We'll leave the urea solution for what it is and digress to the gases that leave the decomposers. Since it is a waste of raw materials (not to mention an environmental disaster!) to vent these gases into the atmosphere, they are recovered. In the decomposition section, we have seen that ammonium carbamate decomposes into ammonia and carbon dioxide, due to the low pressure and the high temperature. If we lower the temperature, the reverse reaction takes place: ammonia and carbon dioxide react back to ammonium carbamate. Simultaneously, the ammonium carbamate is absorbed into water. The resulting solution is recycled back to the reactor, where it will be (partly) converted to urea.

OK, back to the urea solution. We only want the urea, so we have to get the water out. Two methods are available: We can evaporate the water or we can crystallize the urea. Evaporation is the most common practice: the solution is heated and the water boils out of the solution. the final result is a urea melt, which still contains a little water (0.5 - 1 %). This method has one major drawback: impurities are not removed (worse: due to the heating process, extra impurities are created), and the end product only contains 98 to 99 % urea.

The other method is crystallization. In that case we do not heat the solution, but we create a vacuum above the solution. The vacuum "pulls" out the water, and the solution is concentrated until there is more urea then can be dissolved in the water: The urea starts to crystallize. If the "slurry" (the mixture of crystals and solution) contains enough crystals, it is sent to centrifuges, where the solution is separated from the crystals. The crystals are dried and the result is a very pure product. In crystalline form the urea purity can be higher then 99.8 %.

Now we come to the final step. Most customers prefer granules instead of a hot urea melt or crystals. Again several techniques are available to achieve this, but the most common process is (still) a process called "prilling". This process takes place in a prill tower, which has some visual resemblance to a water tower (see picture). Before urea can be prilled it has to liquefied. The liquid urea is led to one or more "prillheads" in the top of the tower. These prillheads form droplets, which fall down a long, empty shaft. From the bottom of the tower, huge amounts of air are blown through the same shaft to cool the droplets so much that they will solidify while they are falling and reach the bottom of the tower as granules. These granules (with an average diameter of approximately 1.5 mm) are stored and are sold as bulk (transported in barges or silo trucks) or in bags of 25 to 1000 kg.

General Process of Ammonia Production

2008-09-17T23:23:00.000+07:00

I will lead you through the basics of ammonia and fertilizer production. It will tell you not only how ammonia and its derivatives are produced, but will also tell the tale of the downfall of a large fertilizer site as a result of the highly volatile ammonia and fertilizer market. Finally we'll make a trip to the future and explore the possibilities of a 30+ year old chemical plant. This post will give you some basic information about fertilizer and describes the ammonia production process. So here we are... Let's start going...
Basics

Intensive farming would not be possible without the use of fertilizer. Although it's in fashion to describe the use and production of fertilizer as environmentally polluting, a considerable larger part of the world would die of starvation if fertilizer would not be used. Modern technology makes it possible to distribute fertilizer optimally over farmland, thus greatly reducing the amount of nitrogen and phosphorous dissolving in water around farming areas. Nitrogen is the most important ingredient in farmland to allow crops to grow. The most common nitrogen fertilizers are urea, ammonium nitrate, calcium ammonium nitrate and potassium nitrate. For all these fertilizers, ammonia is the basic raw material.

Technical stuff.

Both fertilizer and ammonia are about nitrogen. Since approximately 80 % of the air we breathe consists of nitrogen, you can imagine that this is a very cheap raw material. The catch is the other crucial raw material needed: hydrogen. Since hydrogen is not freely available, we have to find a way to create it. One of the richest hydrogen sources available is natural gas (methane). One molecule of natural gas consists of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Other hydrogen resources are "higher" hydrocarbons like propane, butane or even liquid fuels like gasoline. The higher hydrocarbons have the drawback that they contain more carbon atoms per hydrogen atom then natural gas and are therefore less efficient. Hence, natural gas is the most common hydrogen resource. Now the catch should be clear: Natural gas costs money (and quite a lot)!

As mentioned, natural gas contains carbon and hydrogen. Since we do not need the carbon, we have to get rid of it and preserve the hydrogen. We can achieve this by adding steam to the natural gas. If the temperature is high enough the steam and natural gas will react and will form carbon dioxide and pure hydrogen (For those more familiar with the exact process: I know that this is horribly oversimplified and not completely true, but it's close enough for this page).

Reforming, Purified, Synthesis, and Refrigerant System.

We are now stuck with a mixture of hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The next step will be to separate the carbon dioxide from the hydrogen. The separation towers are the most prominent features of an ammonia plant, as can be seen on the picture to the left (Interesting detail in the picture: Only three of the four towers are used. The fourth one is out of use and serves only as a support for the stacks!)

Now we have to combine the hydrogen with nitrogen to create ammonia. As stated before, the nitrogen is taken from ambient air. The main ingredients in air are nitrogen (~80%) and oxygen (~20%). In an ammonia plant, the air is introduced earlier in the process and the oxygen is used in the hydrogen formation process. So after the carbon dioxide separation-towers we have a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen.

Regrettably, not only hydrogen and nitrogen are present, but also some impurities. These impurities are "poisons" in the ammonia synthesis, so they have to be removed before the hydrogen and nitrogen is converted to ammonia. The "cleaning" of the hydrogen / nitrogen mixture takes place in several, rather complex, purification processes.

The hydrogen / nitrogen mixture, called syn-gas (from synthesis gas), is introduced in the ammonia reactor. The mixture is only partly converted to ammonia. The gas leaving the reactor is introduced into a condensation process, where the ammonia is liquefied and separated from the unconverted syn-gas. The unconverted syn-gas is recycled to the ammonia reactor. The liquefied ammonia leaving the ammonia plant is of high purity and is either used in subsequent plants or stored in tanks.

Ammonia is always stored as a liquid, generally at atmospheric pressure. At atmospheric pressure, however, the ammonia needs to be refrigerated, since ammonia only liquefies under these conditions at -33 °C. Since most ammonia storage tanks are located in areas where the ambient temperature is above -33 °C, the ammonia in the tanks will have to be cooled continuously. This is generally accomplished by evaporation of ammonia in the tanks. Evaporation costs energy. The evaporation energy is taken from the liquid ammonia, thus keeping its temperature low (If you drive a car on LPG, you probably have seen the effects of evaporation when you were refueling your car: If you disconnect the refueling hose, the area around the connection freezes up). The evaporated ammonia is evacuated from the tanks, compressed, condensed and re-injected in the storage tanks.

Fertilizer

2008-09-17T22:22:00.005+07:00

Fertilizers (also spelt fertiliser) are chemical compounds given to plants to promote growth; they are usually applied either through the soil, for uptake by plant roots, or by foliar feeding, for uptake through leaves. Fertilizers can be organic (composed of organic matter), or inorganic (made of simple, inorganic chemicals or minerals). They can be naturally occurring compounds such as peat or mineral deposits, or manufactured through natural processes (such as composting) or chemical processes (such as the Haber process). These chemical compounds leave lawns, gardens, and soils looking beautiful as they are given different essential nutrients that encourage plant growth.

They typically provide, in varying proportions, the three major plant nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium: N-P-K), the secondary plant nutrients (calcium, sulfur, magnesium) and sometimes trace elements (or micronutrients) with a role in plant or animal nutrition: boron, chlorine, manganese, iron, zinc, copper, molybdenum and (in some countries) selenium.

Both organic and inorganic fertilizers were called "manures" derived from the French expression for manual tillage, but this term is now mostly restricted to organic manure.

Though nitrogen is plentiful in the earth's atmosphere, relatively few plants engage in nitrogen fixation (conversion of atmospheric nitrogen to a biologically useful form). Most plants thus require nitrogen compounds to be present in the soil in which they grow.

It is believed that organic agricultural methods are more environmentally friendly and better maintain soil organic matter levels. However, there are no generally accepted scientific studies that support this supposition. Regardless the source, fertilization results in increased unharvested plant biomass left on the soil surface and crop residues remaining in the soil. Too much of a vital nutrient can be as detrimental as not enough. "Fertilizer burn" can occur when too much fertilizer is applied, resulting in a drying out of the roots and damage or even death of the plant. Organic fertilizers are just as likely to burn as inorganic fertilizers. If excess nitrogen is present the plants will begin to exude nitrogen from the leafy areas. This is called guttation.

History

While manure, cinder and ironmaking slag have been used to improve crops for centuries, the use of fertilizers is arguably one of the great innovations of the Agricultural Revolution of the 19th Century.

Key people

In the 1730s, Viscount Charles Townshend (1674–1738) first studied the improving effects of the four crop rotation system that he had observed in use in Flanders. For this he gained the nickname of Turnip Townshend.

Chemist Justus von Liebig (1803–1883) contributed greatly to the advancement in the understanding of plant nutrition. His influential works first denounced the vitalist theory of humus, arguing first the importance of ammonia, and later the importance of inorganic minerals. Primarily his work succeeded in setting out questions for agricultural science to address over the next 50 years. In England he attempted to implement his theories commercially through a fertilizer created by treating phosphate of lime in bone meal with sulfuric acid. Although it was much less expensive than the guano that was used at the time, it failed because it was not able to be properly absorbed by crops.

At that time in England, Sir John Bennet Lawes (1814–1900) was experimenting with crops and manures at his farm at Harpenden and was able to produce a practical superphosphate in 1842 from the phosphates in rock and coprolites. Encouraged, he employed Sir Joseph Henry Gilbert, who had studied under Liebig at the University of Giessen, as director of research. To this day, the Rothamsted research station that they founded still investigates the impact of inorganic and organic fertilizers on crop yields.

In France, Jean Baptiste Boussingault (1802–1887) pointed out that the amount of nitrogen in various kinds of fertilizers is important.

Metallurgists Percy Gilchrist (1851–1935) and Sidney Gilchrist Thomas (1850–1885) invented the Thomas-Gilchrist converter, which enabled the use of high phosphorus acidic Continental ores for steelmaking. The dolomite lime lining of the converter turned in time into calcium phosphate, which could be used as fertilizer known as Thomas-phosphate.

In the early decades of the 20th Century, the Nobel prize-winning chemists Carl Bosch of IG Farben and Fritz Haber developed the process[4] that enabled nitrogen to be cheaply synthesised into ammonia, for subsequent oxidisation into nitrates and nitrites.

In 1927 Erling Johnson developed an industrial method for producing nitrophosphate, also known as the Odda process after his Odda Smelteverk of Norway. The process involved acidifying phosphate rock (from Nauru and Banaba Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean) with nitric acid to produce phosphoric acid and calcium nitrate which, once neutralized, could be used as a nitrogen fertilizer.

Industry

The Englishmen James Fison, Edward Packard, Thomas Hadfield and the Prentice brothers each founded companies in the early 19th century to create fertilizers from bonemeal. The developing sciences of chemistry and Paleontology, combined with the discovery of coprolites in commercial quantities in East Anglia, led Fisons and Packard to develop sulfuric acid and fertilizer plants at Bramford, and Snape, Suffolk in the 1850s to create superphosphates, which were shipped around the world from the port at Ipswich. By 1870 there were about 80 factories making superphosphate. After World War I these businesses came under financial pressure through new competition from guano, primarily found on the Pacific islands, as their extraction and distribution had become economically attractive.

The interwar period saw innovative competition from Imperial Chemical Industries who developed synthetic ammonium sulfate in 1923, Nitro-chalk in 1927, and a more concentrated and economical fertilizer called CCF based on ammonium phosphate in 1931. Competition was limited as ICI ensured it controlled most of the world's ammonium sulfate supplies. Other European and North American fertilizer companies developed their market share, forcing the English pioneer companies to merge, becoming Fisons, Packard, and Prentice Ltd. in 1929. Together they were producing 85,000 tonnes of superphosphate per annum by 1934 from their new factory and deep-water docks in Ipswich. By World War II they had acquired about 40 companies, including Hadfields in 1935, and two years later the large Anglo-Continental Guano Works, founded in 1917.

The post-war environment was characterized by much higher production levels as a result of the "Green Revolution" and new types of seed with increased nitrogen-absorbing potential, notably the high-response varieties of maize, wheat, and rice. This has accompanied the development of strong national competition, accusations of cartels and supply monopolies, and ultimately another wave of mergers and acquisitions. The original names no longer exist other than as holding companies or brand names: Fisons and ICI agrochemicals are part of today's Yara International and AstraZeneca companies.

Inorganic fertilizers (mineral fertilizer)

Naturally occurring inorganic fertilizers include Chilean sodium nitrate, mined rock phosphate, and limestone (a calcium source).

Macronutrients and micronutrients

Fertilizers can be divided into macronutrients or micronutrients based on their concentrations in plant dry matter. There are six macronutrients: nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, often termed "primary macronutrients" because their availability is usually managed with NPK fertilizers, and the "secondary macronutrients" — calcium, magnesium, and sulfur — which are required in roughly similar quantities but whose availability is often managed as part of liming and manuring practices rather than fertilizers. The macronutrients are consumed in larger quantities and normally present as a whole number or tenths of percentages in plant tissues (on a dry matter weight basis). There are many micronutrients, required in concentrations ranging from 5 to 100 parts per million (ppm) by mass. Plant micronutrients include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), nickel (Ni), chlorine (Cl), and zinc (Zn).
Tennessee Valley Authority: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942.
Tennessee Valley Authority: "Results of Fertilizer" demonstration 1942.

Macronutrient fertilizers

Synthesized materials are also called artificial, and may be described as straight, where the product predominantly contains the three primary ingredients of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K), which are known as N-P-K fertilizers or compound fertilizers when elements are mixed intentionally. They are named or labeled according to the content of these three elements, which are macronutrients. The mass fraction (percent) nitrogen is reported directly. However, phosphorus is reported as phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), the anhydride of phosphoric acid, and potassium is reported as potassium oxide (K2O), which is the anhydride of potassium hydroxide. Fertilizer composition is expressed in this fashion for historical reasons in the way it was analyzed (conversion to ash for P and K); this practice dates back to Justus von Liebig (see more below). Consequently, an 18-51-20 fertilizer would have 18% nitrogen as N, 51% phosphorus as P2O5, and 20% potassium as K2O, The other 11% is known as ballast and may or may not be valuable to the plants, depending on what is used as ballast. Although analyses are no longer carried out by ashing first, the naming convention remains. If nitrogen is the main element, they are often described as nitrogen fertilizers.

In general, the mass fraction (percentage) of elemental phosphorus, [P] = 0.436 x [P2O5]

and the mass fraction (percentage) of elemental potassium, [K] = 0.83 x [K2O]

(These conversion factors are mandatory under the UK fertilizer-labelling regulations if elemental values are declared in addition to the N-P-K declaration.)

An 18-51-20 fertilizer therefore contains, by weight, 18% elemental nitrogen (N), 22% elemental phosphorus (P) and 16% elemental potassium (K).

B5A fertilizer is a macronutritient fertilizer.

Agricultural versus horticultural

In general, agricultural fertilizers contain only 1 or 2 macronutrients. Agricultural fertilizers are intended to be applied infrequently and normally prior to or alongside seeding. Examples of agricultural fertilizers are granular triple superphosphate, potassium chloride, urea, and anhydrous ammonia. The commodity nature of fertilizer, combined with the high cost of shipping, leads to use of locally available materials or those from the closest/cheapest source, which may vary with factors affecting transportation by rail, ship, or truck. In other words, a particular nitrogen source may be very popular in one part of the country while another is very popular in another geographic region only due to factors unrelated to agronomic concerns.

Horticultural or specialty fertilizers, on the other hand, are formulated from many of the same compounds and some others to produce well-balanced fertilizers that also contain micronutrients. Some materials, such as ammonium nitrate, are used minimally in large scale production farming. The 18-51-20 example above is a horticultural fertilizer formulated with high phosphorus to promote bloom development in ornamental flowers. Horticultural fertilizers may be water-soluble (instant release) or relatively insoluble (controlled release). Controlled release fertilizers are also referred to as sustained release or timed release. Many controlled release fertilizers are intended to be applied approximately every 3-6 months, depending on watering, growth rates, and other conditions, whereas water-soluble fertilizers must be applied at least every 1-2 weeks and can be applied as often as every watering if sufficiently dilute. Unlike agricultural fertilizers, horticultural fertilizers are marketed directly to consumers and become part of retail product distribution lines.

Nitrogen fertilizer
Major users of nitrogen-based fertilizer [citation needed] Country Total N consumption

(Mt pa)
of which used

for feed & pasture
USA 9.1 4.7
China 18.7 3.0
France 2.5 1.3
Germany 2.0 1.2
Canada 1.6 0.9
UK 1.3 0.9
Brazil 1.7 0.7
Spain 1.2 0.5
Mexico 1.3 0.3
Turkey 1.5 0.3
Argentina 0.4 0.1

Nitrogen fertilizer is often synthesized using the Haber-Bosch process, which produces ammonia. This ammonia is applied directly to the soil or used to produce other compounds, notably ammonium nitrate and urea, both dry, concentrated products that may be used as fertilizer materials or mixed with water to form a concentrated liquid nitrogen fertilizer, UAN. Ammonia can also be used in the Odda Process in combination with rock phosphate and potassium fertilizer to produce compound fertilizers such as 10-10-10 or 15-15-15.

The production of ammonia currently consumes about 5% of global natural gas consumption, which is somewhat under 2% of world energy production. Natural gas is overwhelmingly used for the production of ammonia, but other energy sources, together with a hydrogen source, can be used for the production of nitrogen compounds suitable for fertilizers. The cost of natural gas makes up about 90% of the cost of producing ammonia. The price increases in natural gas in the past decade, among other factors such as increasing demand, have contributed to an increase in fertilizer price.

Nitrogen-based fertilizers are most commonly used to treat fields used for growing maize, followed by barley, sorghum, rapeseed, soyabean and sunflower.

Health and sustainability issues

Inorganic fertilizers sometimes do not replace trace mineral elements in the soil which become gradually depleted by crops grown there. This has been linked to studies which have shown a marked fall (up to 75%) in the quantities of such minerals present in fruit and vegetables. One exception to this is in Western Australia where deficiencies of zinc, copper, manganese, iron and molybdenum were identified as limiting the growth of crops and pastures in the 1940s and 1950s. Soils in Western Australia are very old, highly weathered and deficient in many of the major nutrients and trace elements. Since this time these trace elements are routinely added to inorganic fertilizers used in agriculture in this state.

In many countries there is the public perception that inorganic fertilizers "poison the soil" and result in "low quality" produce. However, there is very little (if any) scientific evidence to support these views. When used appropriately, inorganic fertilizers enhance plant growth, the accumulation of organic matter and the biological activity of the soil, preventing overgrazing and soil erosion. The nutritional value of plants for human and animal consumption is typically improved when inorganic fertilizers are used appropriately.

There are concerns though about arsenic, cadmium and uranium accumulating in fields treated with phosphate fertilizers. The phosphate minerals contain trace amounts of these elements and if no cleaning step is applied after mining the continuous use of phosphate fertilizers leads towards an accumulation of these elements in the soil. Eventually these can build up to unacceptable levels and get into the produce. (See cadmium poisoning.)

Another problem with inorganic fertilizers is that they are presently produced in ways which cannot be continued indefinitely. Potassium and phosphorus come from mines (or from saline lakes such as the Dead Sea in the case of potassium fertilizers) and resources are limited. Nitrogen is unlimited, but nitrogen fertilizers are presently made using fossil fuels such as natural gas. Theoretically fertilizers could be made from sea water or atmospheric nitrogen using renewable energy, but doing so would require huge investment and is not competitive with today's unsustainable methods. Innovative thermal depolymerization biofuel schemes are experimenting with the production of byproducts with 9% nitrogen fertilizer from organic waste[14][15]

Organic fertilizers

Naturally occurring organic fertilizers include manure, slurry, worm castings, peat, seaweed, sewage , and guano. Green manure crops are also grown to add nutrients to the soil. Naturally occurring minerals such as mine rock phosphate, sulfate of potash and limestone are also considered Organic Fertilizers.

Manufactured organic fertilizers include compost, bloodmeal, bone meal and seaweed extracts. Other examples are natural enzyme digested proteins, fish meal, and feather meal.

The decomposing crop residue from prior years is another source of fertility. Though not strictly considered "fertilizer", the distinction seems more a matter of words than reality.

Some ambiguity in the usage of the term 'organic' exists because some of synthetic fertilizers, such as urea and urea formaldehyde, are fully organic in the sense of organic chemistry. In fact, it would be difficult to chemically distinguish between urea of biological origin and that produced synthetically. On the other hand, some fertilizer materials commonly approved for organic agriculture, such as powdered limestone, mined rock phosphate and Chilean saltpeter, are inorganic in the use of the term by chemistry.

Risks of fertilizer use

The problem of under-fertilization is primarily associated with the use of artificial fertilizers, because of the massive quantities applied and the destructive nature of chemical fertilizers on soil nutrient holding structures. The high solubilities of chemical fertilizers also exacerbate their tendency to degrade ecosystems, particularly through eutrophication.

Storage and application of some nitrogen fertilizers in some weather or soil conditions can cause emissions of the greenhouse gas nitrous oxide (N2O). Ammonia gas (NH3) may be emitted following application of inorganic fertilizers, or manure or slurry. Besides supplying nitrogen, ammonia can also increase soil acidity (lower pH, or "souring"). Excessive nitrogen fertilizer applications can also lead to pest problems by increasing the birth rate, longevity and overall fitness of certain pests.

The concentration of up to 100 mg/kg of cadmium in phosphate minerals (for example, minerals from Nauru and the Christmas islands) increases the contamination of soil with cadmium, for example in New Zealand. Uranium is another example of a contaminant often found in phosphate fertilizers, also radioactive Polonium-210 contained in phosphate fertilizers is absorbed by the roots of plants and stored in it tissues. Tobacco derived from plants fertilzed by rock phosphates contains Polonium-210 which emits alpha radiation estimated to cause about 11,700 lung cancer deaths each year worldwide.

For these reasons, it is recommended that knowledge of the nutrient content of the soil and nutrient requirements of the crop are carefully balanced with application of nutrients in inorganic fertilizer especially. This process is called nutrient budgeting. By careful monitoring of soil conditions, farmers can avoid wasting expensive fertilizers, and also avoid the potential costs of cleaning up any pollution created as a byproduct of their farming.

It is also possible to over-apply organic fertilizers; however, their nutrient content, their solubility, and their release rates are typically much lower than chemical fertilizers. By their nature, most organic fertilizers also provide increased physical and biological storage mechanisms to soils, which tend to mitigate their risks.

Global issues
“ We throw away nutrients for our plants in underground sewage systems. We do this in such a way that pollutes underground water tables. Then we buy manufactured "nutrients" for our plants which aren't as good as what we threw away. This is modern day wastewater "technology"
Michael Reynolds - Earthship Vol.2: Systems and Components ”

The growth of the world's population to its current figure has only been possible through intensification of agriculture associated with the use of fertilizers. There is an impact on the sustainable consumption of other global resources as a consequence.

The use of fertilizers on a global scale emits significant quantities of greenhouse gas into the atmosphere. Emissions come about through the use of:

* animal manures and urea, which release methane, nitrous oxide, ammonia, and carbon dioxide in varying quantities depending on their form (solid or liquid) and management (collection, storage, spreading)
* fertilizers that use nitric acid or ammonium bicarbonate, the production and application of which results in emissions of nitrogen oxides, nitrous oxide, ammonia and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

By changing processes and procedures, it is possible to mitigate some, but not all, of these effects on anthropogenic climate change.

The nitrogen-rich compounds found in fertilizer run-off is the primary cause of a serious depletion of oxygen in many parts of the ocean, especially in coastal zones; the resulting lack of dissolved oxygen is greatly reducing the ability of these areas to sustain oceanic fauna.

Petrochemical

2008-09-17T04:52:00.000+07:00

Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of petroleum or other hydrocarbon origin. Although some of the chemical compounds that originate from petroleum may also be derived from other sources such as coal or natural gas, petroleum is a major source of many. This article is mainly intended to discuss organic compounds or materials that are not burned as fuel (see also Petroleum product).

The two main classes of petrochemical raw materials are olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and aromatics (including benzene and xylene isomers), both of which are produced in very large quantities. At oil refineries, olefins are produced mainly from hydrocarbons by processes such as fluid catalytic cracking and steam cracking. At oil refineries, aromatic hydrocarbons are mainly produced by catalytic reforming or similar processes. From these basic building blocks is made a very wide range of chemicals and other materials used in industry - monomers, solvents, detergents, and adhesives. From the monomers, polymers or oligomers are produced for plastics, resins, fibers, elastomers, certain lubricants, and gels.

World production of ethylene is around 110 million tonnes per annum, of propylene 65 million tonnes, and of aromatic raw materials 70 million tonnes. The largest petrochemical industries are to be found in the USA and Western Europe, though the major growth in new production capacity is in the Middle East and Asia. There is a substantial inter-regional trade in petrochemicals of all kinds.