Programmer Foundation

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noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Thu, 10 Feb 2022 06:21:00 +0000

Everything that you need to know about COMPUTER VIRUS

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sat, 10 Apr 2021 16:58:00 +0000

Computer development and evolution started in the late 20th century brought a lot of changes to this modern world as well as many threats. Now for every single transaction that we make with our computer goes through several steps before completion. But why? Of course security risks. But what type of security risks. Every time no one may be looking after you that when you are making a transaction and they can harm it. But some malicious software can be assigned to do this job more easily.

Even after having adopted technology and computer with our lives to this extend people are unaware of threats that they can face. Computer viruses are such types of threats that covers the whole web of computer systems. Just like its name a computer virus aka Vital Information Resource Under Seize is quite like a flu virus more harms computers. It is a software program that is designed to alter the way a normal computer works. A computer virus can replicate itself and spread from host to host. It attaches itself to a legitimate program that supports macros to execute its code. These viruses have become more noticeable these days because we use computers to do most of the works and crackers and use these viruses to cause harm to the system and steal or damage useful information.

How does a computer virus work?

Just as mentioned above, a computer virus is just like a flu virus as it replicates or spread itself from host to hosts. The functioning of a virus is systematic and planned. Crackers create various harmful programs to cause problems or malfunction in the host's computer. These programs are attached to several other unharmful programs so that when they have executed these viruses are also executed. Once the virus is attached to the program, it remains hidden until circumstances cause the program to be executed which in turn executes the virus itself. Unless they are executed, these virus remains hidden i.e unnoticeable. But once they are executed, they start doing their job. They can malfunction your computer, corrupt files, spread to another computer on the same network and worst of all use your computer to do malicious things. Some virus is also designed to corrupt financial needs.

How does a virus spread?

Well in this connected world it is not difficult for a virus to spread to other computers. It can spread through social media scam links, downloadable files, attachments and several other ways. As viruses are unnoticeable unless they are executed, they can hide beneath various objects in a system. In mobile devices, they can hide beneath unknown apps which when installed can cause damage to the mobile device. E-mails have been significant in the role of spreading these viruses. For decades, malicious e-mails are being sent over the internet when opened, the virus gets executed. One way to stay safe from this virus is that never download known files from the internet or read unknown e-mails.

Types of computer viruses

System all around the globe has been facing the challenges of virus threats since computer generation came into existence. There are several types of viruses that are responsible for harming, modifying or altering different aspects of the computer system. Some of them are specified below:

Macro virus

These type of viruses are generally found in Microsoft office files i.e word, excel and power-point files.

When these viruses infect MS office files, they increase the size of that file as the virus adds up its code. When these viruses infect a file, it can be easily shared among other computers via sharing.

Boot sector virus

These are one of the oldest and dangerous types of computer viruses. Started in the 90s when these viruses used to harm the boot sector of a computer system carried through a floppy disc. Nowadays, USB sticks and e-mails have replaced floppy discs. Once these viruses harm a computer, they harm straight to the boot sector and the user may need an expert to carry out a full system reformat.

Trojan Horses

These are one of the sneakiest types of computer viruses as they disguise themselves as other useful programs which the user may tempt to install and once install they get excess to all your private data and send the information to other location. Their name implies the big wooden horses in which the Greeks hid themselves to get into the city of Troy.

Overwrite virus

These type of computer virus acts as pests. They take over a file and deletes its original content and rewrites its file without the user even knowing it. Once the original file content gets deleted, it cannot be recovered. These files can be shared among another computer as well and hence these virus replicates. These can be avoided if files are scanned before downloading from the internet.

Browser Hijacker

These are not as harmful as other types of viruses but are tricky. They take over your internet searches and redirect you to visit such web pages that you didn't even want to visit. Those web pages show you wanted ads and shows you pop-ups to download unwanted files. This can make your internet slow and the system fails sometimes.

Web scripting virus

These are modern kind of viruses. They blend behind various websites using social media platforms. These viruses disguise themselves as simple URLs which a user may tempt to click on it. Then these viruses steal the user cookies. By steeling the cookies they can get excess to the user's accounts and passwords. These viruses can send spam to the system which may fail some system functions.

Polymorphic virus

These are somewhat like a Chameleon that gets modify every time its replication which gives this virus a plus point. After getting onto a system, it starts the replication process and every time it replicates changes its build structure which makes it difficult for antiviruses to find them. This mainly gets onto the user computer through e-mails or downloadable links. Once executed can delete your files and malfunction them.

Resident virus

These are the most common type of virus. They get into your computer's memory uninvited and make it home. Then it can get access to different aspects of your computer system causing harm to them.

Multipartite virus

These viruses are on the growth in recent years. They are also called 'multi-part virus'. While some viruses can attack the boot sector or get into the computer with a file, this virus can do both. These usually spread through '.exe' files which makes it hard to notice. After execution, these virus eats up the virtual memory of the system.

Space-filler virus

These viruses find the space in the program code and attach there its code. This way they don't alter the size of the files which makes it difficult to be detected by antiviruses. Fortunately, this kind of virus is hard to build as it supports very few kinds of files that it can attach to.

Malware

Malware is malicious software that is designed to cause harm to a computer system. Types of malware include viruses, spyware, ransomware, worms etc. Yes, a virus is also a part of malware. This software performs various functions such as stealing, encrypting and deleting sensitive data. Malware infects network and devices and they are designed to harm or malfunction those devices. Depending on the type of malware, it can present itself in many forms and present its effect differently. Phishing attacks are a common type of malware delivery e-mails disguised as legitimate messages that contain malicious links which can deliver the malware to the unsuspecting user.

Worm

A computer worm is a type of malware that spreads from system to system and make copies of itself. It doesn't need any human interaction for its replication. The main difference between a virus and a worm is that a worm doesn't need to attach or hide itself to any software program to spread and cause damage. A computer worm can arrive via spam e-mails or messages. That message could provide a link where once clicked, the worm gets downloaded. It can harm the normal functioning of a computer system and damage the user's data.

Ransomware

Ransomware is malicious software or a type of malware that infects the victim's computer and display messages demanding a fee to be paid for the proper functioning of the system again. This type of malware is generally used by criminals for money-making. Ransomware can come to any system through spam e-mails or deceptive links. It encrypts or locks important files with a password and ask the user for a fee to be paid for the password. The first case of ransomware was detected in 2005 in Russia and since then many cases have been filed.

Spyware

Spyware is a type of malware that keeps itself hidden in a computer system and tracks and records the user's online activities that the user do on that system. It can monitor and copy everything done on that system. Some spyware is also capable to activate cameras and microphones to watch and listen to the user undetected. The difference between a virus and spyware is that a virus replicates but spyware stays hidden and records activities and do nothing else.

How to detect or prevent computer virus?

Computer viruses are quite common these days but if we look and the uses of computer systems then it is a matter of concern to take necessary steps for the detections and preventions of these computer viruses. Fortunately, now we have much more sophisticated antivirus software that can easily detect and handle viruses. Although there are several antiviruses available over the internet, it is the responsibility of the user to take good care of the system and look for any malfunctioning. There are few rules that a user must follow to prevent virus attacks:

Basic internet rules:

Avoid clicking unknown links or open e-mails from unknown senders.
Use spam blocking tools and ad-blockers to prevent unwanted pop-ups and windows which can download viruses.
Use a strong password for signing up and avoid storing usernames and passwords in locatable places.
Download files only from trusted sources.

Protect the computer:

Back-up files on your computer into an external hard drive or over the cloud regularly.
Don't keep sensitive or private information locally on your computer rather keep it locked in trusted sources.
Avoid sharing access to your system with strangers.

Use of Antivirus Software:

The new and advanced virus always try to get access to computers so it is better to have antivirus software that automatically downloads the latest virus definitions to keep you protected.
Always scan the whole system once a week.

With having so many uses, modern computers come pre-equipped with the latest antivirus technologies which give them a one step ahead advantage. These days security has become more advanced as well as venerable so it is better to know various ways which can cause harm to your system so that you have an idea on what is happening.

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Getting Started with HTML: Basic Tags - I

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sun, 08 Nov 2020 02:53:00 +0000

Welcome to the second article of HTML tutorial series. In the last article, we have delivered you the basic introduction of HTML and its usage. In this article, we'll discuss all the syntaxes, elements and usage of HTML. In the last article as we have discussed, HTML is the most widely and the fundamental language for front end web development. It is not a language to only be learned by a web developer but everyone should learn it as tons of web pages are developed every day and HTML brings the way for various job opportunities. If you have not read the first article of HTML series yet then you should first consider reading that by clicking here. We know that HTML or hypertext markup language is a language that is used to create web pages. Every browser has inbuild compiler for HTML codes. We also have known about the basic differences between a programming language and a markup language. HTML is basically a markup language and in this article, we'll look deeply into HTML. To write a proper HTML code one must learn the syntaxes of HTML. So let's jump in into the article.

HTML basics

In the previous article, we learned how to use the atom code editor to write the HTML codes. In this article, we'll be using the same for our codes. An HTML code mainly consists of tags to define the actual code. A tag is like keywords we use in programming languages. With tags, a web browser will be able to format and display the HTML code. With the help of tags, a web browser can distinguish between simple content and HTML content. Basically, in HTML three types of tags are used i.e opening tag, content tag and closing tag. Every opening tag has a closing tag. There are even some tags which don't have a closing tag. A web browser reads the HTML code from top to bottom and right to left. So the developer has to write the HTML code accordingly so that the browser can read and display the content. There are some basic rules for using tags. An opening tag must be enclosed in "< >". and a closing tag is prefixed with a forward slash "/" An opening tag must be ended with the ending tag as mentioned above but there is even some exception. Each tag performs a different function in HTML. Here is an example of how HTML statements are written:

<tag>main content goes here</tag>

Look at how tags(red) are been used in the above statement. The text in between the tags is displayed by the web browser as per the tags are been used. So now let us know how various tags are used.

Document tag

Every HTML document must start with the DOCTYPE declaration. Technically this is not a tag or any other element. The DOCTYPE keyword is used to declare the version of HTML being used. In our previous article, various versions of HTML have been covered. It basically tells the web browser which version of HTML is being used to in the code. As this is a special type of element, this doesn't have any closing tag and doesn't include any content. It is placed in the top of the HTML code and written as follow:

<!DOCTYPE html>

The HTML itself starts with the HTML tag. This is a proper tag and declares the beginning of the HTML code. Every other element and content comes within this tag. It starts as <html> and has an ending tag </html> which declares the ending of the HTML code. This is how it is used:

<html>

content goes here

</html>

Structural tags

These sets of tags are used to define the structure of the webpage. Generally, the HTML code is classified into two body parts i.e head and body.

head tag

The head tag includes all the metadata(data about data ) and the data that is included within this tag is not displayed at the time of page loading. It can contain many lines of metadata and can even have very less or no information as per the usage of the page. It plays a very important and crucial role in a web page. Some of the elements that are included within the head tag are <title>, <style>, <meta>, <base>, <script>, <link>. Out of all these elements, title and meta element has usage in HTML and the rest of the elements are generally in CSS and JavaScript.

<title> element

This element is used to give the title to the web page. It is used in every version of HTML/XHTML. It is placed within the head tag and one HTML document can have only one title element. It has usage when one save the web page to favourite, gives title to the tabs and displays the title of the page in search engines. It is used as:

<head>

<title>HTML tutorial</title>

</head>

<meta> element

This tag is used to define metadata i.e character-set, keywords, description, authors etc on the webpage. This metadata is used to rank a webpage on a search engine. It is used as follows:

<head>

<meta charset="UTF-8">

</head>

In the above example, the charset keyword is used. It is used to specify the encoding type. In this above case UTF-8(Unicode transformation format) has been used that means it can handle any language alone with special characters.

body tag

The HTML body tag displayed the actual content what a developer wants to display on the web page. It includes various other tags to support several elements. It can be included with the text, photos, videos, tables, links etc. Like the head tag, every HTML document includes only one body tag and is placed next to </head> and within the HTML tag. Syntax:

<body>content goes here</body>

<h> tag

This is the first tag that may be included within the body tag. This is the HTML heading tag which is used to display heading, title and subtitles in a document. When some words are placed within the <h> tag it is displayed as bold in the web page. The <h> tag ranges from <h1> to <h6>. The <h1> is the main heading which has the highest level and the size of the letters decreases from <h1> to <h6> where <h6> has the least level or the size is the smallest. Syntax:

<body>

<h1>here goes the heading</h1>

<h2>here goes the heading</h2>

<h3>here goes the heading</h3>

<h4>here goes the heading</h4>

<h5>here goes the heading</h5>

<h6>here goes the heading</h6>

</body>

<p> tag

The <p> tag is the paragraph tag which is used to write paragraphs in a document. The text included inside the <p> tag is phrased into a paragraph by the web browser. The <p> tag can be used multiple times and each time it is used creates a new paragraph. Syntax:

<body>

<P>

This is a paragraph that is being written within the paragraph tag. Every time this tag is used creates a new paragraph.

</P>

</body>

Notice that after the first line their extra spaces are used. But at the time of displaying this paragraph, the extra spaces and lines are terminated.

<br> tag

The <br> tag is the line break tag. It is used in between the paragraph tag to break lines. This is an empty tag that means it doesn't have any ending tag. This tag is used when the designer wants to break the line without creating a new paragraph. Syntax:

<p>

Hey, I am writing a paragraph. <br> So now new line starts.

</p>

<hr> tag

The <hr> tag is used to apply a horizontal line between two paragraphs. Just like the <br> tag this also doesn't have any ending tag as it is an empty tag. This tag is used when the designer wants to separate two paragraphs or lines with a thematic line. Syntax:

<p>

This is a simple example. <hr> A line comes here.

</p>

<b> tag

The <b> tag is the bold tag in HTML. It is simply used to make a letter, word or line in bold format. This tag is used inside of the paragraph tag and the line is included inside this tag that is to be bolded. Syntax:

<p>This is an example of <b>bold text format</b></p>

<i> tag

The <i> tag is the italic tag in HTML. This tag is used to give an italic look to a letter, word or line of text. Just like the bold tag, this is also included inside the paragraph tag and the line of text is included inside this tag that is to be made italic. Syntax:

<p>This is an example of <i>itallic text format</i></p>

<sub> tag

This tag stands for the subscript tag. It is used to define subscript text. The text included within this tag has a lower baseline and smaller font. Syntax:

<p>H<sub>2</sub>O is comprised of Oxygen and Hydrogen</p>

<sup> tag

Just like the subscript tag, The <sup> tag stands for the superscript tag that is used to define superscripts. The text included within this tag has a higher baseline and smaller font. Syntax:

<p>A million has 10<sup>6</sup> zeroes</p>

Phrase tags

These are the set of special purpose tags which are used when there is a need of defining the special structure of different elements. These tags simply deals with the structure of the text. Some of the phrase tags used in HTML are :

<abbr>
<mark>
<q>
<code>
<blockquote>
<dfn>
<strong>
<kbd>

Abbreviation tag - <abbr>

This tag is used to abbreviate or acronym texts. When a piece of text is put within this tag, it is displayed underlined in the web browser. When someone hovers the mouse over the abbreviated word, its description is shown. Syntax:

<p><abbr title="Hypertext markup language">HTML</abbr>is a widely used markup language</p>

The title attribute can be used with the <abbr> tag to display the description of the abbreviated text.

Marked tag - <mark>

The marked tag is used in HTML to highlight the text. The text within this tag is highlighted as yellow on the web browser. Syntax:

<p>Text within the marked tag is <mark>highlighted as yellow</mark></p>

Short quotes - <q>

The <q> tag in HTML is used to quote text. When text is included inside the <q> tag is enclosed within double quotes. Syntax:

<p>Elon Musk said: <q>It is possible for ordinary people to choose to be extraordinary.</q></p>

Code tag - <code>

The code tag in HTML is used to display a piece of computer code. The content included inside this tag is displayed in monospaced font in the web browser. Syntax:

<p><code>System.out.println("hello world")</code></p>

Quoting tag - <blockquote>

The <blockquote> tag in HTML is used to enclose content taken from another source. The source URL can be given using a special attribute cite. And the source text can be represented with the <cite> tag. The content within the blockquote tag is usually automatically indented by the web browsers. Syntax:

<blockquote cite="https://www.goodreads.com/quotes">

<p>A room without books is like a body without soul</p>

</blockquote>

<cite>-Marcus Tullius Cicero</cite>

Definition tag - <dfn>

The definition tag in HTML is used to specify the actual keyword of the document. The text enclosed within the <dfn> TSG is declared as the keyword. The keyword is shown in the italic form in the web browser. Syntax:

<p><dfn>HTML</dfn> is used everywhere to create web sites.</p>

Strong tag - <strong>

Strong tag in HTML is used to specify the main or most important element of the content. The text enclosed within this tag is shown in a bold format just like the bold tag. Syntax:

<p>learning <strong>HTML</strong> is just fun</p>

Keyboard tag - <kbd>

The keyboard tag in HTML is used to specify that the content is a user input from the keyboard. Syntax:

<p>press <kbd>cltr</kbd>+<kbd>c</kbd> to copy</p>

The above mentioned are some of the few basics tags that one need to know to write text documents in HTML. Of course, there are a lot more to explore but in this article, we are just including as many tags that are essential for someone to show their document on the web browser. In the next article, we'll be bringing a lot more interesting tags in HTML to make a perfect webpage. We're yet to explore about adding URLs, photos and videos, iframes etc. All the above codes are written with the atom code editor. And stay tuned to our blog to know more about HTML.

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Introduction to HTML - Hypertext markup language

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Mon, 19 Oct 2020 08:20:00 +0000

Web development is the most important innovation that grew up in the last few decades. Just after the internet captured the whole world, it gained the attention of various developers, entrepreneurs and business professionals to reach out to a large number of people. People saw a larger opportunity in investing in developing their websites for better growth of their companies. Basically, web development is a task refers to the development of the structure, elements and content of a website over the internet or intranet. It involves various steps and procedures and for different category of people it's definition may be different. Every type of website is based on the same idea of development whether it may be e-commerce, blog, educational or some other genre of the website. The whole website is a structure of code. When the client or user surf a webpage, he or she sends a request to the server where the back-end of the website lies, the client is only able to see the content of the website, when the server approves the request. In this article, we are going to learn the basics of front-end web development. HTML is a markup language that has a worldwide user base for the webpage development. Most of the websites on the internet are scripted with HTML. HTML is basic for front-end web development and the fundamental to learn web development. Now let's get into the article and know more about HTML.

History and development of HTML

HTML stands for Hyper-text markup language. It is used for the development and scripting of webpages. The first-ever version of HTML was developed in 1993 by Tim Berners-Lee. Throughout the last decade, HTML version 4.01 was most widely used which had become the official standard for HTML in 1999. In 2000, the XHTML became the official standard for the first time. It was the combination of HTML and XML. Well, XML stands for extensible markup language which is used for the development of other markup languages and has a huge usage. Later in 2011, the most advance version of HTML came out that is HTML5 most of the websites are now buildup using HTML5 and a wide range of web browsers also support this version. However, this is not the official standard yet.

Various releases of HTML so far:

HTML 1.0 - This was the first release of HTML back in 1993. At that time not many people were involved in web development. This version was very limited with features and a developer would only able to create the basic text on the web.

HTML 2.0 - This was the first upgrade to the language and had all the features included in HTML 1.0 and some new featured with which a developer can design his website. It became the official standard till 1997.

HTML 3.0 - This was a major development for HTML. It contained various abilities for web development and was supporting the newly introduced attributes and tags by Netscape. Sadly the browsers at that time were not able to handle this and this version was abandoned.

HTML 3.2 - At the time of the release of this version, browsers were developing their own tags. So a standard needed to be founded. In 1994, the world wide web Consortium formed to ensure language development in the right direction. In 1997, HTML 3.2 became the official standard.

HTML 4.01 - This version was the last one of classic HTML. It came with the new and improved features of web designing that supported fully responsive web pages. It also came with the new presentational language CSS(cascading stylesheets). It became the official standard in April 1997.

XHTML 1.0 - This version came with the official support of integrated XML. In 2000, it shared the official standard with the HTML 4.01 version. But this version was not so popular because of the new set of coding rules.

HTML 5.0 - This is the latest and ongoing version of HTML. Whereas it is still in development, it already captured a large number of web developers. It came with the various new functionalities of new tags and attributes.

Markup language

HTML basically is a markup language. A markup language is a type of computer language that is used to design something. In the case of HTML, webpages are designed. It is a computer language that has keywords and attributes that are used to phrase the view of the page and the data it contains. The data that we want to show on a website is easily understood by us but the same thing is never understood by the computer. For that markup language is used so that the machine can understand the content and the website can be made responsive.

But markup language is not a programming language, it has no use in decision making. Programming languages are compiled to make some output out of the given set of instruction. But markup languages just to describe the document. HTML is a markup language. In HTML hypertext refers to the link between the webpages. We use HTML to mark-up the data with tags so that the browser can understand the relations between webpages and the way to display it.

Front-end web development

To better understand the function of HTML, we have to know where and how it is used. Front-end web development refers to the actual designing of the look and feel of the webpage. It is also called the client-side development because the developer has to design the web page exactly how it would look to the user. For a good website, a better front end development is very much necessary. Developing a web page is based on the idea of editing the text, style and interaction of that page. Basically, three languages are used for front-end web development i.e HTML, CSS and JavaScript. It is also a challenging task as the tools and technique associated with the front-end development changes constantly so the developer needs to be up-to-date with it.

HTML is a part of front-end web development. Every letter, word, paragraph etc that is visible to us on a web page is written with HTML. A web developer needs to have knowledge of HTML for web development. Almost all the browser today supports HTML by default. The HTML coding of a web page can be seen on computer browser by right-clicking and then navigating to the inspect element option.

Writing and editing text in HTML

As mentioned above, most of the browser supports HTML, that means HTML files can be easily run through them. An HTML file basically means a web page. Here the browser works as the compiler for the HTML code. Unlike programming languages, HTML is a markup language that means, it is not for logical or decision-making use. We just write code in HTML format so that the web browser could read the written code well and phrase it to be able to read easily by a user.

Any HTML code can be written in any type of text editor and after saving it, it is officially a web page when opened through a browser. Here is an example of HTML code snippet written in notepad:

The above HTML code is written in notepad. It can be written with any code or text editor. Notice that even after the code has been written but it is difficult to understand the data as the tags, attributes and others are not highlighted. It is even more difficult as the developer is unable to figure out mistakes or bugs in the code. Although it is possible to write the HTML code anywhere for a professional developer, it will be easier if the elements of the HTML are highlighted and errors are figured out. To overcome this problem, a code editor or IDE(Integrated development environment) can be used. And IDE makes it possible to understand the written HTML code with ease and code can be written more efficiently. In this tutorial, we'll be using the Atom code editor. Atom is a very powerful and featured pack free and open-source IDE for any language. Atom can be downloaded from their official website - atom.io. Atom is available for Windows, macOS and for Linux. Here is an example of HTML code written with the atom code editor.

Look at the different HTML elements, of course, we'll discuss all of them later. But here the colour of the different elements changes in an IDE for the ease of the developer. Even if something goes wrong it informs you about the bug. This is the advantage of writing HTML code in a code editor or IDE.

Although we are going with Atom editor, any type of code or text editor is allowed to write HTML code. Just save the file with .html format and it is now ready to read by a browser. Next, we are going to know how to use the Atom editor to write the HTML code.

Getting started with Atom

The atom code editor is a good kind of IDE for any kind of programming or web development. It is multi-platform based support almost all languages. It has integrated support for GitHub. In this series of HTML tutorial, we'll be using Atom. So let's get started step-by-step of using Atom IDE.

STEP-I

The first step is to download and install the Atom IDE on your machines. It is available for Windows, Linux and macOS as mentioned above. Get it installed from atom.io. After downloading the package we'll move further towards the installation process.

The size of the Atom IDE is about 175 megabytes. As the download completes go to the folder where it is downloaded and install the application. It may take some time to install the application. After the application installs, open Atom by clicking run as administrator so that Atom will be able to make changes to the files and folders. When Atom opens, the following window should be visible.

STEP-II

As we have installed Atom successfully, now move forward to run codes in it. As mentioned above somewhere, Atom supports a large number of programming languages, scripting and markup languages and databases. It has integrated support for GitHub. But to write HTML codes we don't need any package to install. Simply click the file button on the top left and select New File option.

After clicking the New File option, a new page should open where we can write our HTML code. By default, the file doesn't have any name or extension. We can set it at the time of saving the file.

STEP-III

So now after installing and opening the writing page of Atom IDE, we are now able to write the actual HTML code in it. But before writing the code, we've to save the file with .html extension so that the IDE will be able to understand that the file is an HTML file and we'll be able to take all advantages of having a code editor.

Note that the file is being saved with the name index.html. But why? Well, we can save the HTML file with any name but by saving the file with the name index.html, the web browsers will be able to treat it as the homepage of a website. We are not necessarily making a website right now but, if we would be making, the index.html would be the homepage of that website.

STEP-IV

Now as the file has been saved with .html extension, the IDE is now able to recognise the file as an HTML file so that now we can write our code. The IDE colourize the elements of HTML differently so that the programmer or developer can recognise the code with ease. After writing the code go to the File option in the top left corner click save or simply hit CTRL-S on windows or Command-S on mac to save the file.

As the file is saved we can open it in a browser to see what exactly it looks like ina browser. To do this, go to the folder where the file is saved and double click on it to open it in the default browser or you can select any other browser also.

So now the file is going to be opened in the selected browser and we can see the exact content in it.

Now see how the browser showed the content to the user. This is what we had written in the HTML code. The browser phrase the code and extracted the relevant information what is needed to be shown to the viewer.

So this is how Atom editor can be used for writing code in HTML. Of course, we have not learnt how HTML codes are written and what all things, elements and set of rules does HTML have. This is going to be the content of the next article. In the next article, we'll bring you how to write code in HTML, rules, elements and attributes and basically everything regarding HTML.

HTML has wide usage in the web today, tons of web pages are developed every day using HTML. It is an important scripting language to learn for beginners as well as professional web developers. This article was a quick review and introduction part of HTML.

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History and Development of Java: Functions, Conditionals and iterative statements

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Thu, 15 Oct 2020 12:33:00 +0000

Learning Java is a basic today just like learning English. If you know English you can travel anywhere in the world. Similarly, if you know Java you can step into any aspect of programming and problem-solving. Java has wide usage in android and web apps development and much more. In our last few articles, we managed to bring you the basics of Java programming. So now let's dive deeper and know more about Java. In this article, we are going to read about functions. Functions are the basic building blocks of a program, we can never execute a program without having any function. This article is the third instalment of the ongoing java series. In this article, we are going to discuss library functions and some of the built-in function which is provided by the BlueJ. Apart from that the conditionals and iterative statements are also going to be included. All the program snippets are done in BlueJ code editor for Java. So now let's jump into the article and know what exactly are functions, conditionals and loops.

Built-in functions

Built-in functions are those which are pre-installed and pre-defined in the platform which we are using for performing a programming language.

Packages

Packages are the group of classes that performs a various function in a program. For the execution of a package, we have to include a package in our program by using the keyword import. Some of the packages are already installed when we write a program. The Math library is previously present in the program.

Some of the Math function are listed below:-

Math.max(): function can be used to take out the greatest number between the two.

int a= Math.max(6,9);

Math.min(): This function can be used to take out the smallest number between the two.

int a=Math.min(6,9);

Math.pow(): This function can be used to take out the raised power of the number.

int a=Math.pow(2,3);

Math.abs(): This function is used to take out the absolute value of a given number.

int a=Math.abs(-5.673);

5.673

Math.sqrt(): This function returns the square root of the given number.

int a=Math.sqrt(36);

Math.log(): This function returns the natural logarithmic value of a given number.

int a=Math.log(4);

0.602059991

Math.rint(): This function returns the exact value if the difference is less than 0.5 or else it returns the higher value.

double a=Math.rint(7.34);

7.0

double a=Math.rint(7.68);

8.0

Math.round(): This function returns the rounded off value.

double a=Math.round(6.25);

6.0

double a=Math.round(-7.89);

-8.0

Math.random(): This function returns a random value between 0 to 1.

double a=Math.random();

0.2538751474867425368

Math.ceil(): This function returns themes higher value corresponding to the argument given.

double a=Math.ceil(7.69);

8.0

Math.floor(): This function returns the lowest nearer small integer corresponding to the given value.

double a=Math.floor(7.98);

7.0

User-defined functions

In Java, it is possible to declare functions as per the user's requirement. The built-in functions and user-defined functions basically obey the same rules however the user has to define them as per its requirement in the whole program. As we know a function or method is a block of code which contains the mechanism of what is to be performed when called somewhere in the program. Some basic rules of user-defined function are:

A function name is an identifier i.e only letters, numbers and a special character '_' is only allowed.
A function name must not be a reserved keyword.
A function name must not exceed 128 characters.
A function name cannot start with numbers however numbers can be included in the middle or at the end.
No spaces or special characters are allowed however in case of space, '_' can be used.

Java follows every aspect of object-oriented programming. Every function must be included inside a class i.e they should be a part of the class. A function is declared by its name followed by parenthesis '()'. At the time of declaring a method, the programmer has to declare what type of value does the function returns. In Java, return types can be int, float, double, char, String, Map, List etc are allowed. If the function doesn't return any value, then its default return type is void.

The programmer can use modifiers to define the access types whether it is public, private etc. The keyword static is used to define that the function can be accessed without creating objects. And at last inside the parenthesis, parameters are passed by declaring their types. A parameter is a value passed to a function.

public static int sum(int arg1, int arg2){

return arg1+arg2;

}

In the above snippet, two arguments are passed and the function will return their sum when called.

System.out.println(sum(3,5));

output: 8

Conditional Statements(if-else)

The statements which can be used in decision making are called Conditional Statements. In a conditional statement, we use the if-else statements.

if statement

We use if statement, when we have to check for a specific condition the if statement performs a specific task when the condition provided, is true or else it ignores the condition.

Syntax

if(condition)

{

Statement 1

Statement 2

}

For example, we write a code snippet to check whether you are a citizen and can vote or not :

If the given condition provided in the above syntax will be true then Statement 1 and Statement 2 will be executed and if not then control passes to the next code written in the program and skips it.

The only if statement

When there is a group of tasks and a particular task has to be done, in this situation we use the only if statement. In this type of if statement we can use multiple if and can give multiple conditions, provided if the condition is true then the statement corresponding to the condition will be executed and the control will come out.

Syntax

if (condition 1)

Statement 1

if (condition 2)

Statement2

if (condition 3)

Statement 3

For example, you need to check a number to be a single-digit, double-digit or triple-digit number.

If else statement

Here if the condition satisfies then the statements present inside the if block will be executed and if not then it will automatically print the statement written in the else block.

Syntax

if (condition)

{

Statement 1

Statement 2

}

else

{

Statement 3

Statement 4

}

For example, you've to check whether a number is even or odd :

Nested if statement

An if within an if is called a nested if statement. When there is two or more condition present after the execution of host conditions in this state we use nested if.

Syntax

if (condition 1)

{

if (condition 2)

Statement 1

else

Statement 2

}

else

{

if (condition 3)

Statement 3

else

Statement 4

}

For example, you've to check the greatest number among the three :

The Switch Statement

We have just seen that whenever that is a condition or more than one possibility is present we use the if statement, but in many cases the if statement proves to be very much complicated.

For example, the nested if is much more complicated when its branches go deeper. That's why it is a bit difficult to recognise if statement. To solve this problem Java provides with one more built-in function which is the Switch Statement.

Java provides us with multiple branching selection statements which are known as the Switch Statement. This function successively compares the value with the Case, whenever the case is matched with the value, the following block of statements associated with the Case gets executed.

Syntax

switch (expression)

{

case value 1:

statement 1;

break;

case value 2:

statement 2;

break;

case value 3:

statement 3;

break;

default :

default block;

}

For example, you've to do a menu-driven program to execute addition, subtraction, multiplication and division :

The statement which we right under the case must be terminated with a break. If we don't apply a break, the program will think that it has to proceed forward and it will execute the following cases also, that is why we use a break. When we use this break statement the control of the program come out from the Switch Statement.

When no match is found the program automatically execute the Default case.

Iterative statements

In programming, certain situations occur when the following task has to be repeated repeatedly. In those conditions we use Loops.

Loops are basically the functions which repeat the following task for a certain period. Basically, there are three types of loops used in Java :

for loop
while loop
do-while loop

Constructions in a loop

Variable initialisation: Before iteration, a fixed variable must be initialised so that it can control the loop.
Test Conditions: The checkpoint where it is decided whether the loop will run or not. The Test Conditions may be present at the beginning of the loop or at the end of the loop. They are Entry control loop and exit control loop.
Update expression: the update expression increases or decreases or we can say updates the value of the initialised variable. Basically, update expression is used for the next execution inside the loop.
The frame of the loop: this contains the statement which is to be executed repeatedly as long as the test condition is true.

The For Loop

The most widely and frequently used loop in Java is the for loop, it is easy to understand and the syntax of this loop is much easier than the while and do-while loop. This is an entry control loop.

Syntax

for (initialisation; test condition; update expression)

{

The frame of the loop;

}

For example, you've to print the numbers 1 to 20 using for loop:

The While Loop

The second type of loop in Java is the while loop it is basically similar like the for loop but with little difference. The While loop is an entry control loop as well.

Syntax

while (condition)

{

The frame of the loop;

}

For example, you've to print the numbers 1 to 20 using while loop:

The following snippet iterate till the condition is true whenever it becomes false the control terminate out from the loop body.

The DO-WHILE Loop

The do-while loop is a bit different from the previously learnt for and while loop it is an exit control loop i.e. it executes the body first at once and after that checks the condition, if the condition proves to be true then it goes for the next iteration otherwise it terminate out of the loop.

Syntax

{

statement 1;

statement 2;

}while (condition);

For example you've to print the multiples of 2 :

The break statement

The break statement is one of the most important and most widely used statements in the Java programming language. Basically, the break statement is used to immediately terminate out from the following function. This is important because, if we don't use this then the control execute all the statement preceding it.

The continue statement

The Continue Statement is exceptionally used in looping. It is used whenever the programs need to iterate in the successive number (updations of control variable) without executing the previous code.

The return statement

The Return Statement is just like the break statement. Basically, it returns a value and after that, it exits out from the function. The basic function which makes it different from the Break statement is that it returns a value to the place where it was invoked.

Hope you enjoyed reading this Java tutorial article. In this article, the basics of java programming have been discussed. In the next article, we are bringing more exciting stuff. So, subscribe to our newsletter to stay tuned to our latest posts.

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Understanding SolarCity

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Mon, 05 Oct 2020 11:39:00 +0000

Energy, such a thing that is just as important as oxygen to living beings. It is always estimated that in every ten years our requirements for energy consumption grows by double. With such an enormous amount of growing technology, 24x7 electricity to every house and production of resources costs us with such a massive amount of energy that every year we have to make a new energy consumption plan. In future, our energy consumption will grow rapidly and for that, we need to find some never-ending sources. Sources like fossil-fuels,bio-fuels and other mineral fuels are estimated to be exhausted with our growth rate of energy consumption. Elon Musk and his companies have always stepped forward to find solutions for the world's problems. In the upper atmosphere, the Earth receives 174 petawatts of solar radiation. In 2002, the energy received from the solar radiation was more than one hour than the world uses in one year. So now this can be seen that our star is the source of life on our planet and we can use it for our future energy needs. So far in our articles, we have seen how Elon Musk has brought solutions to each problem. In the year 2006 two cousins of Musk made an initiative of manufacturing solar panels. Well, the idea was little but when we make an idea for the benefit of mankind, it is already known that it is never going to fail. That company is now a subsidiary of Tesla Inc., the company of Musk which is developing technology for the better and effective use of solar energy for our future energy consumption. If the energy of the sun can be used effectively then it is estimated that the future energy need will be safeguarded and the pollution level will be halved. Tesla, the car manufacturing company has always developed ways to become environmentally friendly. Now we are talking about the SolarCity.

Description

Two cousins of Elon Musk Peter and Lydon Rive founded the company SolarCity in 2006 which was based on the suggestion given by Musk himself. By 2013, SolarCity had become the leading solar installed in the U.S. In the same year, they also purchased Paramount Solar from Paramount Equity for $120 million. At that time the company was able to generate 870 MW of solar power. By 2015, they contributed 28% of the total non-utility solar energy in the U.S. On August 1, 2016, Tesla announced it would be acquiring the whole company in a $2.8 billion merger. Musk's company Tesla had always tried to bring new way towards sustainability and by acquiring SolarCity, they wanted to move the world from hydrocarbon fuel-based economy to solar electric-based economy.

How solar panels work

The main product developed by SolarCity is solar panels. Solar panels if you look are itself a new generation technology which has been used recently. A general-purpose solar panel work by absorbing sunlight with photovoltaic cells. Then it generates direct current from the absorbed sunlight which then converts it to alternating current with the help of an inverter which is used by most of the electrical appliances and excess electricity is fed to the main grid.

A solar panel basically consists of a layer of silicon cells, a glass casing, a metal frame and wires that allow electricity to flow. Silicon is an element with conductive properties which allows the panel to absorb sunlight and convert it to electricity. When sunlight interacts with silicon cells, the electrons in it begins to move which then sets a flow of direct current. This direct current is then captured and fed into a solar inverter which later converts it to alternating current.

Solar power utilisation

Well, there was a time we used to think and dream of a world where most of our energy need would be fulfilled by solar energy but now it is our requirement. Every day tons of harmful gases are just flying above our heads which we know are dangerous but still, we are bound to use the source of energy. Human started the use of solar power as a source of energy form the last century but a way longer ago we had been using our star for various purposes. SolarCity is one such idea that can make the use of solar energy more efficient. Here are some of the most demanding utilisation of solar energy;

Ventilation

For the sake of our non-stop growth, we never stop using any source of energy. The continuing use of non-sustainable greenhouse energy sources leads to fatal global warming. Rising temperature means very hot days. In summers, there might be a day come where without proper ventilation it may become difficult to stay at home. Ventilation itself is a very good idea to make home cool. Usually, we make the process of ventilation as environment-friendly but when we utilise our precious sources of energy like hydrocarbon-based or electric-based but it actually not a very nature-friendly idea. Self-contained roof vent fans that operate fully on solar energy can be used to avoid electrical uses.

Solar water heater

Man uses millions of gallons of water every day for various purposes. Obviously, we used to warm it with some sort of heater so that every bacteria can be wiped. But with solar power, many companies are developing ideas to fill the demand of people for water warming. Usually, with solar energy, we have two choices to boil water. Active solar water heating system makes use of mechanical pumps to circulate water from the rooftop water heating panel to collect in the collection tanks. Passive solar water heating system has no such mechanical arrangement, it simply works on the concept of natural heat rising. It is usually cheaper than the active counterpart with some performance compromisation.

Solar house heating

Image Source - Google | Image by - Nina Howell

In winter most people opt for the higher-order cost house heating system. In the equatorial region, it has been recorded that every winter the sun radiate millions of joules of energy every year. It is a very cost-effective idea to use that energy for house heating. Hot water systems have emerged as a very good idea for house heating. This uses solar collector panels to heat the water that circulates through tubes throughout the whole house. This kind of systems provides heating to the entire house as well as hot water for various different purposes. Hot air heating systems are also used to provide heating to the house. The working of the system is quite simple. It gatherers the hot air that has been heated by the sun. Usually, these systems are designed for single rooms only but the more sophisticated versions may serve the whole house.

Giga NewYork

Image Source - Google | Image by - Sean O'Kane

Buffalo, New York, in 2014 SolarCity announced New manufacturing facility known as Gigafactor 2. Their initial plans were to manufacture a 1.2 million square foot facility to employ 1500 employees that would cost $900 million. This plant was expected to be the biggest solar plant in the U.S. This project was initiated in 2014 and expected to be complete by 2016. In 2017 Elon Musk announced that his company Tesla's solar roof products would be manufactured further in the Buffalo factory. In February 2020 the company reported having 1500 employee as expected.

Solar Roofs

Roofs are such important structures under which we get a better sleep every night. Every year about 5 million roofs are changed by the owners to get better protection for their houses. Fortunately, these roofs can be a great source of energy production for the whole house. SolarCity is planning further to get better technology implemented in every person's house. The statement was given by musk himself during a call. He introduced solar roofs as their new product that is going to be manufacture in their buffalo, NY facility. Musk statement as if the roof was in its end then no one is going to put a solar panel over it as it may get damaged and it can be a huge market loss for the company. "So why not have a solar roof that's better in many other ways as well" - he stated. SolarCity also sells lithium-ion batteries system that stores power generated by solar roofs' panels. Further SolarCity plans involve $750 million manufacturing facility at Buffalo to produce solar panels that will generate a gigawatt of power every year.

Solar panels

The main product of any solar company is solar panels and SolarCity claims to build better solar panels than any other company at a very attractive price point. Although it is clear that Tesla's SolarCity is one of the most famous solar companies in the U.S but still they don't manufacture their own solar cells. After acquiring SolarCity, Tesla had a partnership with Panasonic to build solar panels. The idea was to use Panasonic's HIT cells to manufacture solar panels. Later due to trade loss, Panasonic had to take a departure from Tesla. After Panasonic's departure, Tesla is now working with Hanwha to build solar panels. SolarCity's solar panels' aesthetic appearance makes them so special. Being black in colour they are designed to absorb more sunlight.

Solar panels efficiency and cost

Elon Musk has been always trying to bring his newest and cutting edge technology available to people at a value for money. His solar technology had always aimed towards the people who can make use of it at a very good cost. Tesla makes solar panels and roofs in a very wide range of lengths. Their panels range from $8200 to $32800 according to the length of the house and how much power it needs. For an average house with an electricity cost of $100, $175 and $200 per month, Tesla recommends their 8.16 KW, 12.24 KW and 16.32 KW systems respectively.

The current solar panels that SolarCity delivers has a power efficiency of 19% with a temperature coefficient of 0.39%, that means with every single degree drop of temperature, the power efficiency will decrease only by 0.39%.

There isn't any doubt left in assuming the fact that Elon Musk is the most revolutionary person in this century. From all the way down here we came to know about Starlink, Neuralink, Hyperloop and SolarCity is some of the few masterpieces of Musk's ideas. SolarCity can be a great success in human history Musk says but the fact is that he is creating history himself. All the way from the few decades the world has seen a great scarcity in energy production and management. Millions of vehicles and machines that run every single second consume energy that can one day totally extinguished. For the sake of it, every nation is planning for some sustainable energy source. Musk's company Tesla had always adopted with the motive of using sustainable energy through their electric vehicles and now all other solar equipment.

"If somthing is important enough, you do it even if the odds are not in your favour" - Elon Musk

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History and Development of JAVA: INPUT and OUTPUT STATEMENTS

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Thu, 01 Oct 2020 14:17:00 +0000

In our previous article, we've discussed the history and development of Java programming language created by James Arthur Gosling, we've discussed the characteristics of Java, different types of Java programming, Compiler and Interpreter, and we've also gone through functions of JVM, Source Code and Byte Code.

In this article, we are going to learn some of the types of Input and Output statements including Comments and were going to get a sharp intro of BlueJ.

Output statement in Java

The output statement in Java produces a result of any execution on programming. The values to be produced on the screen are enclosed with the braces i.e.(). Over it can also be used to accept a value from the user.

The output statement in Java programming language can be written in two forms:

System.out.print(): When the programmer uses this printing statement then the cursor will remain on the same line without jumping to the next line.

Syntax:System.out.print(<message to be displayed>);

System.out.print("Java is fun");

System.out.print("it follows OOPs");

System.out.print("previously it was called Oak")

Output

Java is fun it follows OOPs previously it was called Oak.

System.out.println(): When the programmer uses this printing statement than the statement used to pass the cursor in the next line of the screen after producing the result.

Syntax : System.out.println(<message to be displayed>);

System.out.println("Java is fun");

System.out.println("it follows OOPs");

System.out.println("previously it was called Oak")

Output

Java is fun

it follows OOPs

previously it was called Oak.

Comment statements in Java

Sometimes it becomes difficult for the second person or the user to understand the program written by the programmer. In this case, the programmer use Comments to make the second person understand what the following code is meant to do.

// :used for single line comment
/*---*/:used for multi line comment
/**--*/:used for a brief document.

Single line comment

This type of commenting can be used when the code is not much complex and can be easily be understood in one line.

Multi-line comment

Sometimes the code needs to be understood in a detailed manner using single-line comment again and again can rush between the code and the comments that's why we use Multi-line comment which makes the user convenient and easy to understand the following code.

Documentation comment

While programming the user may need to attach some text documents in his program, in this condition he has to use documentation comment in order to get his desired results.

Input statements in Java

The program that we write in the editor gives the output in the Terminal Window. The Terminal Window only shows the thing present in the System.out.print() or System.out.println() statement.

The process of accepting values from the user is called INPUT.

We can get the input using either:-

Parameterized input
Scanner input
PrintWriter input.

Parameterized Input

Parameterized input is the BlueJ's unique method of testing methods with values that we pass to it. BlueJ allows us to accept values that are to be taken as input.

For example, we've to add three numbers using Parameterized input.

After the compilation, a pop-up window occurs

We've to click on void add(int a, int b, int c) option from the menu, which will show dialogue to input the values for the variables 'a', 'b' and 'c'.

Now input the values for a, b, and c. For example, we've taken 12,13 and 14 for a, b, and c respectively, then execute.

See the output has been delivered.

Scanner Input

When we want to specify the user what is to be taken as input that it is the Length and Breadth of a rectangle, Name etc.

Scanner Class

The scanner class is a package in java.util, a class that allows the user to read values of different types. In order to use the Scanner for our program, first, we need to create a Scanner class OBJECT.

Scanner Class Object

First, we've to create an Object for Scanner Class, in order to use the function attached to the Class. We can create an object using the following syntax:-

Scanner x=new Scanner(System.in);

It shows an object X has been created which scans the screen from some input given from the user. This is represented by System.in.

Once an object is created you can now use the function of the System class to take input from the user.

Let us now take an example of a program that takes two integers as input and find their sum using scanner class.

Notice that since the scanner object is named as "x", whenever there is an input we need to use "x.nextInt()"

a=x.nextInt();

b=x.nextInt();

By doing this a and b are being scanned by the screen for the input of values inside the variable a and b respectively. Thus when you execute the program it will show the following output on the terminal window.

Now you have to input two integers for which the program will add both of them.

After the execution of the whole program, you will get the result.

PrintWriter Class

The System.out.println() statement recommend displaying the output on the screen in JDK 1.5 version. Now we are going to discuss another powerful tool which can be used for writing to the console when using Java through the Print Writer Class the PrintWriter is a character-based class using a character base class for the console output makes your program more productive and standard.

Creating PrintWriter Object

PrintWriter x= new PrintWriter(System.out, true);

Printwriter uses various constructors. We are going to see it now.

PrintWriter(OutputStream output,

boolean flushIfNewline)

Here, the output is an Object of OutputStream type and flushIfNewline controls the java system to flush or clear the output stream object whenever a new line character is output. To flush automatically flush new line is applied true if false flushing is not automatic.

This class allows the function "print()" and "println()" for all type including objects. Thus you can now use this function in the same manner as they have been used by the

"System. out". If an argument is not a simple type, the PrintWriter function calls the object to String() function and then print the result.

To write to the console by using PrintWriter, specify System.out for the output stream and flush the stream after each new line.

Java programming with BlueJ

BlueJ is a free Java environment which was created in Monash University, Australia. It is a windows-based platform for the Java Development Kit(JDK). BlueJ can be freely downloaded from the website www.bluej.org.

Features of BlueJ

The compilation and execution process in comparatively easier than JDK version 1.3.
Blue is user friendly, it is based on a menu-driven approach.
To increase the efficiency level of a programmer a sample program appears on the screen, as soon as a class is defined.
After compilation BlueJ shows the error if any present in the program or else it displays the message "No Syntax error"

The first step to Blue

BlueJ is a menu-driven based program on windows, where you can write and execute programs.

Open Blue.
A default project will pop in the dashboard or else you can create your own project.

Enter the file name in the space given and click "Create". A Window will open with the project name on the title bar.
Create a class by clicking on the new class in the space given.

Double click on the folder name to open the class a sample structure of the class will be available on the screen.

Write your program in the working area.
After completion of your program click on " Compile" button it will display a message "Class compiled-no Syntax error" in cases where there is no Syntax error otherwise debug and again compile the program.

Execution of the program

By following the steps you can execute or get the results of your code.

Make a right-click on the folder and select "void main(String args[])" from the drop-down list

A calling function will finally appear on the screen then click OK.

Thus the output will appear on the screen

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Understanding Hyperloop

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Mon, 21 Sep 2020 11:25:00 +0000

A very famous quote has been given by Henry David Thoreau "you cannot dream yourself into a character; you must hammer and forge yourself one" which is the best applied on the billionaire visionary founder and CEO of the world's two biggest company i.e SpaceX and Tesla - Elon Musk whose two biggest innovative, futuristic and breathtaking cutting edge technologies have been covered up in our blog earlier. This man has not only shown the world the future but also guiding the world to step toward it. In this article, we are again back with a new vision of Elon Musk which is going to be a reality very soon. If you are one of them who thinks that office is very far away from home and reaching there takes time, Mr Musk has already got some cool tech for you. In this article, we are going to discuss such technology which can make travelling insanely fast. We are talking about speed which is going to be way faster than bullet trains and even twice the speed as much as of a plane. And the main cutting edge point about this idea is that it is totally ground-based. Now, it seems quite insane but the science behind it can make it understand better. We are using mechanical systems for our transport work from more than 5 centuries and till now it has been well estimated what is stopping us from achieving great speed at least on the ground. Basically, friction and air resistance are the main problems. The idea is that if these resisting forces can be controlled then very high speed can be achieved. We are not only talking about high speed but this can also be proved effective in conserving the environment and also its a very cost-effective idea. Well, we are talking about Hyperloops.

Description

The idea of this project was first introduced by Elon Musk back in 2012 at a Pando daily event in Santa Monica where he called this as the fourth mode of transportation apart from the ground-based, water-based and air-based. Musk mentioned that this hypothetical transportation system would propel people and cargo filled pods through steel tubes over long distances. This problems of resistances like air resistance and force of friction can be carried away by vacuum tubes and magnetic levitation respectively. This high-speed mode of transportation would empower the following characteristics: weather immunity, very high speed i.e twice as a plane, low power consumption and accident-free. The name Hyperloop was coined for this technology because this would travel in a loop and the speed is hypersonic. Currently, Musk's two big companies Tesla and SpaceX are working on this project to make it available for the public very shortly. After the announcement of this project, a designed was also published on the blogs of the two companies describing the efficiency, designing and cost of the system. But as it has been described the system looks quite simple The loops and the pods are easy enough to build. But making hyperloop and making it available for the public use need a lot of political will, a few good engineers and a large amount of money. At first in 2012 when Elon Musk suggested the idea of Hyperloop, he didn't provide any scientific evidence for its existence. Later in August 2013, he provided with a 57-page white paper describing his technical thinking about the working of this system.

How it works

Magnetic Levitation(maglev)

As mentioned earlier, Hyperloop is all about removing the air pressure and friction which slows down a vehicle's speed. To do this one idea is that, the pod should hover over the track i.e a magnetic levitation train. Originally, Musk gave an idea of doing this with air bearings, little jets of air under the pod. Most of the engineer suggested not to rely on the standard magnetic levitation train which uses electromagnets, the Hyperloop system would use permanent magnets to lift the pod. This idea would use less power consumption and there is no role of current here because of the permanent magnets. When these magnets move over the conductive arrays, they create a magnetic field that pushes the pod up. The complementary magnetic system would give the pod a push every few miles. The main idea is that permanent magnets would be placed under the capsules or pods in a Halbach array so that the magnetic field produced would focus on one side cancelling the field of another side. If air resistance and friction can be controlled then we don't exactly need a high energy propulsion system to propel the pod. The technology of magnetic levitation has been licenced to Hyperloop transportation technology(HTT) by Lawerence Livermore National Labs.

Loop

So the problem of friction can be easily solved through the above method. And now there's one problem left i.e air resistance. And here come's the role of the tube or loop. The function of the loop is to enclose the space around the area through which the pod moves. This can be used to pull out nearly all the air inside the loop to create a vacuum. As nearly all the air would be pulled out, its circumstances would be like a plane and by providing the pod with a little energy it would catch its speed. With this idea, the idea of efficiency grows up. As there are fewer air resistances, very less amount of energy would be enough to propel the engine, unlike aeroplanes where a massive amount of fuel is used to maintain its velocity. No use of electricity throughout the magnetism process and no use of any biofuel can lead to less cost and environment-friendly transportation system.

Propulsion

The linear induction motor and the linear Synchronous motor are the two most useful technologies for propulsion used today. The linear induction motor performs better in terms of cost and reliability. But for energy consumption, the linear synchronous motor performs better but the current technological approach is not that developed to reach as high speed as the linear synchronous motor. Moreover, the linear synchronous motor needs to be more developed to get that level of safety to be used in Hyperloops.

Image Source - Google | Image by - EIT

The Pod

As the passenger pods would travel in the near-vacuum loops, they are being developed aerodynamically optimised to be able to resist the aerodynamic drag. The capacity of one pod is expected to be around 50 and with further improvement, the capacity will increase. According to the aircraft design guidelines, the pod is recommended to have a diameter of 2.7 meters.

Communication systems

Of course, the current communication systems that we use in railways and subways are totally not useful for the new Hyperloop mode of transportation. To exchange data with the outside stations, the pods need to be connected always. Optical fibres can be used to solve the problem but before use, they need to more development. The companies expect that in future, communication systems and protocols will improve a lot. Moreover, many companies are supposed to improve current technologies to be used in High-speed transportations.

Artificial Intelligence

Artificial Intelligence would play a very important role in this fourth mode of transportation. Every Hyperloop developing company is more focused on using the A. I in their systems. They can be used in many broad ways. A. I can be used for designing and maintaining the system. Also A. I will play an important role when the system will be operational as they can be used for safety precautions, system failure etc.

Well, the system of Hyperloop looks very interesting and futuristic but Musk himself said that he was too busy to build the technology himself. His sentence makes sense as he is already running two of his very big companies i.e SpaceX and Tesla and he wouldn't have time to build up and run yet another company. So he encouraged developer around the world interested in Hyperloop. Soon after his papers reached the internet, a bunch of companies came up to have their hands on with Hyperloop. Among all of the companies, LA-based Virgin Hyperloop one proved to be the most successful in this field.

Virgin Hyperloop One

After the grand announcement of Hyperloop by Elon Musk that fascinated the whole world, a bunch of companies came forward to be able to develop this technology first in the world. One such successful companies in the Virgin Hyperloop One that is dreaming to develop this fourth mode of transportation very shortly. It is a startup project founded by serial investor Shervin Pishevar along with space engineer Josh Giegel form Virgin Galactic and Brogan Bambrogan from SpaceX. They evaluated the papers showcased by Elon Musk and set out to build the system that is cheaper, eco-friendly and speed that can rival planes in 2014. Till the day the company has managed to raise $364.4 million by over 80 investors. The current chairperson is Sultan Ahmed Sulayem with CEO Jay Walder. The company has started running projects in cities like Mumbai, Dubai and many more across the Americas. They have their headquarters in Los Angeles and a running test track in Las Vegas. Although their tests are going on and till the date, no commercial pod is made available, the company is expected to make the technology available for public use by 2030.

Hyperloop transportation technologies(HTT)

Image Source- Google | Image by - The News Wheel

After Musk's announcement to the world, a lot of contenders came up to bring this Hyperloop technology to reality. After Virgin Hyperloop's success, a new contender came up that claims to build this technology very soon. Also known as HyperloopTT, Hyperloop Transportation Technologies is an American company that is using crowd collaboration approach to build up the fourth mode of transportation based on Hyperloop showcased by Elon Musk. Initially, the company was founded by Jumpstarter Inc. that used its crowdfunding to build it. The company managed to attract a bunch of community members, engineers and corporations to build that social interface for Hyperloop project. In 2013, the company made a partnership with the engineering software company Ansys which developed the fluid dynamic technology for their system. In February 2015, the company had 200 employees. By 2016 they managed to raise $108 million.

In 2016, HTT developed a smart composite material named Vibranium. It is a lightweight carbon fibre material used in the Hyperloop pods to provide the passengers with better protection against damage from the exterior. They claim that the Vibranium is eight times lightweight than aluminium and 10 times stronger than steel. This material is equipped with embedded sensors to deliver information about heat, temperature and stability.

The Boring Company

Image Source - Google | Image by - r/BoringCompany

Now there are so many contestants trying to do their best to bring the technology of Hyperloop to reality. But originally the idea was given by Mr Musk, right. Initially, he welcomed the companies of the whole world to develop Hyperloop as he was busy already in running two of his companies. But after few years, once he was driving he wrote a tweet "Traffic is driving me nuts. Am going to build a tunnel boring machine and just start digging..." and shortly Musk is back in the game.

Basically, the Boring Company is an American company founded by Elon Musk in December 2016 that build tunnels and infrastructures. In March 2017, they announced that they would use a tunnel boring machine to dig a tunnel at SpaceX. In July 2017, Musk announced plans for building Hyperloop that will connect cities like New York City, Baltimore and Washinton DC. Two years after Musk's tweet, the company published a 500 paged paper where they mentioned various aspects of their work progress. In those papers, they had also written about the Baltimore- Washinton tunnel. There it is mentioned that it could travel passenger at 700 mph nearly around the speed of sound, in a sealed vacuum Hyperloop. The company had also mentioned that the correct potential of Hyperloop technology is currently unknown. So the system would lonely be able to carry 2000 passengers a day.

Safety with Hyperloops

Although this system of Hyperloop seems to be a need step for humanity, its very difficult to predict how safe it will be. Till now there is no operational Hyperloop built by any company yet. Every passenger will travel at a speed more than a plane, this can affect their whole body. To maintain a greater extent of safety and security, all the systems need to check and monitored thoroughly to avoid any kind of system failure. As Elon Musk mentioned the Hyperloop system will use less power but there is still a need to have an extra power supply to avoid power outage.

It can be seen that all the companies are taking time before launching any operational system. This means that all are busy in monitoring their systems for any fault. As the pods are expected to go over the speed of a plane, they need to be well tested for which a huge test facility is likely to be needed. There is a certification agency for every kind of transportation, so before the Hyperloop is made public reports says that such agencies will be set up.

Hyperloop is one such sustainable solution that can make the world more advance with satisfying the growing demand for high-speed travel. But before the proper implementation, proper foundation and safety-security measures need to be taken. With the bright and innovative ideas of people like Elon Musk, the world is moving further. With such ideas, we humans can take any challenge.

I think it is possible for ordinary people to choose to be extra-ordinary - Elon Musk

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Understanding Neuralink

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Mon, 07 Sep 2020 07:04:00 +0000

If someone asks you why mankind is the most intelligent species on the planet, most of the people would just think about the idea that as a comparison to all other species on the planet we are little more advance and have the potential of better understanding. Well, humanity is the only species which have the potential to develop, to cross the limitation, to bring out something new. It is said that in every century, there comes a man who possesses the potential to bring change to the entire human race. One who can show new ways and bring revolutions. In our last article, we discussed the Starlink project which was revolutionary. The project was launched by billionaire CEO and founder of the world's two big companies SpaceX and Tesla. This could be made possible only because of such a determined person who never stops bringing new technology. In this article, we are going to cover up such another insane and revolutionary project launched by the same person Elon Musk. This project seems to be impossible and fictional, but no one would like to ignore if it is being developed by Elon Musk who can develop reusable rockets. Well, we know that computers run through the tiny microprocessors in them. Humans are themselves very miraculous structures. We have our brain through which we can think and control our actions. We all know that very shortly we are going to strengthen our relationship with the computer. Till now we control computer by either touching some sort of controller device or by giving voice commands. If the gap between human and computer can be made very short, then we can get that connection between us and the computer. This project being developed by Elon Musk and his companies is called the Neuralink. So let's get into the topic and know what it is and how its work.

Description

Neuralink is an American biotechnology company founded by Elon Musk in 2016. It is one of the breath-taking projects launched by Elon Musk which plan is to connect our brains to the internet so that we can control machines within our brain. The company's headquarters is located in San Francisco. By 2019, the company received a funding of $158 million with 90 employees. They are developing tiny chips that can be implanted into our brain and through it, we can communicate with machines and even control them. Currently, they are demonstrating their experiments with animals and expect to start the actual experiments on humans by late 2020. The tiny little chips will be consisting of as much as 1500 electrodes. If the experiment gets successful, it can cure various diseases.

The Neuralink chip also known as the N1 chipset is being developed which will be implanted in the human skull. The size of the chip will be roughly about 8 mm in diameter and will contain as much as 1500 electrodes and wires and insulation for the wires. These wires will be placed into the brain using robots. According to the company, the wires will be as thick as the neurons in our brains and as thin as 100th of the thickness of human hair. The company also says that you can even implant multiple chips to cover up different parts of the brain.

How Neuralink works

The working process of Neuralink must be discussed to learn how it will be made possible. Till 2018, the company remained secretive. But then they showcased their Neuralink working process. The process is of course very much complicated as it's going to be implemented into the brain. A bunch of research must be made to achieve the goal. According to the company, the working of the brain must be known to understand the project.

The Brain

There are over 86 billion nerve cells or neurons present inside our brain which transmits data from the brain to different body parts or receive signals which they carry to the brain. Basically, a neuron has three parts, the dendrite which receives the signal, the cell body which computes the signals and the axon which sends the signals out.
Neurons in the brain connect to each other through the axon-dendrite connections also known as the synapses. This is a very important area as the data is transmitted from one neuron to other through the synapses.
The Action potential causes synapses to release neurotransmitters. These help the receptors to connects to the dendrites which allow the current to flow through the neuron membrane. When the neuron receives the right combination of spatiotemporal synaptic unit, it initiates an action potential.
Neuralink's idea is to place electrodes near the neurons to detect action potential. Recording from many more such neurons allows decoding the information in them. Neurons carry information about everything from vision to hearing abilities. By connecting electrodes, information can be fetched.

The company claims that they are designing the world's first neural implant that will make people control devices like mobile and computer on the go. Some micron-scale threads are inserted into the areas of the brain that will control movement. Each thread contains a large number of electrodes that are connected to the implant.

There are a few more things associated with the Neuralink that are mentioned below:

Image Source - Google | Image by - Darrell Etherington

Neural Threads- These are the threads that are connected to the neural implant. They are equipped with small electrodes to detect neural signals.
The Link- This is a sealed and implanted device that transmit neural signals received from the neurons.
Charger- A compact inductive charger is connected to the implant to wirelessly charge the battery.

The fine and flexible neural threads in the link make it very difficult yo be implanted by a human hand. So the company is also developing specialised robots to handle this job with precision so that those threads can be implanted exactly where they need to be.

The company is also developing a Neuralink app that will let people control the phone or computer just by thinking about the task that is to be completed.

Applications of Neuralink

The company maintains its development with the hope of helping people with paralysis and other diseases. Neuralink can help those people giving them more freedom through the control of the computer and mobile devices directly through their brain. These Neuralink devices will make disabled people show their creativity through drawing, paintings and other tasks.

The link makes a new kind of brain interface. With the advancement of new technology, the company claims to cover more brain areas to collect more information. Neuralink can treat a very wide range of neurological disorder and restore sensory and neural functions which will lead us to understand the world better.

There are so many very painful diseases and even their treatment also brings a lot of pain. If the pain could be somehow reduced that the treatment of the disease can be made easier. Neuralink is going to play a crucial role in pain reduction.

As the brain will be connected to the computer it's maybe possible to unlock hidden talents. With the help of electrodes covering the brain, it's possible to have new unlocked qualities in a human. One of the main focus of the company is to use cloud-based storages to secure a person's memories which may lead to the immortality of that person.

Safety regarding Neuralink

Till now the company has not begun any human clinical trial so it's difficult to predict the safety-related with this project. There is a risk of bleeding in our brain if tried to insert a device into it. Neuralink is developing micron-scale threads which will be inserted into the brain with the help of a needle whose length is roughly as much as some neurons. The company is also developing robots which will handle the surgical process as every thread will be inserted individually. In the process of Neuralink, a robot will drill a hole in a person's head and implant a chip into the skull.

Security threats related to Neuralink

Of course, the idea of Neuralink is very important for future technical developments but still, they have some controversies. At first sight, anyone will admit this as an insane project as it looks like science friction. With the hard determination of Elon Musk, the company has reached so far. Neuralink maybe seems to be the next level of technology which will connect humans to the computers but still, the company needs volunteers to start clinical trials. But the question is who will be there to implant some sort of nanotechnology into his or her brain. As of now, many people around the world are criticising this project and the company itself is struggling to maintain their research. The first clinical trials were made with a rat and a monkey. Although the monkey was able to control the tests it's brain never wrote a symphony.

Another major concern is that the brain itself is connected to the internet. Till now we are not able to perfectly protect our computer systems from hackers then how it can be said that we can safeguard our brains from those hackers. Our brains will always be in the risk of security threats of being hacked.

The company claims that the chip will be inside a person's brain for as long as 10 years. Musk says that if anyone wants to get his chip removed then it is possible to do so but it requires another sort of surgery.

The Neuralink technology will use Bluetooth for its wireless communications as Bluetooth is considered to be a safer mode of communication due to its pairing system and short-range receivers. But there are also known trojan viruses that can steal data from the system. This proves to have potential risk for wireless Neuralink communications.

Testing

As mentioned above, till now no Neuralink human trail has been made yet. The reason is that the company is still developing its technology to a greater extent so that when the company starts trails on humans, it comes out to be 100 per cent successful. But even after four years of its establishment, the company has not yet provided any evidence that they can treat diseases like insomnia and mental depression although they claim that their technology can perform it very well.

Recently Musk made a live stream on YouTube describing their technology and some of the successful trails they've made. In the live stream, Musk made a demonstration of implanting a chip in a living brain. Although at first, he didn't mention the species but later some assistants drew a black curtain to reveal three small pigs. Surprisingly they were part of the experiment. The brain of one of the pigs contained an implant. After some time of the live stream, the hidden speakers made some sound that is the firing of neurons according to Musk. Although they were successful up to some extent, according to some neuro-scientists the same experiments were also recorded in labs before.

Image Source - Google | Image by - Ape Machine

Last year, Neuralink also showcased a sewing machine robot able to plunge a thousand ultra-fine electrode that would record the moment and information of the neurons. The test was made into a rodent's brain which was successful. In the live stream Musk also showcased a new prototype of the sewing robot. He believes that one day thousands of people will be ready to be implanted by these robots. The most interesting thing that was showcased int the stream was the Link itself which drew the attention of the people all around the world. It was as thick as human skull and Musk said that it could be easily plotted nearly somewhere around the surface of the brain. The Link can be charged with the help of an induction coil. The implanted Neuralink chip on the pig has almost 1000 channels that could read a similar number of neurons and according to the company, they will increase the number further.

The dreams of Elon Musk and the technology of his companies can make humanity reach new heights. Ever since he started working on making the world a better place, he never failed yet. Humanity is a special kind of species and our existence proves that we have to see a lot more in our very near future.

"The first step is to establish that something is possible then probability will occur" - Elon Musk

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Understanding Starlink

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Mon, 31 Aug 2020 10:27:00 +0000

Half a century ago, a technology developed that captured the whole world at such expense that now it is way difficult to live even for a single minute without it. The 21st century is best known for its technical development. Initially developed for military purposes, an idea rose why not use the same technology for general usage. That idea brought down a miracle to the technological revolution. Gradually, in sort of about two decades, a massive amount of undersea cables were spread across the globe, as no country would leave this opportunity. And now after about five decades, that technology is used almost everywhere. A technology developed for military purposes is now used for video calling to get in touch with your beloved once, data transmitting, internet of things, scientific purposes, and many more. Yes, the discussion is all about the internet. As it is mention above its hard to live without the internet even for a minute. If the internet goes down for a minute, it would bring a global catastrophe. In one minute of the internet, about 3.8 million google searches are done, 1 million Facebook login, 18.1 million texts sent, 188 million emails sent, about $1 million are spent by online shopping. It's like one minute for us is a whole year for the internet. It has grown with such expense that for a normal human its just as difficult to think that what can be the next major development that can grow the internet much even further. But this isn't the case with the billionaire founder and CEO of private space company, Elon Musk. For such an innovative person the current rate of development is nothing, he wants to take it even further so that the internet can be made available without any interruption. Project Starlink is just a step towards the approach. So now let's get into the topic.

Image source- Google | Image by- DAVE MOSHER

Description

Announced in 2015, the Starlink mission is a group of satellite network being developed by the private space organization SpaceX to provide low-cost internet to very remote locations. In the mega constellation of Starlink, SpaceX hopes to have more than 12,000 satellites. Initially, in January 2015, CEO Elon Musk said to have registered documents for launching 4000 satellites in low earth orbit. Few years after the announcement, Musk's estimate for the number of satellites grew soon, and the U.S federal communication system finally granted SpaceX permission to fly as many satellites as 30,000. The first two Starlink satellites launched in 2018 were TinTinA and TinTinB and they went smoothly. After the successful launch of these two satellites, SpaceX launched 60 satellites on March 23, 2019, through their Falcon 9 rocket. They were kept in low earth orbit at bout 550 kilometres so that they can be pulled down to Earth in the future.

To better understand this project, first, we need to know how does the internet works. As we know the internet is the mode or network of communication between a massive number of computer systems. To make this work, protocols are used. Protocols are the set of rules that are used by computers to communicate over a network. The data that is sent over a network is called a message. Before going through the network these massages are divided into small fragments called packets. The internet protocol decides how messages should be packed. The structure of the internet is based open various specialized computers called routers. These routers move the messages from their source to their destination. The routers were first developed by ARPANET in the 1960s for military uses. They were later deployed everywhere to decentralize computers. basically, the internet works upon client-server connection. The normal computers that we use to seek data from the internet are called clients. The computers where all the data are stored are called servers. Every device that is connected through the internet has a unique IP address. These IP addresses follow the internet protocol. This is the address by which any router can find the desired location of data throughout the internet. When we request for some sort of data from the internet, the request goes the internet service provider(ISP) from which we use the internet. The ISP further routes the request to the server from where we receive data.

An average person can have an idea up to this point. You may be thinking that from here, the data from the ISP may be travelling to the server and back to us wirelessly. As most of use may be using wireless connections like wifi or cellular connections, it's actually difficult for us to figure out that the actual internet runs wirelessly about 1% and the rest of the internet is totally wired. The rest of the data is moved all around the world via something called undersea cables. As the name implies these cables that rest on sea beds and connects various land-based stations from different countries together for data transmission. These cables are made up of fibre optics so that data can move at high speeds. Also known as submarine cables, these are the lifeline of the internet, that means every single click we do on the internet, the data moves through these undersea cables. These submarine cables carry 99% of the total internet data that we use. The reliability of these cables is very high as we can use the internet because of these cables. The investment in implementing these cables touched about more than $22 billion between 1999 and 2001. The need for these cables is so high that any amount can be paid for their implementation. Of course, these cables are very important but their maintenance is quite another job. These cables are strong enough to last long without any great repairment for about a century but external and man-made impacts can cause great harm to these cables. These cables can be broken by fishermen, earthquakes, anchors and underwater animals. Apart from their implementation, millions of dollars are spent every year for their maintenance. These cables also impact marine life which has become a matter of concern.

Even if we spread these submarine cables to every country, we cannot provide internet everywhere. We are dependent over cell towers and cable network to our homes for the use of the internet. For this reason, people living in remote locations are unable to access the internet. There are still many areas in the world where people don't know what is the internet as it is very hard to get the internet reach to them. For this cause, Starlink mission can be proved very effective. The innovative idea of implementing the internet everywhere by the billionaire CEO Elon Musk drew the attention of the whole world towards it. The basic idea is to build up a network of satellite in the low earth orbit which can make internet reach to every corner of the globe. To better understand how it can be made successful, we need to understand how it's going to work.

How Starlink works

Well, satellite internet looks easy to set up as we are using a TV that works in the same way. The antenna that is connected to our set up box or TVs receives transmissions through satellites. But we can't just implement this idea over the internet as well. As for good internet service, we need good bandwidth, good latency and good network which is much difficult if we try to achieve it through satellite. External factors cause great problems to the satellite system. You may have noticed in bad weather, TVs fails to gain signals as clouds interrupt the transmissions. If the same happens with the internet, then even watching a video on youtube would be much difficult.

But of course, to make this idea possible scientists at SpaceX have better ideas to implement this. Each Starlink satellite weighs about 227kg. As this is satellite internet, information is transmitted by beaming through a vacuum which makes it 47% faster than that in fibre optics cables. most of the satellites now orbit Earth at about 35,786 km above. But at that hight, if Starlink satellites are placed then there can be a problem of significant time delays which can lead to data loss. Thatswhy Starlink satellite is placed closer to Earth so that these satellites can carry a large amount of data to any point on Earth with ease. Through this method, the internet can be made available to hard to reach locations.

Image Source - Google | Image by - Anthony Wood

The basic idea is to equip each satellite with a set of lasers so that they can transmit data. About 180 satellites launched so far are not equipped with lasers till now. Why? because they are used for backhaul communications, the ability to link other Starlink satellites optically so they can find a path between two ground stations. This has a significant benefit over the traditional fibre optic system as light can travel in a vacuum about two times faster than glass. This can reduce the latency to a great extend.

Here are some important point of Starlink satellites:

Less mass more compact

As mentioned above each Satellite weighs 227 to 250 kg. They have a flat-panel and compact design that minimises volume. This allows for a dense launch stack to take advantage of SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.

Antennas

There are a set of four powerful phased array antennas are attached to each satellite. This is useful in carrying a massive amount of throughput in a short period. This can lower the internet cost.

Singular solar array

Each satellite features a singular solar array. This makes the system simple and the solar cells are also standardized and easy to integrate.

Ion propulsion system

Starlink satellites are equipped with efficient ion thrusters powered by krypton, this makes the satellites to orbit high and move with high speeds. This also helps to deorbit at the end of their life.

Star tracker

Starlink satellites also feature custom-built-in house navigation sensor. This helps them to find their exact altitude to place the precision placement of broadband throughput.

Autonomous collision avoidance

These satellites use inputs from the Department of Defence's debris tracking system to automatically move themselves to avoid collisions with space debris and other satellites. This feature is very advance which avoids human errors.

Internet speed

The Starlink satellite systems come with advance communication systems that allow them to communicate with four other satellites using lasers. This makes them capable of beaming the data across the globe almost at speed of light. As discussed above these are 40% faster than the traditional fibre optics systems.

Image Source - Google | Image by - Brandon Hill

To check the internet speeds an initial beta test program partnership was made between US air force and the Starlink in 2108 project called the Global lightning. It was supposed to measure the internet speed of the internet through Starlink satellites. The final measurement comes out to be 610 Mbps. They used two Starlink satellites to send signals to the terminals located inside a C-12 transport plane while in flight. Starlink satellite systems are still in development and supposed to have speeds far beyond the record. They still have a latency of less than 75ms.

Latency is the time delay for the internet signal to travel from the computer of the user to the ISP. Starlink internet systems have a latency of less than 75ms now but in the SATELLITE 2020 keynote CEO Elon Musk stated that Starlink satellite internet can go up to latency of less than 20ms.

To complete the so-called mega constellation, the company hopes to launch satellites up to 42,000. Till now there are more than 595 satellites are already launched into space.

Starlink future plans

With already launched such a massive number of satellites, Starlink constantly boosts their launches. With their newly announced plans which accelerates their launching to launch 60 new satellites every 2 weeks, the company will cover up the skies of Earth with 1500 satellites till the end of the year.

Here on Earth, Starlink set up 6 satellites to provide fixed-satellite service. Originally SpaceX filled request with FCC for 1 million satellites, but with the availability of such a massive number of beta testers, SpaceX recently filled request FCC for 5 million ground stations.

Developed by SpaceX, the new system called VisorSat essentially use sun visor to block inbound sunlight from hitting the antenna, stopping them to reflect light back to Earth. Besides, SpaceX will constantly upgrade their satellites with the latest technology like adding the latest hardware to change their orientation as they raise to their target orbit after the launch. This is the time when they are especially visible. The overall plan is to make them nearly invisible to the naked eye. This will make no effect on the astronomy. SpaceX is trying to implement darkening treatment for the satellites' reflecting surfaces. Musk also said somewhat about the alternative of the VisorSat which will be more effective.

Controversies with Starlink

These satellite internet system will be a phenomenal achievement for the whole of mankind. With all the measures taken for the safety-related with the Starlink satellites, they are also responsible for many controversies. Within a few days of the launch, some skywatchers spotted a linear string of lights as the satellites whizzed overhead within the early morning. Although the initial idea was to launch 42,000 satellites to blanket the skies of Earth to provide internet to billions of people, it created a large number of problems for astronomical researchers and skywatchers. The satellites that are already launched can be visible from Earth, although they are very faint, there is a belief they can create even more problem in future. As the panels of the satellites reflect the sunlight to Earth, they appear brighter for a short period. Those flashes can create obstacles for astronomical researches and can trigger false data to the telescopes. Many astronomers have already criticised this idea. With the presence of such a large number of satellite system in near-earth orbit, stars in the night sky would be less visible or visible with telescopes only. Jonathan McDowell from the Harvard Smithsonian Centre for Astrophysics stated his study on Starlink satellite system impact on astroids study. The Starlink satellites can be a problem for the study for the potentially hazardous asteroids.

Elon Musk has been repeatedly assuring the public that these satellite systems wouldn't deal with any such problems. SpaceX is continuously tracking and developing its satellites systems. SpaceX also tested and tried with their VisorSat and the black coating over their satellites' panel to prevent any visibility issues.

With the development of such phenomenal technologies, mankind is evolving with each and every new step. A few years ago we started living our lives along with the internet and now we are talking about such revolutionary internet services. With Elon Musk and his companies, we are going to live with high-speed low latency internet in our very near future.

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Tech Basics: AUDIO DEVICES

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sat, 22 Aug 2020 12:31:00 +0000

In our last few articles, we have discussed the working and functionalities of various day to day using technology. We covered up history, development and manufacturing of various technologies that of course we use but we don't usually think about how they work. With the continuation of our ongoing series 'tech basics,' this article will clear your doubts regarding a very basic technology that we may be using from over a century. This article covers the information about the working, history, development for various kinds of audio technology. We have been using microphones, speakers, and other audio gears from almost two centuries. But it sounds crazy to think about the working of all these items, as it seems easy but they are very much sophisticated. And that's the reason why they so much well performed in delivering such quality of sounds to our ears. In this decade we use microphones and speakers like technology almost everywhere taking from computers, mobiles and music players where the role of speakers are supreme. Now let's get into the topic and know about the working of audio gears.

Working of Speakers

Speakers are the lifeline of today's sound system. A good quality sound depends on the quality of the speaker, encoding, and recording. The main function of speakers is to convert the electronic signals stored inside CDs, DVDs, hard drives of computers etc to actual sounds that we can hear. To learn the working of speakers we need to understand how sound works. Inside our ears, there is a small membrane known as the eardrum. When the eardrum vibrates, our brain measures that vibration and interprets it as sound as we know. The vibration in eardrums can be created by changing sudden air pressure.

The cause of sound can be defined as a vibrating object causes the air particles around it to move and in turn, those air particles also cause the particles around them to move. The rapid movement of these air particles causes disturbances in the atmosphere. When our eardrums come in contact with those atmospheres, they vibrate and we call it as sound. The vibrating atmosphere sends a wave in the air which is caught by our eardrums to produce actual sound. These waves are known as sound waves. As these waves are carried out by particles in the air, sound waves never travel in vacuum.

The intensity of sound can be explained as:

Frequency of sound wave: Frequency can be defined as the number of vibration in one second. The intensity of sound can be increased by increasing the frequency that means the air fluctuates faster as a result we hear high volume sounds.

Air pressure: The intensity of sound depends upon the air pressure level. This is called the wave's amplitude simply means a sound wave of higher amplitude reaches our ears faster and it sounds like higher volume.

The sound waves that travel in the air are captured through microphones(covered later in this article) and encoded electrically and stored in the memory. A speaker does the reverse of this, it decodes the stored data to produce sound waves that we hear.

Speakers use drivers to produce vibrations. Vibrations are produced by drivers which produce sound waves by rapidly vibrating some structure called cone or diaphragm. The diaphragm made up of plastic, paper or metal attached to a wide end. The surround is a rim of flexible material which allows the diaphragm to move freely. The ending of the diaphragm is attached to a voice coil. The frame of the driver is called a basket. The coil is attached to the basket through a spider, basically a ring of flexible material. The spider holds the diaphragm in position and allows it to move freely.

When the electric current flowing through the voice coil changes, the polarity of the voice coil also changes. The voice coil is an electromagnet. An electromagnet is a piece of a coil wrapped around some kind of magnetic material like iron. Moving electric current produces a magnetic field around the coil magnetizing the metal. Unlike a permanent magnet which have two poles I,e north and south, electromagnet has poles that can be oriented by changing the flow of current. an amplifier that is connected to the speaker constantly changes the flow of current throughout the speaker. As the orientation of the poles changes, this moves the diaphragm and coil back and forth.

The electromagnet is situated in a constant magnetic field created by the permanent magnet. The positive end of the electromagnet is attracted to the negative end of the permanent magnet and the negative end of the electromagnet is repelled by the negative end of the permanent magnet. So when the direction of current changes, it changes the electromagnet's polar orientation changing the direction of attraction and repulsion. This pushes the coil to and fro.

When the coil moves, it pushes and pulls the speaker cone and this vibrates the air in front of the speaker creating sound waves. The electrical signal can also be interpreted as a wave. Frequency and amplitude of this wave decide the rate at which the voice coil moves. Various drivers sizes are available of different types of frequencies and amplitudes.

There are various sizes and types of drives available for different sound qualities some of them are:

Woofers
Tweeters
Midrange

Woofers are the drivers whose frequency is the lowest but they are the largest. Tweeters are the smaller drivers but their frequency is quite high. And midrange drivers produce a variety of frequencies.

To get the best quality sound modern speakers breaks the sound frequency into small quantities that are handled by different drivers. Good quality speakers would have a woofer, a tweeter and even a midrange which handles different frequency at the same time.

The speakers break the audio signals into a different range of frequencies i.e low, high and midrange to dedicate all the present drivers.

The most famous audio crossover is called passive. In this crossover, the speaker runs on the same audio signal and don't need an external electric source. It contains capacitors and inductors and of course for its functioning it requires a frequency of particular range as the crossover will only conduct the current when the sound is of the minimum range of frequency.

There is also an active crossover which picks up the frequency of different ranges through the audio signal before it goes to the amplifier. They have various advantages over their passive counterparts, the first one being frequency can be adjusted in the active crossover, while in passive crossovers frequency is constant. But active crossover is no so widely popular as a passive crossover because they are way more expensive as they need multiple amplifiers output for speakers.

In all sound systems, all the drivers and crossovers are kept in enclosures. Enclosures deals with several functions. In an enclosure system, it's easy to set up all the components in the right position in one unit to produce the best quality sound. Most of the enclosures are made with wood or some kind of metal which can easily absorb the driver's vibrations. The most common type of enclosure is sealed enclosure or acoustic suspension enclosure. As it is sealed, no air can escape through it. As no air can escape, the air pressure inside is constantly changing. The forward waves travel outwards and the backward waves travel inside the box.

Other types of enclosures redirect the inward pressure outward resulting in the sound wave to move forward. This can be done by building a port in the speaker body. The backward direction of the diaphragm pushes the sound wave out of the port and boosts the overall sound level. These type of speakers are called bass reflex speakers.

There is one more type of enclosure known as the passive radiator enclosure. In this system, the backward waves instead of moving outward move an additional passive driver. The passive drivers are moved by the waves coming from the active drivers. These works more efficiently then sealed and bass reflex driver models.

How microphones works?

Well now as we know about the working of speakers, it's important to know about the working of microphones. Microphones are devices that trap or records the sound waves and convert them to electrical signals to store them into a storage area like CDs, DVDs and hard drives. Until the late 19th century there was no good way to send sounds to long distances. As we have discussed the functioning of speakers, now its easier to know the working of microphones because what speakers do, microphones do the same task in a reverse manner. As we know, in speakers there is a coil wrapped around a permanent magnet. The changing pattern of electricity around the coil creates a magnetic field that pushes the field created by the permanent magnet and that moves the coil moves. The movement of the coil moves the diaphragm and that pushes the airflow back and forth creating sound waves. In microphones also all the parts are almost the same by they all works the reverse way.

When we speak, sound waves(that carries energy from the vibrations in air) hits the microphone. By this, the diaphragm moves back and forth, the coil attached to the diaphragm moves as well. The coil moves in the region of the magnetic field created by the permanent magnet. This creates an electric current that flows through the coil. This electric current flows through the circuit and goes to the amplifier that records this data into some sort of storage area. Further, this current can also be fed into speakers resulting in loud sounds.

Like speakers, most of the microphones work in the same way, but there are some types of microphones whose working process is slightly different. The most common type of microphone is a dynamic microphone that uses diaphragm, magnets and coil. This works exactly the opposite way a speaker works. Condenser microphones are designed with a different approach. They use a diaphragm to move the plates of a capacitor.

Most of the microphones that we see are Omni-directional that means they are designed to pick up sound from all directions. This is pretty useful but in some cases, the situation is like that we need to record the sound of a particular direction like wildlife photography, news-making etc. In this type of cases, unidirectional microphones are used which records the sound of a particular direction. There are also some microphones called cardioid and hypercardioid that are specifically designed to record the sound of only a particular direction.

The most popular microphone these days are wireless microphones that uses radio waves to transmit and receive data from the amplifier and other audio devices.

Intercom

Intercom is a small stand-alone voice communication device that works separately from the normal telephone network. Usually, they are used in buildings and offices where people can contact each other without any interference for long-range. They are attached with a long copper wire connected across the length of the device and at each end, there is a receiver, microphone and speakers. Usually, the speakers in the intercom system work for sound delivering as well as sound recording depending upon who is speaking and who is listening. In early days most of the intercom systems used to be wired but now wireless intercom is in use. Basically, intercoms are the application of microphones, they work the same way as microphones and speakers do. Wireless intercoms use radio signals to transmit data. They have several advantages over the wired once. First, they are very much portable and easy to install as they are small and no wiring is required. Second, the data is encrypted so no loss or leak of data. Third, they are easy to exchange and setup.

Telephones

Well till now we were busy in speakers and microphones but now its time to know and understand some of their great applications. Telephones are such a technological approach that changed the world. Today when we can't even imagine a day without having a call with family and friends, we should thank that technology what brought us this telephone what connects us to our beloved once. But its working is quite familiar to us as we already know the working of speakers and microphones. A telephone is not just a simple box, it's a complete machine. So many essential parts like handsets, connection apparatus, switching apparatus need to work in a proper way then only a telephone can work. As we know the working of microphone and speaker, a telephone uses microphones and speakers to record the voice at one end and transmit it to another end where it sounds out of the speaker. As we know that microphones convert the energy from sound waves to electrical energy and speakers do the opposite of it, the process of conversion of energy from one form to another is called transducing.

Parts of an old telephone:

Dial mechanism

In old-style telephones, there were dials. When we rotate it, it creates some sort of interruptions in the circuit between the telephone and it also creates dialling pulses. If 4 is pressed then it will create four pulses.

Bells

Old telephones had shiny metal bells on it which rung when the telephone receive an incoming call.

Circuit board

All the wiring and controls meet at one area known as a circuit board in telephones. The circuit board is responsible to dial and receive outgoing and incoming calls respectively.

Electromagnet

When the telephone receives an incoming call the electromagnet in it switches on and off rapidly which moves the clapper in between the bells which makes the bell ring.

Tilting switch mechanism

When the handset is lifted or put back, this mechanism detects it. When the handset is put back, this mechanism cuts the connection from the local exchange. It makes the circuit with the local exchange complete when the handset is lifted.

Now summing up all the above parts to function together makes the telephone works. In short, the sound energy from the voice makes the air vibrates. The sound waves carry the energy into the phone. The energy is converted into electrical energy by the diaphragm in the mouthpiece microphone. The voice is then transmitted to the other phone that is being called via the telephone exchange. When the voice finally reaches the other phone, the diaphragm present in the speaker of the handset finally converts the electrical energy to sound waves that can be heard.

History of speakers

Well, the speakers that we use today are not a new technology, they are almost one and a half-century old. From the last century, we have been using these speakers for every type of job, whether it is a football game, making a phone call, delivering speeches and everywhere we use speakers. In 1861, Johann Phillip Reis installed an electric speaker on his telephone which was able to produce clear tones. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell patented his first electric loudspeaker which was a part of his telephone research. In 1898, compressed air was used to drive a loudspeaker, this patent was developed by Horace Short. This design was not so popular as the sound quality was not so good.

The era of the dynamic speaker came in the 20th century. Peter L. Jensen and Edwin Pridham in 1915 made the first dynamic loudspeaker that became popular over the years. These speakers were designed to produce sound by horns that could amplify it. In 1924, Chester W. Rice and Edward W. Kellogg patented the moving coil technology that is used in speakers. In 1937, the first speaker design that could be used in film industries was introduced.

In 1943, Altec Lansing introduced his 604 loudspeaker that was very much popular in film industries as it was able to offer better clarity sound and loudness. In 1954, Edgar Villchur developed the acoustic suspension system of a loudspeaker in Cambridge, Massachusetts. This design was capable of producing better bass and fantastic quality audio.

History of microphones

Speakers and microphones both brought down a revolutionary change in the technical aspects. Both are now such a prominent part of the technology that we use today. Microphones are such technology that made it possible to record our voices. Its first invention began in 1861 when Johann Philipp Reis successfully designed a device capable of converting sound to the electrical signal. It has a transducer which converts sound energy to electrical energy. This was the first design of the microphone. Later in 1876, water microphone was invented which was a part of Alexander Graham Bell's telephone project. The carbon microphone was also invented in 1876 that was a true design of the microphone. It has a variable resistance that converts audio signals to electrical signals. In 1877, the famous moving coil microphone was invented by Ernst Werner Von Siemens. This microphone was designed to use magnet and diaphragm. In 1916, a condenser microphone was introduced by Edward Christopher Wente which contained a capacitor that would act as a diaphragm. In 1931, the moving coil dynamic microphone that we use today was invented. This microphone was able to capture noise-free quality sound. In 1941, the shotgun microphone was invented by Harry F. Olsen which had a tube that was used to capture sound. The generation of wireless microphones started in the 1950s. In 1957, the world's first wireless microphone was developed by Raymond A. Litke.

After this many companies manufactured various wireless microphones like Shure introduced it's Vegabond 88 and Sennheiser introduced its Telefunken in 1958. In the 21st century, the trend of digital microphones stared. The first-ever digital microphone was Solution D, D-01 in 2003.

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History and development of JAVA : THE ORIGIN

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Mon, 17 Aug 2020 06:25:00 +0000

Today's world

At supersonic speed, the World Wide Web(WWW) has been developing. Every other day you will find some new application being launched over the internet, today the internet has evolved into a global information space as it not only offers information on any subject it also provides people with the ability to glow believe publish information on any subject at a minimal cost. A great number of the pages have been created because of massive international participation there is hardly a topic which is left untouched over the internet, the web pages are both informative as well as entertaining nowadays more over the world of online social networking has taken up the online space by storm most user using internet will have some kind of online presence in some of or the other with the advent of smartphones more and more people have started having an online presence.

The introduction of active Web pages makes Java and attractive addition to the web page, when we click on a web page containing a java applet it is not that we just read it listen to it or what should we can interact with the dynamic interactive content to the web was brought about by Java. So much web application made in Java runs as it is a computer program installed on the local computer.

James Gosling

James a gosling is a famous software developer he developed many compilers and mail system since 1984 he has been associated with Sunmica system and developed Java programming language in 1991 he completed his graduation as a BSc in computer science from the University of Calgary in 1981 he was honoured with PhD in computer science from Kar Nind Mellon University he has also elected the United States national academy of engineering for his achievement in 2007 he was made an officer of the order of Canada which is Canada's highest civilian honour.

In 1991 Sun microsystems developed a complete language as a part of his research work to develop a software for consumer electronics it was developed as a full-fledged programming language it could accomplish all sort of task and solve the problem like other programming languages.

They named the language 'Oak' while staring at an oak tree outside their office window the name war reported afterwards because of copyright issues. The Java development team discovered that 'Oak' was the name of a programming language that predated Sun's language so another name had to be chosen.

After so much of wandering and brainstorming, they decided to take the initials of all the developers. James Gosling, Arthur Van Half and Andy Bechtolsheim.

Characteristics of Java

Lightweight code because of advanced Java API which can be incorporated in a user's program the resultant program may be very simple.
write once run anywhere once a program in Java is written and compiled it can be executed in any machine irrespective of the underlying hardware or software.
object-oriented language do Java is not 100% object-oriented language it incorporates most of the features of object-oriented paradigm making it suitable to simulate real-world objects.
platform-independent Java is essentially platform independent change in the platform does not affect the original Java program or application.
security job was designed with multiple layers of security countermeasures embedded in the compiler runtime system and in a browser that supports Java known as a java-enabled browser these countermeasures make Java inheritance most secure for developing any type of trusted application software.

Different types of Java programming

Stand-alone system: Java programming language was primarily developed to deal with embedded applications but with the introduction of other user interface utilities to Java it made its marks in a desktop application to now the trend is to use power Technology in developing large web and enterprise application.
Internet applets: a java applet is an applet delivered to the user in the form of Java bytecode Java applets can run in a web browser using Java virtual machine JVM an applet is a program written in the JAVA programming language that can be included in an HTML page much in the same way as an image is included in a page when you use a Java Technology-enabled browser to view a page that contains an applet the applet code is transferred to your system and executed by the browser Java virtual machine JVM Java applet were introduced in the first version of Java language in 1995.
Servlets: these are the program that extends the functionality of web servers that host application exists utilizing a request-response programming model.
Enterprise Java beans: these programs allows development and deployment of transactional distributed object application-based server-side software components that is why these type of Java program are used to develop software for the big corporate sector for enterprise whose use mainframe computers.

Compiler and interpreter

Compilation and Interpretation are the terms related with the language translation suppose the German president has to address a gathering in Mumbai he may not know any language or other than German in such a situation he is accompanied by a language translator a person who can translate the speech made by him in German to Hindi or English for the people of Mumbai to understand the translation may take place in two different ways.

After completion of the president speech, the translator will communicate the whole speech made by him in Hindi or English so that the people can understand this type of language conversion is termed as compilation and the person concerned is called the compiler
As the President finishes a sentence it is immediately converted and spoken by the translator in Hindi or English this system the translation is performed sentence wise this process of conversion of the language is called interpretation and the translator is termed as an interpreter.

All the high-level language needs to be converted into machine code so that the computer understands the program after taking the required input it processes the program and then shows the desired result if it is error-free otherwise it errors are to be corrected to execute the program successfully.

The conversion of a high-level language to machine level language can be done in two possible ways it can be done either by using a compiler or an interpreter.

Bytecode and JVM

To run a program written in Java you need to have the JVM installed in the machine you get JVM which is compatible with almost all major operating system to write a program in Java compile it to convert it into a language understood by the JVM called bytecode which now can be interpreted to run on the JVM this makes Java compatible with a more popular operating system, unlike other languages where the program was written when compile gets converted to machine language which may then be executed but conversion to machine language makes it machine-dependent and also the underlying hardware this is the reason why software developed using C++ for a Windows machine will run only on a windows machine and not only on Linux machine but a Java program development compiler converts it to bytecode which is practically free of the underlying hardware or software.

Java Reserved Words

Java reserved words are also referred to as keywords they are those words used and programming which is preserved within the system and carries special meaning for the system compiler these words cannot be used as variable name while writing a computer program Java language contain various reserved words.

Java Platform

A platform is the hardware or software environment in which a program remains most platform may be described as a combination of the operating system and hardware.

The Java platform differs from most other platforms in that it's a software-only platform that runs on top of other hardware-based platforms.

The Java platform has two components:

The Java virtual machine JVM

2. The JAVA application programming interface (API).

In short, Java is not just a programming language that is used to develop application but it also provides a runtime environment that stimulates hardware and software called platform. This virtual platform called the JVM interpreter Java programs from bytecode to native machine language and control their execution does Java is both a programming language and a platform where Java programs are executed.

Thank you!!!

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Tech Basics: CAMERAS

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Wed, 12 Aug 2020 12:00:00 +0000

Computer undoubtedly played the most important game in the development of cutting edge technology from the last few decades. The human had never thought about the luxury that he enjoys today. Well, humanity has just faced the era of computers half a centuries ago but a long way before that we are using a well-known technology called the camera. We can't even imagine a life without photography. But the technology used behind clicking every photo is just a brilliant idea and need to be discussed. Photography is an art in itself and the artist are both the photographer and the camera itself. In this article, we are going to discuss the technology and science used in cameras. The camera is known to be an awesome tool for almost a century. After the development of computer technology, the camera played a very important role. Just imagine the internet without images, how weird it would look. Pictures give us a way of imagination and the ability to develop a design. With the help of that camera, we can capture our memorable moments for generations. So let's get into the topic and know about the working of this technology.

working

To capture an image the science that camera use is quite simple but understanding it is another job. Once the mechanism of the camera is known than its easier to understand its working. Every camera works on the same principle. The working of a camera depends upon three elements i.e

the optical element
the chemical element
the mechanical element

An image can only be captured if the three elements work properly. Apart from the above three elements, there are other elements which affect the functioning of a camera. All those elements need to be discussed to understand the working of the camera.

light

The most essential element that affects the capturing of every picture. The camera is based on the principle of light reflection and capturing. The light used can be of two types depending upon the type of picture being captured i.e natural light(like sunlight and moonlight) or artificial light(studio lighting). Every camera captures some light from the object through its optical element and processes inside to generate the digital image.

subject

The subject is the thing that is being captured. It plays an important role in the image capturing. Capturing an image depends upon the amount of light coming from it. Capturing a good image depends upon the position and arrangement of the image in the frame.

lenses

Lenses are the optical elements. Without these tools capturing an image wouldn't have been possible. They capture the light that comes from the subject. They are responsible for the adjustment of focal length, magnification, length of image, distance, and angle of view. These elements come with various focal lengths depending upon the type of image they capture.

aperture

Aperture is the size of the opening of the lens. They are responsible for capturing the amount of light that comes from the image and hence decide the depth of the image. Aperture is measured in 'f' i.e f2.1, f1.8 etc. Larger the value of 'f' smaller is the aperture and hence less the amount of light enters the aperture. We can control the depth of the image by adjusting the aperture.

shutter speed

Shutter speed refers to the duration of the shutter that remains open to capture the image. It is measured in milliseconds. The shutter speed needs to be perfect so that the accurate amount of light goes to the sensor to generate the perfect image.

medium(sensor)

Images are captured bypassing the light coming from the subject to the recording medium which records the image. This unit is also called the chemical element in the camera. It used to be the firm traditionally but nowadays image sensors have replaced them. Image sensor provides the photographer with a variety of features to click an image.

The above discussed 6 different components work with a very similar way in every camera and functioning of these components is what makes a camera works.

The method of capturing and processing an image goes through several steps. But the process is very simple. Light plays the first role in this process. As light travels from one medium to another, it changes its speed. The speed of light is faster in the air as compared to that in the glass. Here in case of the camera, the lens slows the speed of light. When a ray of light from the object enters the lens at and angle, one part of light reaches the glass before another and hence slows down. At the time of entering and leaving the lens, the ray of light bends due to refraction of light. This phenomenon reverses the ray of light from the object. This works like this, suppose a luminous object is emitting light in every direction, that light diverges when emitted from the body. The convex lens in of the camera captures the light and converges it to fall at one point. The point where the converging rays of light fall, we get a real image.

The nature of the image depends on how the light enters the lens. And the path of light depends mainly on two factors;

the angle of light
type of lens

The angle at which the ray of light enters decides the size and shape of the image. The angle of light changes when the object changes its distance i.e moves farther or closer to the lens. The image of the closer object forms farther and the image of the farther object forms closer. When we move the lens the image forms closer or farther from the sensor. Again it is important to select the right lens to capture the right image. The lens comes in various types i.e wide-angle, macro, telephoto etc.

A lens with a round shape has more bending angle. Curving a lens out increases the distance between two points which makes the ray of light to take more time to travel through the length of the lens. This makes a known effect, the converging ray of light falls closer to the sensor.

The magnification of a camera can be understood by its focal length. The focal length is the distance between the lens and the real image. Greater focal length means greater magnification. Magnification is adjusted by moving the lens which controls the focal length to increase or decrease.

The chemical element discussed above is the firm in the traditional cameras which records the light falling into it. When the shutter is open and the firm is exposed to the light coming from the subject, the patter of light gets chemically recorded in the firm. A firm is usually a strip of plastic composed of tiny light-sensitive grains. The tiny grains undergo a chemical reaction when exposed to the light coming from the subject. When the roll is finished, the firm is exposed to other chemicals which reacts with the light-sensitive grains. In the case of a black and white firm, the darker areas appear to be lighter and the lighter area appears to be darker. This was called a negative image which is then converted into positive by other chemical processes. In case of colour firms, there are three different layers of light i.e red, blue and green When these firms are developed, information from all these three-layer are driven out and we get a full size coloured image.

This was the photography procedure of a traditional camera, when we try to capture an image in a dark room, we have to apply some artificial light or else the camera's firm won't capture any good image. This is because no light is coming from the subject. This was a major drawback of the traditional cameras. So now digital cameras have replaced the old traditional cameras, which provides with a variety of photography features and colour improvements.

Digital cameras

From the last two decades, improvement in camera technology has achieved a great height. As it is discussed above the major drawbacks of traditional cameras, there was a need to develop this technology to improve the art of photography. Digital cameras are such masterpiece inventions that change everything. The camera that we use on our smartphones, and that we use as webcams are based on the principle of digital cameras. So lets now know how this masterpiece works.

Aperture, lens and shutter are some components that are similar on both the cameras(digital and traditional), their functioning is also the same. Light enters through the lens when the shutter is open but the shutter is closed no light travel through the lens. When we press the shutter button light enters through the lens and reaches the camera sensor which records the pictures. Like in traditional cameras, in digital cameras also there are various component comes in use to record the best quality picture.

Image sensor

It is a semiconductor chip which is also the main component of the digital camera. It contains millions of tiny pixels which individually captures and measures the light falling onto them. On the top of the sensor there sits a colour filter which allows a certain amount of pixels to capture a certain colour of the light wave.

digital converter

After the image is captured through the sensor, it must be converted into a digital signal which is done by the digital converter. It is the second most important component and these days most of the digital converters are embedded inside the image processor.

circuit or motherboard

The digital camera runs electronically so they need to be attached with a circuit board. Digital cameras come with the pre-attached circuit board which hold all the data about the camera. It holds all the data from the image sensor and the storage of the memory card.

screen

Digital cameras come with a display screen which displays all pictures taken from the camera and adjustment can be made through the screen itself. Modern digital cameras come with touch-sensitive displays which makes it a lot easier to capture better quality pictures.

storage area

In traditional cameras, the roll acts like as the storage area which records all the captured pictures. In digital cameras, well rolls can't be used, so flash drives i.e memory cards are used which can capture millions of images and also gives the option to delete and recapture the image. Also, flash drives are faster which contributes a great advantage of using digital cameras.

working

In a digital camera, the above-discussed components work together to capture an image. The process is the same for every digital camera. Likewise in the traditional camera here also the process starts with light. When the capture button is pressed, light enters the camera through the aperture and goes to the image sensor. In traditional cameras, we had to adjust the angle, lighting, and distance then only an image can be captured. But in a digital camera, the biggest advantage is that we can adjust an filter the image later even after clicking. When the light from the object strikes the sensor, millions of pixels captures the light which measures the intensity of light at millions of different spots. The light focuses the light at a perfect angle to the sensor. In digital cameras, autofocus can be used by which the camera automatically adjusts the glass element and focal length. After measuring the light, the pixels converts each measured light into an electron. Brighter light means more electrons. Then the digital converter converts the analogue light signals to digital that can be stored into the memory card. The digital data is now moved to the circuit board where it is loaded onto the memory area with the help of firmware.

As the picture is converted into data, it can be shared anywhere unlike the traditional cameras where the pictures are recorded with the firm.

History of camera

Inventor Nicephore Niepce made his research in photography in the year 1816. At that time he used to call this process heliography. He took images of nature with the help of light from his office and home which looked almost accurate. Then he researched on printing the image. He used engraving onto some material of his choice then he would expose it to light which reacts with different chemicals coated in the surface of the material, which would create an image. In 1839, Niepce's friend Louis Daguerre made some experiment with photography. He took some silver pleated sheet made up of copper and coated with silver iodide, when exposed to light this would produce an image. This was one of the first steps towards the invention of the camera.

In 1885 George Eastman began to produce and manufacture paper films Later Eastman also created Kodak camera. It consisted of a single focus and one shutter speed. It had enough roll to click 100 pictures.

Oskar Barnack in 1913 began to research on smaller and less priced camera that everyone can use. After the first world war, the Leica camera began to be commercialized. Soon its second model came to be known as Leica I. This camera was very much popular and every company took this as an example and manufactured more portable and cheap cameras. By the passage of time more models of cameras came out and cameras shrink in size and less priced.

In the year 1948, Polaroid came to the market for the first time. It was the world's first instant picture camera which was very much popular for decades.

In 1961, Thomas Sutton invented the world's first single-lens reflex(SLR) camera although researches were made from 1933 on the idea of SLR design. He used reflex lenses and mirrors for the camera. GOMZ sport, Praktiflex, Gamma duplex were some popular SLR cameras of early times.

In 1988, the first digital camera was developed when computers have just put steps in people's livelihood. It was the year of 1991 when Kodak released there first commercial digital camera Kodak DCS. Digital cameras are the most famous and most successful cameras. Their technology has been developed over the years and size have also been reduced so that we can even use that technology in our smartphones too.

Implementation of cameras in computer systems

In the last few decades, improvement in daily life cutting edge technology has evolved drastically. Computers that we use today use digital signals or data to function. Before the last 3 decades, SLR cameras were in popular use. But the problem was they work in an analogue way and can't be used in computers. To overcome this problem technology used in cameras need to develop as SLR cameras were technically lagging. Digital cameras offered to solve this problem. With digital cameras, data can be easily transferred from the camera to the computer. Over the time cameras were implemented on the computers itself as it would reduce the bulkiness of camera and we need not carry a separate device to capture photos. With this technology, several new cutting edge features came to action. Now we can share pictured over the internet to anywhere in the world, images can be saved over the cloud for generations.

webcam

The idea of implementing cameras to computers starts with webcams. These are small digital cameras which can be attached to the computer to use several features like video calling etc. Their working principle is mostly the same as other digital cameras. A webcam consists of a system of a digital camera connected to the computer through a USB port. Modern laptops come with embedded webcams. Working of the webcam is same as digital cameras. When the picture is converted into digital form it is then transferred to the computer through the USB port. In the computer, special software needs to be installed which can capture the frame rate. Frame rate is the number of pictures captured in one second. This comes to use when using video calling feature. For a good frame rate, a good webcam along with a good internet connection is required.

smartphone cameras

The invention of smartphones is a masterpiece in itself. Carrying thousands of music, photos, movies in just a small handy device. But the most amazing thing in a smartphone is its camera. Smartphone cameras are in use today and most of the people opt to go with smartphone cameras rather than purchasing one digital camera. The reason, well they are most handy, pictures from them are insanely beautiful, they take less time to capture and editing the picture is way easier in smartphones. But it is also a matter to be known how cameras can be such small and how they are embedded in the smartphone. The camera in smartphones are very sophisticated by the way, but their working is very much similar to other digital cameras.

Smartphone cameras also work on the same principle of bending of light. When light enters into the lens it bends and slows down. But here the lens, aperture, shutter, and the lens are negligibly small. In a smartphone, most of the picture adjustments are done digitally or with software as the camera is very much small and extra components can't be attached. As we know we can attach the various lens in digital cameras to get pictures we want but in smartphones, space is less so compound lens are used. These are a special type of lens consist of multiple convex and concave glass. As space is less we can't attach different lenses, so cameras in smartphones were increased. Each camera takes a different image later with the software they all are combined to get a perfect image. Multiple cameras in smartphones i.e wide-angle and telephoto have a different focal length to capture different images.

In digital cameras, to zoom in the lens is moved to change the focal length. In this way the pictures taken are magnified, this process is called optical zoom. But in smartphones, there is no movable part so for a long time optical zoom couldn't be achieved. To overcome this problem, the digital zoom is introduced, where the system will crop the image to fit in the frame which looks like zoom in. Although with this zooming in could be achieved the images were not that great. This problem was later solved with the help of multiple cameras. In this system, one camera is set to be regular and another is of a telephoto lens with an increased focal length. The secondary camera can capture magnified images and later with the help of software both the regular and magnified images are merged to get a better quality image.

Later in smartphones, periscope zoom is introduced which works differently. Before the periscope mechanism, it was thought to be never possible to attach a movable lens in a smartphone due to less space. With periscope zoom, the lens could move inside the camera to get the desired focal length. This is because the lens is relatively large which doesn't stick out in the back, it is possible to zoom optically with is. This technology is quite new and limited up to high-end devices.

With digital cameras, we can even change the aperture, but with mobile apertures are fixed and can't be detached. For better camera quality, a large size aperture needs to be installed in smartphones. Over the years, smartphones were attached to bigger and better apertures. Now the biggest known mobile aperture is f1.4.

With the improvement in technology, these days smartphones cameras come with image stabilization which is a very important feature. Image stabilization is useful when the position of the camera is not well adjusted while taking photos as there is a chance of blurry images. This is achieved by having either the lens or the sensor move on a gyroscope. This stabilizes any small movement or glitter while capturing images. The feature of movement of lens or sensor over gyroscope is known as optical image stabilization(OIS). When the image stabilization is achieved digitally without physically moving the lens or sensor is called electronic image stabilization(EIS). EIS is more centred towards video shooting and filming rather than mobile photography.

As in digital cameras, in smartphones also the image sensor plays the most important role in photography. The working principle of the sensor is the same as digital cameras. The sensor contains millions of small units known as pixels. The total number of these pixels are counted in megapixels. The difference is in the size if compared to a digital camera sensor, as smartphone sensors are much smaller in size.

After the image is captured by the sensor then it is converted into digital form and sent to the image signal processor(ISP). This is the brain of smartphone cameras. It takes raw image data from the sensor and converts it to a usable image. In smartphones, ISP is embedded in the microprocessor. Get to know more about microprocessors, you can read the whole article here. This ISP is responsible to perform several tasks to the raw image which converts it to a usable image file.

To access the camera, the smartphone has camera software thought which it is possible to interchange the lenses, focus and image stabilization. Some software comes with a manual mode where it is possible to change the ISO, banding, frame rate just like digital cameras. Overall when the image is captured, it is saved in the memory and ready to use.

Types of cameras

SLR cameras

SLR or single-lens reflex cameras first introduced in the 1960s were a series of traditional cameras popular in the 20th century. This camera uses a mirror and prism system to take pictures and firm to store them. The biggest advantage of them was very old technology. And the image captured through them were traditional.

Instant cameras

Instant cameras are a series of traditional type cameras which uses self-developing film to instantly print the image. They have been very much popular over the years. First introduced in the 1930s, these cameras are still in use. They are compact, lightweight and handy. Just after capturing the picture, it develops the picture through its self-developing firm which is light sensitive.

DSLR cameras

Digital single-lens reflex cameras introduced in the 1980s are perfect examples of digital cameras. A DSLR consist of a body and a removable lens which gives a lot of flexibility to the photographer. As these are digital capturing pictures is extremely fast and responsive. With DSLR it is possible to capture pictures in the automatic and semi-automatic mode which comes pre-programmed.

Mirrorless cameras

Mirrorless cameras are a new type of digital cameras which includes all the features of DSLR plus some more additional features which makes them popular among photographers. Unlike DSLR mirrorless cameras don't have mirrors as the name implies, that means they don't have any viewfinder. They are compact then DSLR and fewer lenses are available for mirrorless cameras.

Compact cameras

As the name implies, they are small and compact. These cameras are also known as point and shoot cameras. They are very small and lightweight as compared to DSLR. As they are small they don't have all the features that DSLRs usually have. They are used to click pictures of daily life and the quality of pictures are not that great as compared to the DSLR. Compact cameras were not so popular over time as most of the people go with smartphone cameras which provide better options.

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Tech basics: MICROPROCESSORS

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Fri, 31 Jul 2020 04:39:00 +0000

The execution of every single program goes through several steps where the system has to execute every single line of instruction. From the knowledge of our earlier articles, you may able to know that a program is nothing but a set of instructions. And what need in the running of these programs is the execution of every single line of instructions. But how actually these instructions are executed? Well for the execution of instructions, the computer needs the help of both hardware and software. From our last article, we know that the operating system plays the most important role in the computer. Without it, a computer is of no work. In this article, we shall know apart from OS what is the most important thing inside a computer. So an operating system is basically a software. And a computer needs hardware which can execute the instructions. The operating system mainly manages all the process of going inside a computer. But what is there which actually run the program and executive all the instructions inside it? You may be heard about the CPU or Central processing unit. A central processing unit is basically a microprocessor-based on a single integrated circuit which does everything in a computer. It consists of millions of small units i.e diodes, transistors and resistors. So let's get into the topic and know the working of microprocessors.

Working

A microprocessor is the most important hardware in a computer system. Every single function that happens in a computer is carried out by the microprocessor. To know about the working of microprocessors it's better to know about the logic used to create one. Basically, a microprocessor is consist of millions of small units. But the microprocessor itself need to be programmed to make it work. It is done with the help of its native language called assembly language. A programmer gives various instructions to the computer which tells the system how to execute the program, the microprocessor assembles all the machine instructions that tell the processor what to do. There are three basic functions that the microprocessor do:

ALU or arithmetic logic unit is a small unit in the microprocessor which operates mathematical or logical operations i.e addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern processors can perform extremely sophisticated tasks.
Microprocessors move data from one location to others in the memory.
Microprocessor makes decisions through the machine instructions and moves to a set of new instructions based on those decisions.

The microprocessor has a unit called control unit which plays a very important role, it controls the flow of instructions throughout the system. The microprocessor takes the raw input as binary code and then, the system of resistor array which acts as a temporary memory location processes the data and gives the output.

Advantages

Low costs: Due to the development of integrated circuit technology, microprocessors are available at very low costs.
Small size: As microprocessors are very small it can be integrated into small computers.
Versatile: Single microprocessor can be used for a lot of programs.
Low power consumption: Microprocessor is manufactured by metal oxide semiconductor technology due to which it consumes less power.
Low heating: Due to the small size microprocessor don't generate much heat.
High speed: Microprocessor can handle millions of instructions per second.
Portable: Due to less power consumption, devices involved microprocessor can be made portable.

Manufacturing

The microprocessor is one of the most complicated hardware ever made. Its manufacturing is very much important to know its working. The process of manufacturing of microprocessors is called fabrication of microprocessors.

The base material that is used in all types of semiconductor is silicon. A very fine quality of silicon is used for making microprocessor as they are to handle millions of processes. The making of microprocessors goes through several steps:

Begins with sand

Not every type of sand is useful in chip making. A special type of sand called silica sand is used which is comprised of silicon dioxide.

Silicon filtering

Silicon from the sand is super filtered to get the silicon with the purity of 99.9% which can be used in semiconductors.

Cut wafers

The pure silica is now sliced into wafers as thin as possible and then polished to be used in fabrication.

Photolithography

A layer of photoresist is spread across the wafers. This layer is then exposed to UV light and then exposed photoresist layer is washed away by a solvent.

Ions and doping

The wafers are now bombarded with ions to alter its electronic conductivity.

Etching

By another photolithography step, a layer of hard material is coated over the silicon wafers. Then with the help of chemicals, unwanted silicons are removed to get the high-quality silicon ridges. Then more photolithography is used to fabricate transistors.

Electroplating

With this process, copper ions are deposited over the transistors which form a layer of copper over the insulator. Then extra copper is polished off.

Layering interconnects

With this process, all the transistors are connected in an architecture which makes the chip work like a microprocessor.

Testing and slicing units

Now all the wafers are tested and sliced into units. Functional units are moved to the final step of fabrication.

Packaging

All units are mounted with a substrate, heat sink and heat spreader. Heat spreader conducts the heat from the silicon to the heat sink. The chips are now moved through various steps and then packaged as a retail product.

Terms used in microprocessors

Bus

A set of conductors that transmit data, elements and commands to a different element in the microprocessor is called the bus. There are three types of the bus data bus, address bus and control bus.

Word length

It is the number of bits in the data bus of the microprocessor or it is the number of bits a microprocessor can process at a time.

Clock speed

It is the speed at which a microprocessor can execute instructions. Microprocessor usually has a clock signal to measure all their functions. Clock speed is usually measured in Hertz.

Cache memory

It is the memory from the ram that is integrated into the microprocessor so that it can access data quickly. Cache memory is used to store data during execution of an instruction.

Bandwidth

It is the number of bits that can be processed in a single instruction.

Number of cores

A microprocessor can have a single core or multiple cores. Multiple core processor comes with greater efficiency for multitasking as they can process several jobs at the same time.

Thickness

The thickness of the microprocessor plays a very important role in their working. Less thick the microprocessor is, more efficient for multitasking, consumes less power and generates less heat.

Image signal processor (ISP)

Image signal processor is a unit in the main processor that converts the raw image into a digital form by adjusting various aspects of the raw image.

Digital signal processor (DSP)

Digital signal processor is a type of microprocessor that converts analogue signals to digital while receiving various kinds of signals onto the computer.

Development

The development of microprocessors started in the 1970s when people thought of some efficient, versatile and portable kind of hardware which can make future computers more powerful and smaller in size. The first microprocessor to be released was Intel 4004 in 1971. Development of microprocessors went generation wise.

The first generation microprocessor was developed in the period of 1971 to 1973 as Intel 4004 which was only 4 bits as the word size. It would run at a clock speed of 4 kHz.

The first 2nd generation processor was developed in 1972 which was Intel 8008, an 8-bit processor. It could represent numbers from -127 to +128.

In 1978, Intel showcased their Intel 8086 which was a 3rd generation processor. It had a word count of 16 bit. It could represent numbers from -32,768 to +32,767.

In 1980s Intel came up with their new Intel 80386 which was a 4th generation processor. With a word size of 32 bit, it was possible to represent numbers in billions. At this time Motorola also came up with their 68020 processor which was a 32-bit processor. Intel Pentium 4 released in the 2000s had millions of transistors working together which makes it process 42 million instructions at a time.

From 1995 till now 5th generation processors are in use. They have a word count of 64 bit. Now computers based on these microprocessors can execute billions of instructions. For example, Intel Core i9 and AMD Ryzen 7 makes the computer extremely fast.

Types of processors

Computer processors

Computer processors are high power multi-core CPUs that handles every aspect of the functioning of the computer system. As they are high power processor, they consume more energy. They are designed to handle all the sophisticated jobs a user can do with its computer. AMD and Intel handle most of the computer processors market shares. Each company provides several lines of processors.

Intel

Intel is a multinational American company that holds most of the computer processors shares. Intel is the manufacturer of the world's largest and high-value semiconductor chips. The first microprocessor in the world was developed by Intel and till now the company have brought a line of powerful and high-quality processors.

Some releases:

Intel 4004
Intel 8008
Intel 8088
Intel 80286
Intel Pentium
Intel atom
Intel Celeron
Intel Pentium pro
Intel Pentium II
Intel Pentium III
Intel Xeon
Intel Pentium 4
Intel core
Intel core 2
Intel core i3
Intel core i5
Intel core i7
Intel core i9

AMD

AMD or advanced micro devices is an American multinational company that manufactures computer processors. Since Intel, AMD is the most popular processor manufacturing company known. AMD is also known for its high-quality GPU which is widely used in computers. AMD develops high-quality processors with great efficiency.

Some releases:

APU A10
APU A12
APU A8
Athlon
Athlon II
Duron
Opteron 100
Opteron 1000
Phenom
Ryzen 3
Ryzen 5
Ryzen 7

Mobile processors

When it comes to mobile computers, well we can't just use any computer chip in them as they are designed for high performance which also uses high energy. Mobiles are designed for portability, so it makes it difficult for computer processors to work in them as a cellphone can't supply that much power to the processors to run. So mobile processors are designed to consume less power and run cooler than the desktop counterpart. In a desktop apart from the microprocessor, there are a lot of things that handle different aspects of the computer together comprises the CPU. But in mobiles, space is less and the processor has to do all the task, accessing the multimedia content, photos etc consumes a lot of power. So all the different components that make up the computer processor are supposed to condense in a single unit called as a system on a chip or SoC.

Qualcomm

Qualcomm is the manufacturer of the best lineup of mobile processors popularly known as its Qualcomm Snapdragon chipsets. The company is located in California, United States. The company is best known for its semiconductors technology. Snapdragon chipsets hold most of the mobile processor's shares which use ARM RISC architecture with their own built-in Adreno GPU, Hexagon DSP and Spectra ISP used worldwide in various mobile platforms.

The company develops processors for all range of handset mobiles.

With their popular releases Snapdragon 200 series, Snapdragon 400 series, Snapdragon 600 series, Snapdragon 700 series, Snapdragon 800 series are ongoing chipsets that cover all range of smartphones.

Mediatek

Mediatek is a Taiwanese company that develops SoC and other semiconductor items. The company uses ARM architecture for its high-performance processors. It holds 21% of mobile processors market shares. Some of their major processors developed so far are helio g series, helio X series, helio a series, helio p series, dimensity series etc are some popular launches.

Apart from the two companies discussed above, the rest of the mobile processors market shares goes to Samsung's Exynos which holds 16% shares and Huawei's high silicon kirin which holds 14% market shares.

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ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF OBJECTS

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Tue, 28 Jul 2020 14:06:00 +0000

In this world, we see several objects around us. The chair on which you sit is an example of an object. The objects which you see around yourself may be living or non-living. Whatever may be the situation you will find two unique features of an object namely characteristics and behaviour. For example, a car, it's characteristic is represented by its colour, it's length and breadth, several people that can sit, the wheel radius and it's behaviour is the speed, how fast it can go from one place to another, the amount of steering control it has, whether the drive is smooth or not.

OBJECTS

We can define an object as an entity with certain characteristics and behaviour.

In fact, all objects have their own individuality and are distinguishable. For example, you have two identical pens with the same colours, texture, shape and size, yet they are two distinguishable pens.

Programming using objects promotes an understanding of the real world and provides a practical basis for computer implementation.

OBJECT ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

Programming is a process by which we give instructions to the computer to do a particular task. There are different techniques and technologies involved in writing a program. One such technique is Object-Oriented Programming.

Object-Oriented Programming (or OOP) is a technique of implementing programs which are organised as a co-interactive collection of objects, each of which represents an instance of a class.

Thus through the OOP technique, it is possible to represent objects having characteristics and behaviour. It forms a powerful technique to represent an object as in the real world.

CHARACTERISTICS OF OOP

Now that you have learnt object-oriented programming let us learn the principle upon which it is based:

Abstraction
Encapsulation
Polymorphism
Inheritance

Abstraction

Abstraction refers to the art of hiding the complexities and giving a simple interface. For example, a man has to credit some money from an ATM, he can simply follow the instruction given in the ATM screen, besides the technical coding behind the ATM's functionality. This is what is required for programming; all the complexities should be encapsulated in such a way that a simpler interface is given and hence for the programmer can carry on with the development process at the higher level so that abstraction is obtained leading to the solution of the real processes thus we can definitely tell that encapsulation leads to abstraction.

ENCAPSULATION

The term encapsulation refers to the act of enclosing one or more items within a physical or logical container. In software, terms encapsulation bind together characteristics and behaviour of an object. The characteristic is represented by data and behaviour is represented by function or method. Thus encapsulation is a technique that binds together function and the data into a single unit. To relate this to the real world consider any switchboard it encapsulates several wires for different electrical or electronic appliances to as the user have only one method of affecting this complex encapsulation.

Thus, the term abstraction is used to define the outer layout used in terms of design and the term encapsulation is used to define the inner layout used in terms of implementation.

POLYMORPHISM

The term Polymorphism is actually a combination of two terms Poly and Morphism, poly means many and morphism means forums. It is the ability to assume different forms and object-oriented programming this refers to the ability of objects to have many methods of the same name but each one responds to a different type of specific behaviour as they have different forms.

For example, in a room stands a mouse a cat and dog now from the far corner of the room there happens to be a screeching sound the mouse the cat and dog immediately turned towards the direction of the sun the dog barks the cat which is it state and the mouse next the air does you can see for the same screeching sound the animal behave differently in other words the animal behave differently for the same effect this is exactly what polymorphism is.

INHERITANCE

In the real world, you must have seen inheritance. Inheritance is a term that is used to establish a relationship using hierarchical classification it is basically a term that is used to represent the hierarchical relationship of generalization. For example, the generalization of the term mammal may have several levels of sub generation.

Inheritance is the ability of objects to establish a relationship using hierarchical classification.

In OOP the technique of inheritance is generally used for facilitating reusability. For example, a developer after modelling system tries to group similar classes together and reuses common code. Often code is available from past work which the developer can reuse and modify, when necessary, to get the precisely desired behaviour. Thus inheritance also reduces the hazard of rewriting code, thus simplifying the task of a developer.

CLASS

The implementation of encapsulation is done through a class. A class defines the structure and behaviour that will be felt by a set of objectives. Each object of a given class contains the structure and behaviour defined by the class as if it were stamped out by a mould in the shape of a class. For this reason, objects are sometimes referred to as instances of classes. Thus a class is a logical construct (a blueprint) and an object is a physical reality.

These all were some of the fundamental behaviour of a Programming Language. Hope these all helped you.

...Thank you...

Tech basics: Operating systems

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Tue, 21 Jul 2020 07:15:00 +0000

Understanding

Since the day computers were invented, they have been developing drastically. The major concern was to provide more efficiency with less time in processing. At the time developers were busy thinking about computers efficiency, the idea of operating system came out which suggested that one can achieve computer efficiency by reducing the gap between hardware and software. An operating system basically is an interface between hardware and software of a computer system. It is the most important part of a computer. To make a computer work one has to write codes in it with its own language i.e programming language which is basically a software and after that the programmer has to deliver that code to the hardware so that the computer can do what the programmer wants it to do. By doing all these tasks manually a lot of time it takes to complete. To overcome this problem, operating systems were developed.

Concept

The working of an operating system is basically to build a connection between the hardware and software of a computer. While an operating system is software itself, it allows the user to communicate with the computer with knowing any computer language. A computer comes pre-installed with an operating system. Without it, a computer is nothing more than a box. It manages memory and processes. It manages all the software running on the computer giving them the priority they need at that time. An operating system looks for process and assigns them the hardware they need to run. While executing one process, the operating system ensures that the others are in the waiting list so that at one time multiple processes don't occur that may lead to computer failure. In modern computers due to multiple core processor, it is even possible to run multiple processes at the same time. Apart from building a connection between hardware and software, and operating system provides a UI(user interface) to the user ao that it would be easy for the user to communicate with the computer without having any knowledge of computer language. An operating system needs to have a UI so that users can communicate with it. Basically, there are two types of UI. I.e CLI and GUI.

A CLI(command line interface) is typically a terminal window. The user interacts with the OS by typing specific instructions, commands or arguments which is specific for that OS. And each command is related to specific tasks.

A GUI (graphic user interface) is basically a screen full of icons written statement and graphical window where the communication is made between the user and OS by gestures

like clicking, holding, tapping etc. This type of UI is more efficient as most of the people can use it.

Operating systems have APIs which enables the application to utilise hardware and software functions without knowing any low-level written format of the system. Application management is one of the most important functions of an OS. It manages all the applications in the system by providing them various access to what they need and also handles errors.

One more important feature is time management. In multitasking, it is the OS that handles all the applications running and assign execution. OS manages how much time one process requires to complete its execution. It determines how much time should be given to one program while another one is in waiting.

It also handles (I/O) commands to and from multiple attached devices. Without an OS it would have been almost impossible to handle all the devices at one time.

Device management is one important feature of an OS. For the communication between hardware and software, the OS installs specific drivers so the devices can make communication with the OS.

Types of operating systems

General-purpose OS

A general-purpose OS is a series of operating systems that are designed to perform multiple tasks at the same time. It is designed to handles different software and hardware at the same time. It mainly comes pre-installed with desktops and laptops where we may attach a different kind of hardware as per our requirements. This kind of OS is made keeping in mind the usage of desktops and laptops. They can handle programming, designing, computing, browsing, gaming and all other features simultaneously.

Since every desktops and laptop comes pre-installed with the general-purpose OS it is even possible to change the OS completely. Getting started with a new OS may seem weird at first look but after some time users can use it with ease.

Examples:

Windows OS

Windows is the group of flagship operating systems developed by Microsoft. It was first released in 1985 and till the date, it holds 90% of total operating system shares used in computers.

Releases are

Windows: officially released on November 20 1985, it was the first version of Microsoft windows.
Windows 2.0: officially released in December 1987, it was popular than its predecessor. It has improved time and memory management.
Windows 2.1: released in two different versions i.e windows/286 and windows/386. Came with multitasking window and expandable memory.
Windows 3.x: officially released in 1990, had improved design and virtual memory. It came with loadable virtual device drivers.
Windows 95: officially released on August 24, 1995, came up with native 32-bit support, plug and play hardware, efficiency in multitasking and support up to 255 characters.
Windows NT: officially released in November 1998 came with several updates and features.
Windows 2000: officially released on February 17, 2000, was the successor of Windows NT version 4.0 came up with new interface.
Windows XP: one of the most famous windows version released on October 25, 2001, with a beautiful interface and enhanced multimedia and networking features.
Windows Vista: released on November 30, 2006, came up with several new features like redesigned shell but had not been so popular and faced much criticism.
Windows 7: released on July 22, 2009, was the most popular windows version came up with massive improvements like new security features, improved taskbar, new start window etc.
Windows 8/8.1: released on October 26, 2012, came with Microsoft Metro design language and had support for touch-based devices.
Windows 10: The latest version of windows released on July 29, 2015, which came with improved start menu, virtual desktop, ability to run windows store etc.

Mac os

Mac os is a flagship series of operating systems developed by Apple inc. It was initially released in 2001 and used in every Apple computer. First introduced in 1984 for macintosh computers, the first desktop version was released in March 2001. It is the second most famous computer OS after windows.

Releases

Mac OS X cheetah: released march 24, 2001
Mac OS X puma: released September 25, 2001
Mac OS X jaguar: released August 24, 2002
Mac OS X Panther: released October 24, 2003
Mac OS X Tiger: released April 29, 2005
Mac OS X Leopard: released October 26,2007
Mac OS X snow leopard: released August 28, 2009
OS X lion: released July 20, 2011
OS X mountain lion: released July 25, 2012
OS X Mavericks: released October 22, 2013
OS X Yosemite: released October 16, 2014
OS X El Capitan: released September 30, 2015
Mac OS Sierra: released September 20, 2016
Mac OS High Sierra: released September 25, 2017
Mac OS Mojave: released September 24, 2018
Mac OS Caterina: released October 7, 2019
Mac OS big Sur: announced June 22, 2020

Linux os

It is a UNIX like operating system which is completely open-source i.e anyone can make modifications in the OS. It is based on Linux Linux kernel which is basically an OS released on September 17, 1991. Linux is actually a family of OS which are named as Linux but modified under different developers. All these OSs comes under Linux distributions.

Some famous releases are:

Debian Linux
Ubuntu Linux
Fedora Linux
opens EU
Redhat Enterprise Linux
Slackware Linux
SESU Linux
Arch Linux
CentOS
Gentoo Linux
KNOPPIX
Linux mint
Mageia
Oracle Linux
Scientific Linux

Mobile operating systems

These are the category of those OS which runs on mobile devices. Comparatively consume less power and runs with less memory because these OS have fewer features than general-purpose and can handle small jobs. But with the advancement of technology, today's mobile devices are so powerful that they can handle even powerful processes with greater efficiency. In the last two decades, mobiles devices have been very popular and to make efficient communication between the system and user, mobile device OS has been developed.

They are designed to provide mobile devices efficiency and ease of use. Now mobile device OS is more popular than the general-purpose OS.

Examples:

Android

Android is a free and open-source operating system based on Linux kernel developed by Google. It is the most famous mobile operating system and holds 74% of the total mobile OS shares. This OS is specially designed for mobiles and tablets. It made its first release in September 2008. Its source code is called an android open source project (AOSP).

Releases:

Android 1.0: released September 23, 2008
Android 1.1: released February 9, 2009
Android 1.5 cupcake: released April 27, 2009
Android 1.6 Donut: released September 15, 2009
Android 2.0 eclair: released October 26, 2009
Android 2.2 froyo: released May 20, 2010
Android 2.3 gingerbread: released December 6, 2010
Android 3.0 honeycomb: released February 22, 2011
Android 4.0 ice cream sandwich: released October 18, 2011
Android 4.1 jelly bean: released July 9, 2012
Android 4.4 KitKat: released October 31, 2013
Android 5.0 lollipop: released November 12, 2014
Android 6.0 marshmallow: released October 5, 2015
Android 7.0 Nougat: released August 22, 2016
Android 8.0 Oreo: released August 21, 2017
Android 9 pie: released August 7, 2018
Android 10: released September 3, 2019

IOS

IOS is an exclusive and flagship mobile operating system developed by Apple Inc. Unlike android, IOS is not open source and available only for Apple hardware. The only apple retains the right to make a change or modify its IOS. It was first launched in June 2007 and holds 24% of the total mobile phone operating system shares.

Image Source - Google | Image By - JAKE PETERSON

Releases:

iPhone os 1.0: released June 29, 2007
iPhone os 2.0: released July 11, 2008
iPhone os 3.0: released June 17, 2009
IOS 4: released June 21, 2010
IOS 5: released October 12, 2011
IOS 6: released September 19, 2012
IOS 7: released September 18, 2013
IOS 8: released September 17, 2014
IOS 9: released September 16, 2015
IOS 10: released September 13, 2016
IOS 11: released September 19, 2017
IOS 12: released September 17, 2018
IOS 13: released September 19, 2019
IOS 14: released July 7, 2020

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CHECKING THE VALIDITY OF AN ISBN

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Sat, 18 Jul 2020 12:04:00 +0000

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD BOOK NUMBER (ISBN) is a numeric commercial book identifier which all are different with respect to the books. By this ISBN code, the books are published by the publisher... My program is to check whether a given ISBN is valid or not...

A valid ISBN is a code in which the summation of the digits multiply to it's respective position number is equal to a number which is divisible by 11.

ex:-8174506292 is a valid ISBN

(8*1)+(1*2)+(7*3)+(4*4)+(5*5)+(0*6)+(6*7)+(2*8)+(9*9) +(2*10) =231

#which is divisible by 11#

#Nailed it !!!#

Let's see the code behind it..

def isbn(num):

dig=len(str(num))

temp=num

s=0

while temp>0:

d=temp%10

s=s+(d*dig)

temp=temp//10

dig=dig-1 if s%11==0:

print("Valid ISBN")

else:

print("Invalid ISBN")

num=int(input("enter your book's ISBN")

isbn(num)

OUTPUT

enter your book's ISBN:-8174506314

Valid ISBN

enter your book's ISBN:-8256371896

Invalid ISBN

Check your covid 19 health and know status

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Thu, 16 Jul 2020 05:33:00 +0000

In this very unusual period of corona virus pandemic we've bring a little do it yourself program that will check your health and also give you covid 19 worldwide stats. To run this program you need to install a module called covid. Install it by hitting pip install covid in your terminal.

Note: This program is only for learning purposes so don't take it as serious if you really think you are sick and infected get medical attention as soon as possible.

Thank you.

Python interactive and script mode

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sat, 11 Jul 2020 03:57:00 +0000

Introduction

We all know that the fundamental for every computational framework is programming. Every programming concept starts with its basics. So we have started articles based on basics of python programming language. Python is a high level language mainly used in web development and data science. For beginners writing programs in python is quite easy. Python have two different modes to run programs. They are

Interactive mode
Scrip mode

Interactive mode

For beginners who want to learn python interactive mode is good for them. As it is named it is a quick way of running block of code or small programs. It gives quick responses for every line of code. Interactive mode operates through python shell which comes with python installation. It is a good option if you want quick response of your code or just started with python.

To access the interactive mode open the terminal of your operating system and type python. Make sure python is installed on your computer. Then it will show default python interface. >>> Sign shows that the shell is ready to execute the code. Then type the block of code that you want to execute. After a single line of code, it will send the code to the python interpreter to execute the code and give you quick response.

>>> a=int(input("enter a number:"))

enter a number:

It is also possible to run multiple codes. You can even copy the code from some where else and paste here to execute.

>>> a=int(input("enter a number:"))

enter a number:45

>>>if a>=50:

... print(a"is greater than or equal to 50")

...else:

... print(a"is smaller than 50")

45 is smaller than 50

Interactive mode comes with help() command if you have some doubt regarding anything. Simply hit help() in the shell and the the help screen will open.

To get help about any command just type the command i.e input() and it will show information about the command. To exit the help panel type 'q'.

Pros and cons

It is good to run small blocks of codes
Easy for beginners
Faster as it execute every line of code and gives intermediate results
Learning python is good with interactive mode

Not suitable for long scripts of codes
GUI programs can't be run with interactive mode
Not suitable for professionals
Editing the code is difficult

Script mode

Script mode is a good option for writing long codes. As it is mentioned above interactive mode is not suitable to run longs scripts of codes. Here the role of script mode comes to play. You can write all the whole program and save it and run the whole program at once in script mode. Script mode can be accessed through any of the text editor or IDE. 'IDLE' is the default ide that comes with python to run codes. To run a program in script mode, write the code and save it in any folder with '.py' extention. Py stands for python. After saving the program is ready to run. In IDLE after writing the code press CLTR+S to save the program then press F5 to run it.

Pros and cons

Its easy to run large blocks of codes
Editing the code is easier than interactive mode
Easy for beginners as well as for experts

Not suitable to run small blocks of codes
Everytime you have to save the program in order to run it

IDE (integrated development environment)

As a beginner or an expert, its becomes quite difficult to find out all the errors and edit the code after writing the whole program. Here comes to play the role of IDE. An IDE enables the programer to handle the code with an ease by providing various programming facilities. With an IDE its its easy to write programs. It increases the productivity of the programer. Syntax highlighting, auto-completion, auto-saving, quick responses, debugging are some major features of an IDE.

Syntax highlighting is a very important feature provided by an IDE. Sometimes it becomes difficult to understand the program for beginners due to hard syntaxes. Syntax highlighter highlights different syntaxes of a program which helps the understand that program well.

>>>a=int(input("enter a number:"))

>>>#here a is input

>>>print(a)

Here black colour is identifier, blue is keyword, green is string, red is comment and purple is function.

This is how a IDE highlights different syntaxes in python.

One major features that is always needed by a programer is debugger. And this is the feature for which you need to have a IDE because a debugger can be only found in an IDE or in debugging softwares. The function of a debugger is to find the bugs in the program and then fix it.

Some IDE comes with both interactive mode and script mode for better experience of user.

Some famous IDEs for python are IDLE, pycharm, atom, sypder, pydev etc.

Disarium Numbers in PYTHON

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Thu, 09 Jul 2020 09:59:00 +0000

A Disarium Number is a special kind of number when it's sum of its digits raise to the power of their respective positions is equal to the the number itself....

Let's see some examples...

:-175 is a Disarium Number

1^1+7^2+5^3=175(original one)

:-135 is an Disarium Number

1^1+3^2+5^3=135p

Let's see the code behind it...

--------------------####-------------------

num=int(input("Enter a number"))
dig=len(str(num))
temp=num
s=0
while temp>0:
d=temp%10
s=s+(d**dig)
temp=temp//10
dig=dig-1

if s==num:
print("It's a Disarium Number")
else:
print("Sorry!!! it's not")

OUTPUT

175

It's a Disarium Number

135

It's a Disarium Number

123

Sorry!!! it's not

Lithium ion battery

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Thu, 09 Jul 2020 05:57:00 +0000

Understanding

If you are one of them who wonders how cellphone battery works then here is a quick article for you. After the development of first generation computers we moved a step ahead and there came the development of portable computers. But the problem was portable electronics can't be connected to the current to use always. This problem could be overcome with the help of batteries. The term battery means a group of electric cells working together to supply some power output. Now a days most of the computer system including phones, tablets, laptop runs on rechargeable batteries. One of the very popular rechargeable battery that is widely used today is lithium-ion battery.

Concept

Lithium ion battery are not only used in electronics but are also used in electrical vehicles, military and aerospace industry. To know about how the lithium ion battery actually works we have to go through its electrochemistry. A lithium ion battery is a type of electrochemical cell which converts chemical energy to electrical energy within the battery. In the case of a lithium-ion battery, the lithium ions are ‘tied’ to an electron within the structure of the anode. When the battery discharges, the intercalated lithium ions are released from the anode, and then travel through the electrolyte solution to be absorbed (intercalated) in the cathode. Before you can use the battery you have to charge it. Which charging oxidation reactions occurs at cathode. That means it loses some electrons. To maintain the charge balance the cathode have to dissolve some equal amount of positively charged lithium ion in the electrolyte. The discharged electrons travels to the anode. Here the anode is made up of graphite. The electrons are there intercalated within the graphite. The electrons tie up with the lithium ion at the anode.

While discharging the lithium ions moves from anode and travels to the cathode through the electrolyte solution. This also releases electrons that moves through an external wire which sets up a current in the circuit that we use. When the cathode becomes full of lithium ions, the battery is dead and we have to charge it to use again. While charging, the electrochemical process continues again. The electrolyte in the lithium ion cell is usually a solution if lithium salt dissolved in some solvent like dimethyl carbonate. Lithium ion is small due to which a large number of ions can be stored in both the electrodes. This is why lithium ion batteries are of much higher density. Comparing to other batteries, lithium ion battery operated at a much higher voltage. To balance this an equal amount of electrons also discharges. A single lithium ion cell gives a voltage of 3.6 V.

The anode is made up of graphite. After a long usage a large amount of insertion of lithium ion into graphite can break it. Cathode is made up of Lithium cobalt oxide(LiCoO2).

The cell reactions are:

During discharge

LiC6 + CoO2 ⇄ C6 + LiCoO2

Oxidation:

LiC6 → C6 + Li+ + e-

Reduction:

CoO2 + Li+ + e- → LiCoO2

Development

Apart from the anode, cathode and electrolyte a lot of things are involved in making a lithium ion battery. They are

Voltage tap
Mains connector
Voltage regulator circuit
Temperature sensor
Sensor to monitor charge state

Lithium ion batteries available in various shapes and sizes they are

Small cylinder
Large cylinder
Flat
Rigid

Lithium ion batteries were first developed in late 1970s. Three scientists, John B. Goodenough, M. Stanley Whittingham, and Akira Yoshino received novel prize in chemistry for developing such a battery that can make portable electronics success.

Panasonic created the smallest Li-ion battery in 2014. It is pin shaped. It has a diameter of 3.5mm and a weight of 0.6g.

Battery life

The avarage battery life of a fully functioning lithium ion battery is about 2 to 3 years. Have you ever wondered what happens after the mobile phone battery is totally dead? Well if you have used a phone for almost 3 years or later the answer would be known to you. Without any physical impact a normal lithium ion battery lasts 2 to 3 year and after that its totally dead. But you don't have to worry about the phone because the dead battery doesn't effect the health of the phone. When the battery dead changing the battery can be a good option rather than wasting the whole phone. A normal cell phone lithium ion battery lasts upto 1000 or a little more charge cycle. Now a days the cell phone battery comes pre-attached. So the battery can be changed with the help of a service centre.

Graphical calculator in python

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sun, 05 Jul 2020 02:54:00 +0000

Have you ever wondered how calculators actually works. This is a program of a graphical calculator written in python. It can be run using GUI. Some external library files are also needed to run this.

Armstrong Number in PYTHON

noreply@blogger.com (Soumya Ranjan Barik) — Sat, 04 Jul 2020 16:38:00 +0000

An Armstrong Number is a special kind of number in which the sum of their digits provided raise to the power of the number of digit is equal

for example:-

153 is an Armstrong Number

1^3+5^3+3^3=153

#You can check out#

1634 is also an Armstrong Number

1^4+6^4+3^4+4^4=1634

Let's check the coding behind it..

no=int(input ("enter the no:"))

dig=len(str(no))

temp=no

sum=0

while temp>0:

            d=temp%10

            sum=sum+d**dig

            temp=temp//10

if sum==no:

            print("Yes it's an Armstrong Number")

else:

            print("Sorry! it's not try another one ")

OUTPUT:

enter the no:153

Yes it's an Armstrong Number

enter the no:1634

Yes it's an Armstrong Number

enter the no:1234

Sorry!it's not try another one

What exactly is programming?

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Sat, 04 Jul 2020 08:29:00 +0000

Understanding programming

Since the time computers invented, they are developing insanely. There is a huge difference between the computers that we use today and computers before 50 years. But how do computers actually work? What is there that makes them work the way we want? Well, a computer is a combination of hardware and software. And software plays a very major role in the functioning of the computer. Here arises the main question. What makes a software run and how software is made? The fundamental of every software development is programming.

Programming is the way how we communicate with computers. A program is a set of instructions that are written for some specific task only and well understood by the computer. From adding up 2 numbers to developing an operating system, programming involves everywhere. As it is mentioned above programming is the way we communicate with computers, but how do we communicate with computers? Well, they don't understand our language. To communicate with them we have to write a program in specifically designed languages that computers can understand, they are known as programming languages.

Programming languages

A programming language is a specifically designed language that contains a set of instructions for the computer. Computers don't understand human language to write programs in them the program needs to be written in some computer understood language. They are used to implement an algorithm in a computer system to do a specific task. After writing programs in the programming language, they are further executed and they go through a set of steps or processes after which they can be properly understood by a computer. A programming language mainly consists of two elements they are:

Syntax
Semantic

Syntaxes are the rules of the language that must be followed to make the program properly run or else errors will arise. Difference programming language contains different syntaxes.

Semantic refers to the meaningfulness of the language. To make a program run properly it must be written in a meaningful way.

Later programming languages are divided into two categories they are:

Compiled
Interpreted

For the execution of a program, an executive software is required that software can be either compiler or interpreter.

Those languages which are executed by the compiler are known as compiled language.

Compiled languages are directly converted into machine code which is executed by the system. They are fast and gives the programmer more control over hardware aspects. Some examples of compiled languages are C, C+ +, visual basic

Those languages which are executed by the interpreter are known as an interpreted language. Interpreted languages execute the code line by line and run each command. They are a bit slower than the compiled one but with the development of technology they are getting faster. Some examples of interpreted language are python, Perl, Rubi, PHP.

* Java is a language that is both compiled as well as interpreted.

Some more type of programming languages are:

Low-level languages
High-level languages

Low-level languages are the languages that contain very basic commands or instructions for the computer. They are more close to the hardware. These languages are less human-readable and hard to understand like machine code and assembly language. Some examples of low-level languages are C, C++ etc.

High-level languages are the languages that are mostly in human-readable form and easy to understand syntaxes. They are used in software development and web development programs. Some examples of high-level languages are python, java, Perl etc.

Object-oriented programming

A high-level language that uses objects and their uses procedures within the programming for better understanding is called an object-oriented programming language. To reduce programming complexity and better understanding the algorithms many programming languages are now object-oriented.

YouTube.py

noreply@blogger.com (Somdev Behera) — Fri, 03 Jul 2020 04:01:00 +0000

This program takes a song and the artist name as input and redirect the user to the youtube app viewing the most matched video according to the input given.

Note: all credit goes to. https://github.com/geekcomputers/Python