It seems that everyday we see more and more ads. We get bombarded by the amount of ads we see on the TV, on newspapers and on the Internet. What we need to understand is that advertisement is an approach to change an attitude about a subject or an object.

WHAT ARE ATTITUDES?

In social psychology there are two types of attitudes. Cognitively based attitudes are people’s belief about the properties of an object. An example of cognitively based attitudes can be seen when we buy cars. Nowadays we think of cars in terms of miles per gallon, safety or long term value. These are attitudes based on the merits of an object. In this case a car. Affectively based attitudes are people’s beliefs about the nature of an object. If we decided to buy the car based on the color and how it makes you feel, then we consider that decision was made based on an affectively based attitude. It is important to understand that attitudes are built on conditioning (Classical and Operant conditioning). Just look at “Black Friday”. Do we really need to camp three days to buy that TV? Do you really need to shop until you drop?

THREE WAYS ADS CHANGE YOUR MIND

The goal of advertisements is to change your attitude towards a object. Ads aim to persuade your attitude towards a side of an issue. So how do they change your attitudes? Studies have supported a three-prong approach that seems to be the most effective. People tend to change their attitudes about an object when the source of the communication is a credible one or an attractive one. That is why you see athletes or models endorsing products. Remember: “Be like Mike?”

The other approach is based on what is being said. We tend to be more influenced by messages that do not seem like advertisement. That is why there is an increase of “commercials” masked as news briefs or medical tips. Usually, these messages only show one side of the argument.

The last approach is by narrowing the audience. Studies have found that people between the ages of 18 and 25 seem to be the most impressionable. After the age of 25, people’s attitudes tend to be more stable. Now you know why credit cards target college students. As a matter of fact, just look at beer or cigarette commercials and see who are they targeting.

HOW DOES ADVERTISEMENT INFLUENCE YOU?

Advertisement works by shifting your attitude of their product towards a favorable one.

For example, have you seen vacuum cleaner advertisements claiming that their product now comes in red or blue?  That is an affective approach to make you buy the product regardless of the facts. Ask yourself: Does it matter if the vacuum is of a specific color? Does the red vacuum work better than a grey one?

Advertisement works by changing your attitudes either logically or emotionally. Ultimately, we are the ones who react to that information.

What are your thoughts about ads? Are some ads more influencing on you than others?

Share your thoughts.

• Top Psychology Movies (43)
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• What is the Difference between Sex and Gender? (4)
• What do people think about you? (5)
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Keep in mind that most movies dealing with any psychological topic tends to oversimplify the condition or exaggerate the problem.

Below are some myths and falsehood presented in movies:

• Not all mental patients are violent - Only a small percentage of clinical patients tend to demonstrate violent tendencies.
• Additionally, violence in mental patients are not pertinent to diagnoses.
• Psychologists do not sleep with their clients. It is against the ethics code to do so.
• Not all mental patients are antisocial.
• There is no magic pill to cure any illness or condition.
• Multiple personality disorder (know as Dissociative disorder) is not as common as portrayed in the movies.
• Psychological distress is more common than people think.
• Life as a psychologist is not that glamorous.

With that said, below are my favorite psychology movies:

	Awakenings Robin Williams and Robert De Niro stars in this drama about catatonic patients due to encephalitis. The movie shows the struggle of a doctor in an attempt to help his patients. This movie is based on a true story.
	Identity While not so accurate about the psychological condition, it is a great thriller with a psychological overtone. Additionally, this movie has a great cast.
	A Beautiful Mind Based on the life of John Forbes Nash Jr. and his struggle with schizophrenia. Even if you are not a fan of psychology, this is a great story about life’s challenges and the ability to overcome them.
	The Diving Bell and the Butterfly This is another movie based on a true story. I must warn you, the pace of the movie is very slow and it is in French with English subtitles. This movie is based on Elle editor Jean-Dominique Bauby and his struggles after a massive stroke that left him paralyzed.
	Primal Fear This is a must watch for anyone who is a fan of trials and thrillers. This movie deals with an altar boy with a Dissociative disorder. While some parts of the condition are overexerted (see myths above) the story is very good.

Honorable Mention

Below are a few extra movies that are worth seeing as well.

	What Dreams May Come Another Robin Williams movie that is worth watching. Loosely based on Dante’s Divine Comedy, this movie deals with the topics of depression and suicide. The reaction to this movie is mixed. Some people may not like the pace of the movie. After all, it is a drama.
	What about Bob? While the movie is highly inaccurate about psychological disorders, it does show a lighter side of psychology.
	One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest An oldie but classic. This movie while it may not appeal to the appetite of modern movie goers, this movie shows the group dynamics in a psychiatric center.

Those are my favorites psychology movies and as far as I will go as a movie critic.

Now, I want to hear from you. What do you think about this list? Do you have any favorites that you like to add to the list?

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Stereotypes are mental frameworks that generally function as schemas and are useful for organizing, interpreting, and retrieving information. Stereotypes are sustained due to our tendency to minimize cognitive efforts. In other words, stereotypes are a collections of ideas and values that we create. These ideas then are retrieved when we encounter something with similar characteristics to the ideas. These mental shortcuts help us have an immediate frame of reference when needed. Additionally, it reduces the amount of effort and energy needed to retrieve the information.

When it comes to people, the reduced effort is aimed to perceive the person completely as an individual. Thus, as individuals we prefer the shortcuts when making choices by selecting these preconceived beliefs. We choose the path of least resistance.

Why do we use them?

Stereotypes also are mediated by motivational purposes. Our need to be accepted reinforces the creation or acceptance of stereotypes. For example, when people belong to a team or group it is very common to have the mentality of us against them. Now as you notice, I have not said that stereotype creation needs to be accurate or inaccurate for it to be sustained. So regardless of the accuracy of ideas, endorsing stereotypes for group memberships will always happen. Keep in mind that the need to be accepted by others provides us with a positive sense regard and helps us understand the world. That is why we tend to commit and accept points of views.

Group Stereotypes

When we refer to groups in this context, we mean all types of associations. Groups can be a professional institution, classroom, church or any other association with two or more individuals. It is a known fact that members of majority groups tend to form illusory correlation about the negative attributes of members of minority-group through the use of two attributes: group membership and infrequent actions. In addition, majority groups tend to perceive out-group members as “all alike” and their own group members as more diverse. That is why we hear expressions like, ” So and so are all the same!”

On the other hand, minority group members show an in-group homogeneity effect, especially in contexts in which cohesion is needed to confront injustice. Stereotypes can change as the relation between the groups are altered. Those in higher hierarchical positions in a group are likely to negatively stereotype those with lesser status, while those with little power tend to stereotype lesser to the higher status members.

In all stereotypes are collections of ideas that we all create in our minds. I think the attribution of erroneous stereotypes is a disservice to all of us. As previously stated, these falsehoods are sustained every time we apply them.

What do you think? Are stereotypes good or bad?

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Conversing is one of the few topics that we all practice, but know very little about. Communication problems can have detrimental effects in many domains of your life. These problems can affect your love life or getting a promotion at work. I always conceptualize communication like a dance. Two people agreeing on a synchronized set of steps. Neither of the persons can skip a step. Otherwise, the dance [conversation] may feel awkward.

Let me give you an example. When you meet somebody new, there are a series of questions that everyone asks: What is your name? Where are you from? What do you do for a living? These are what I call “preliminary questions”. It starts to build rapport with the person. Likewise, the person who was asked will reciprocate the same line of questioning. As you can see, this is part of the dance. Now, what happens when the person does not reciprocate? We all have been in that situation. We ask a person some questions, but they do not ask back. When that happens, we start thinking the person is not interested. When these steps are omitted, the conversation tends to end.

The conversation also has a natural flow. For example, when you meet someone you do not start telling them about “your ulcers” or “your intimate life”, right? If someone starts telling you this information, we tend to avoid the person. We think T.M.I. (Too Much Information). Early disclosure is not expected at the beginning of new conversations. Even with people that you know, they do not start talking about important topics right away. This is part of the dance, a covert set of conversation rules. Ironically, psychologists attempt to break those rules. It is the goal of the psychologist to build rapport with the person and allow them to disclose difficult topics as soon as possible.

Now that we have a framework of how conversations work, we can start discussing common mistakes we all make during conversations. These five errors reduce the quality of conversation, decrease the amount of information, and can decrease future conversations.

1) Not Listening

While this is an obvious error, we are guilty of committing it every once in a while. Remember that hearing is not listening. Hearing is the actual sound capture by your ears. Listening is the interpretation and analysis of those sounds. Sometimes, we are hearing a person talk, but we are thinking about other things. We cannot concentrate on two conversations at the same time. Most times, we are hearing the person talk and we are also talking to ourselves. One way to improve listening skills is by repeating the information that was just said but in your own words. This is also known as paraphrasing. It is important to be selective with this technique. We do not want to sound like we are mocking the person.

2) Making a Monologue

Along with listening, it is important to let the person talk. We cannot listen if we are always talking. A good measurement of a monologue is if at the end of the conversation you do not know anything about the person you were talking to or their point of view. Again, if conversations are a dance then a monologue is when you dance by yourself. Tips to reduce monologues are to ask questions and allow for interruptions. Yes, allow people to interrupt you. It is important for them to engage in the conversation.

3) Interest

Showing interest in a conversation reinforces people talking to you. We all like to think that we are interesting. It is important to let others feel the same way. One way to show interest is by asking clarifying questions. These types of questions also demonstrate that you are listening. Questions like: what you think about….? or What happened after you said….? Now keep in mind that you have to show genuine interest. Nothing will corrode a conversation faster than phony interests. Remember that interest in people helps them build self-esteem and should be reciprocated.

4) Remembering

Again, remembering also demonstrates that your are listening. Remembering will also help you ask questions or engage in topics that your are interested in. There is nothing more pleasing than when your are talking to someone and they remember what you said a couple of days before. So remember to remember.

5) Body language

Lastly, a conversation involves multiple levels of message exchange. While verbal conversation is important, non-verbal communication must match what you are saying. If both levels of communication are incongruent, people may think that you are lying. Basic body language includes eye contact, body movements and facial expressions. Eye contact demonstrates that your are engaged. We have to keep in mind that long eye contact may be interpreted as aggression. Body movements are coordination of the message with hands or posture. Facial expressions are the matching of your emotional state with what your are saying. There are many interpretations if we tell someone bad news while smiling.

Good conversations are essential to develop healthy relationships. These techniques are not developed overnight and require us to make an effort to practice them. While bad conversations may make us feel anxious about future ones; Great conversations are very satisfying.

So how do you feel when you are having a bad conversation? Do you have any other tips you would like to share?

Join the conversation!

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As I watched the news about shoppers the day after Thanksgiving, I wonder why people act so carelessly. There is plenty of footage showing people camping overnight at the stores or trampling people just to get inside the store.

Have you ever wondered why these great savings are only during the Friday after Thanksgiving?

One of the oldest techniques in advertisement, is the “limited resources” effect. We tend to value things by the level of availability. For example, the more scarce the commodity, the more valuable it is. That is why retailers use the “deadline technique“. This technique states that an item can be purchased only during a specific time for a specific price. Afterward, the price will go up. We tend to place a sense of urgency when things are scarce or limited. With the deadline technique, customers tend to do extreme things just to get that “unique” sale.

One of the things that always bother me about these selling techniques is how the stores encourage people’s careless behavior when it comes to shopping. Now, I’m not saying that they are overtly saying to trample people, but they have been slow to deter people from doing so. I always say, “not being vocal against it, is being silently for it“. Many stores open the doors and let people run like wild bulls around the store. We all have seen the videos where people fall and others continue to run over the fallen person. As the years pass by, it gets worse. Just look at the Wal-mart worker who died on one of those stampedes.

Now there are two elements that come into effect, one is the deadline technique and the other is diffusion of responsibility. As stated before, if stores do not label the sales as a scarce thing, people will take their time looking for better deals. The other factor comes into play from the consumer point of view. In the cases where people get trampled, NOBODY and I mean NOBODY stopped to help the injured person. People elected to get a good deal than prevent an injury or even the death of a person.

It is interesting the length that we are willing to go for us to acquire things that bring temporary pleasure. You never see that kind of patience for things that remove discomfort, but that is a topic we will discuss in the future.

For me, Black Friday does not represent an economic term. Black Friday represents one of the darkest times in consumer behavior.

What about you? What do you think about Black Friday? Do you shop until you drop?

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You may think that those questions are redundant and their answers are obvious. Not quite! First of all, we need to differentiate the terms sex and gender. Many people confuse the two of them and the truth is that they are very different. Sex is the anatomical and physical differences between males and females determine by genetic factors. In contrast, gender is the attributes and behaviors associated with the person’s sex.

As you can see there is a big difference between the two of them. So I ask the question again, have you ever stopped to think how important is your gender? You may genetically be a male or female, but the attributes and behaviors you embrace (gender) helps define the most archaic concept of your “self” (Self-Concept). Don’t assume that because someone is born with a female sex, they will embrace the feminist gender (Not necessarily).

Development of Gender

Gender is a concept that we acquire on different stages in our life. When we are born, we do not have a self-concept of gender per se. It is not until between the ages of 2 and 4 where children start categorizing males and females as boys or girls. Additionally, at this stage they start assigning to others and themselves a gender. Around the age of 5, gender becomes a clear concept to children and they start applying gender stereotypes. Not until adolescence do we start adopting strict sex/gender stereotypes. Keep in mind that even though gender stereotypes are applied, it does not imply the acceptance of a gender.

Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes are cognitive frameworks used to process information regarding a gender. In other words, we have a set of attributes and norms associated with the term “male” or “female”. Think about it, who wears pants? The most common answer is males. While this is a crude and inaccurate statement, it does trigger a raw gender stereotype. It is important to understand the influence of the gender stereotypes. Using this framework generates a covert set of social norms. Gender stereotypes dictate how genetic males and females should act, behave, talk, walk, or socialize. When someone rejects these norms, (we all reject some of those norms at some point or another) it creates a conflict with those who maintain the stereotypes (society).

Social Roles based on Gender

The acceptance of gender stereotypes leads to a set of acceptable roles. These characteristics become more consistent with age. As we get older, we then  determine what is gender appropriate and what is not. The acceptance of gender roles is more noticeable in two areas, home and work.  Psychologist Sandra Bem developed an inventory of gender characteristics. By reading some of those characteristics you can associate them to gender roles and specific areas (ie. at home or at work)

• Acts as a leader
• Aggressive
• Affectionate
• Compassionate
• Shy
• Strong personality

As you can see, we all associate the list mentioned above to a gender. From the moment we are born until the day we die, gender will influence who we are.

So how important is gender, ask yourself what is the first thing people ask about a newborn? Do you think there is any stereotype applied to newborns from the moment their sex is known?

What other stereotypes can you think of?

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Many of us would love to find out what people think of us. We have this image of ourselves and we want people to match that same view. Many of us attribute values and adjectives to our personality. We may think we are good people, loyal or friendly. The reality is that there is no way to tell what people think of us. What we know is who we are and what we want to be. As individuals we create these two domains, the “Real self” (who we are) and the “Ideal self” (what we want to be).

WHO AM I?

The real self is everything we have become. All our actions and beliefs are inside the real self domain. This is what people see you as and how they perceive you. The ideal self is what we aim to become. This domain is an intimate one and is not seen by others. For example, your ideal self wants to be a good person, so you behave by doing things that are aligned with that view. Such behaviors may include helping others or donating goods. The point is that you are acting in a way that you want to be seen. Your ideal self (being good) is congruent with your real self (acting like a good person). These two domains overlap; it brings pleasure and peace of mind to you.

In contrast, if your ideal self is to be a good person but you shoplift then the two domains are incongruent. The contradiction between being good and shoplifting(which is related to being bad) creates a level of mental stress or anxiety. This contradiction between the way you think and the way you act is called Cognitive Dissonance. The theory of cognitive dissonance suggests that we have a tendency to align our attitudes or beliefs between our real self and our ideal self.

CLASSIC STUDY

In a classic psychology experiment, Leon Festinger asks subjects to engage in a very boring task. The task was aimed to generate negative feelings about completing the task because it was so dull. After the task, the subjects were offered money to persuade other people to complete the task. Some people were offered $1 per referral and others were offered $20. After the referrals, Festinger asked the people to rate the initial task (the boring one). Who do you think rated the task more positively, the $1 group or the $20 group?

The $1 group rated the boring task more positively than the $20 group. Why you ask? Well, people in the $1 group had two contradictory beliefs. They referred people by telling them that the task was fun and interesting, while they thought it was the complete opposite. Because their reward of $1 was so little of an incentive, they had to internalize their actions with their beliefs; therefore aligning their real self with their ideal self.

WHAT I THINK OF ME

The concept of cognitive dissonance is better understood in terms of self image. When we think we are good people, we tend to seek information that justifies that statement. Anything that contradicts or threatens that statement, we tend to negate or rationalize. Think about it, have you ever bought something knowing that you do not need it? Buyer’s remorse is a perfect example of dissonance. When remorse kicks in, we seek reasons to justify why we needed it (rationalizing).

So if you want to know what people think of you, just ask yourself, “Am I the person who I think I am?”

Tell me what you think. Have you experienced dissonance in your life?

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Psychology has always been interested in how colors stimulate us. Colors have a ways of eliciting a psychological or physiological reaction from us. Every color has a different meaning and interaction with each of us. Today, we are focusing in the psychology of the color red.

Now, stop for a minute and think what things you have associated with the color red. We all have paired some meaning of the color with responses and feelings. For example, we see a red octagon and we think of a stop sign. Think of all the feelings we associate with red: love, warning or danger.

THE PSYCHOLOGY BEHIND THE COLOR

Our responses to colors are simple heuretics or mental shortcuts. These shortcuts allow us to process the information without spending too much mental energy. Alliot et al. (2007) stated that “from infancy onward, persons encounter both explicit and subtle pairings between colors and particular messages, concepts, and experiences in particular situations.”

In other words, we learn to think, react and behave a certain way when we see a specific color. For example, if you go to the market to buy fresh apples and as you are walking by the aisles you see a basket of apples.  As you approach, you notice something peculiar in the basket, all of the apples are blue!

How likely are you to eat a blue apple? The whole concept challenges our encoded information about apples.

THE DOUBLE MEANING OF COLOR

Psychologically, the associations with colors are diverse and at some times contradictory. While red can mean danger , it can also bring pleasure or sexual arousal. Just think of the “Scarlet Letter” by Nathaniel Hawthorne, Valentine’s Day, or red roses.

Elliot et al. (2008) stated that “red leads men to view women as more attractive and more sexually desirable. Red is hypothesized to serve as an aphrodisiac for men because it carries the meaning of sex and romance in the context of heterosexual interaction.” Based on the study, the color red invokes passion, lust and love.  Think of the term red lips.

Red also invokes action; just take a look at cars in the highway.  Red cars are one of the most popular among consumers and also thieves.

The meaning of colors also serves as a self-preservation tool.  Many insects and animals learn to avoid certain animals, fruits or flowers based on their color.  We learn to survive based on the meaning of colors.   Colors help us know if a fruit is ripe or spoiled.

What about you?  What does red mean to you?

References:

Alliot, A., Moller, A., Friedman, R., Maier, M., & Meinhardt, J. (2007, February). Color and Psychological Functioning: The Effect of Red on Performance Attainment. Journal of Experimental Psychology / General, 136(1), 154-168.

Elliot, A., & Niesta, D. (2008, November). Romantic Red: Red Enhances Men’s Attraction to Women. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 95(5), 1150-1164.

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Truth be told, those sayings are not accurate. Physical attractiveness is a major determinant in judging the liking of an individual. Psychological studies ( Sprecher & Duck, 1994; Collins & Zebrowitz, 1995) have found that people had a favorite opinion towards attractive individuals. The reality is that physical attractiveness is associated with positive affect, popularity and favorable treatment.

PROOF

Not convinced? Look at the justice system. A defendant’s likability is very important towards a favorable judgment. While common sense tells us that stereotypes and biases have no place in courthouses, the reality is that they do influence the outcome of cases (Dane, 1992). Many have supported the existence of disproportions in sentencing between attractive and non-attractive people. The business world is no different. Attractiveness has a direct relation to success in some jobs and definitely in some industries. Just look at your television shows, news anchors, and soap protagonists.

A good example of this bias is a study conducted by Pingitore et al. (1994). She recorded eight different simulated job interviews. There were three factors in each of the recordings: 1) nature of the job (sales or system - with a job where appearance is relevant), 2) Gender of the applicant and 3) weight of the applicant (normal weight or overweight). After watching one of the eight tapes, participants rated whether they would hire the person they just watched on the tape. What do you think the results were? Well, overweight applicants received a lower rate, especially females. What was interesting was that the nature of the job made no difference in the rating.

WHAT ABOUT US?

We all like to think that we do not experience such biases. The reality is that when you are looking for an individual that will have a direct impact in our life (e.g. partner, lover, doctor, etc) we prefer a YAVIS. The acronym YAVIS stands for Young, Attractive, Vocal, Intelligent, and Successful. This is part of our human nature. Since birth we have been exposed to this set of tendencies (that is why you’ve never seen a “Homeless Barbie” toy).

While we cannot change how people look, we can always change our views. It is important that we challenge our biases, and keep them in check.

Now, what do you think about these studies? Do you think Attractive people are more successful?

Join the discussion at Psychbits.com

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Emotions are constant in our daily life. Facial expressions are the primary medium to display emotions. They are part of our non-verbal communication and help us quickly identify the mood of a person. What is interesting is that with so many different faces we are able to recognize the same message. This encoded information (facial expressions) is a self-preservation mechanism.

Imagine that you are in a foreign land and you see an angry person staring at you. Chances are that you will not approach that person.

SIX MAIN EMOTIONS

Social psychologists have identified six emotions that are recognized across cultures. The six emotions are: Anger, Fear, Disgust, Happiness, Surprise and Sadness. All of these emotions cue us to react to situations prior to engagement. In everyday life, it helps us read the mood of our coworkers, peers, and friends. Facial expressions not only transcend cultures, but age as well. Facial expressions are so vital to us that even babies display them. We can see the same facial emotions in a baby.
You can also test this by mimicking any of the six emotions (Anger, Fear, Disgust, Happiness, Surprise and Sadness) and see the reaction of the people around you.

Facial expressions complement verbal communication. Have you ever felt confused when talking to someone and their face does not match the expressed emotion? It is like they are saying two different things. Ralph Emerson Waldo once said, “When the eyes say one thing, and the tongue another, a practiced man relies on the language of the first”. When their message is not congruent, we tend to challenge the validity of their message. The first thing in our mind is that the person is lying.

In addition to complementing verbal communication, facial expressions are vital to the American Sign Language or ASL. Sign language uses a combination of hand gestures and facial expressions to convey a message. In most instances the incongruent messages occurs if the gestures do not match the facial expression.

When you need to convey something important to someone, what do you prefer: saying it face to face or over the phone?

I prefer “face to face” because I like to see the reaction of people. Maybe it is a way for me to validate their message with their expression.

What about you, “Face to face” or “over the phone”? Are facial expressions important to you?

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