R4D Agriculture Documents

Responding to the Rain: a study of dynamic irrigation systems in southern Tanzania.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 16:48:00 GMT

Miscellaneous T. C. Beale 2004 A dissertation submitted to the School of Development Studies of the University of East Anglia by T.C.Beale in part-fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science, Environment and Development. 18 pp. This dissertation includes a literature review, and a report of a six week research project undertaken in the Mkoji sub-catchment (MSC) of the Rufiji river basin, Tanzania, to investigate physical and socio-economic impacts of water scarcity, and institutional and farm level responses to water scarcity and conflict. The research indicates that the dynamics of irrigation cannot be separated from issues of technology, class, livelihoods and politics. The dynamics of irrigation systems not only impacts on the area of irrigation from year to year, but makes non-equilibrium a defining feature of livelihood and coping strategies used to manage the economic consequences of water shortages for small farmers. The fluctuation is also linked to the consolidation of wealth, access to water resources and decreasing dependence on water among wealthier people, while poorer people are more vulnerable to water scarcity and the associated costs. Village-level institutions have an important role to play in water management, and are effective at conflict resolution at a village level, but operate within existing power structures.

The Challenges and Opportunities for Balancing Water Demands in Irrigated Agriculture and Wildlife Conservation: The Case of Usangu Basin in Tanzania.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 16:05:00 GMT

Miscellaneous Kadigi, R.M.J., Gamassa, D.M., Manongi, F.S., Malata, P.F., Masuruli, B.M. and Mwakamela, B.J. 2004 Paper submitted for the 1st Southern African Network for Training and Research on the Environment (SANTREN) Conference and Exhibition to be held in Gaborone, Botswana on 19-21 May 2004. [Abstract only] As in other parts of the world, water scarcity in Usangu basin is becoming rampant, largely attributed to increasing human population and over-abstraction of water resources by upstream irrigators. This has of recent caused serious water shortages downstream [including the fragile ecosystems in the Ruaha National Park (RNP)]. Tourism in the park has also suffered due to death of animals caused by the drying up of the Great Ruaha River (GRR). Consequently, the government of Tanzania has committed its support for a program to ensure that the GRR has a year-round flow by 2010. The program aims at integrated comprehensive approaches towards resource planning, development and management. In line with this program is the challenge of balancing irrigated agriculture in the manner that it produces more �crops per drop�, utilizes less water and releases adequate water for other intersectoral needs. This paper presents a trade-off analysis between irrigated agriculture and wildlife conservation in Usangu basin. It also explores the �opportunity windows� for balancing water demands between the two sectors. The findings in this paper show that irrigated paddy remains the most important economic activity in Usangu basin currently supplying about 14.4% of the national annual rice production. The same consumes about 576 Mm3 of irrigation water per annum, out of which 60% or 345.6 Mm3 is inter-regionally traded outside the basin as �virtual water.� The value of irrigation water in this activity is estimated at 0.18kg of paddy or Tsh 28.13 (US $ 0.027) per cubic meter. Improving its water use efficiency by 13 - 17% would release about 6 - 8 cumecs of water downstream to the RNP, which is considered adequate enough to maintain the minimum annual flow in the park. However, a number of actions need to be done. These include: raising awareness among water users, promoting good practices and mobilizing the energy and participation of the local communities in sustainable water resource management and wildlife conservation.

A Decision-Aid for resolving Environment-Agriculture Water Conflicts in the Great Ruaha River Basin, Tanzania.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 15:57:00 GMT

Miscellaneous Cour, J. G., Lankford, B.A., Kadigi, R.M.J., Kashaigili, J.J., Yawson, D.K., L�vite, H. and Mdemu, M.V. 2004 Paper submitted for the 1st Southern African Network for Training and Research on the Environment (SANTREN) Conference and Exhibition to be held in Gaborone, Botswana on 19-21 May 2004. [Abstract only] This paper discusses the current water management framework in the Great Ruaha River Basin, the need for having a river basin Decision-Aid (DA), and a description of the DA, which is currently being developed by the RIPARWIN project (Raising Irrigation Productivity And Releasing Water for Intersectoral Needs). The DA is designed with the involvement of key stakeholders in the basin and will help assessing, among other things, the hydrological and socio-economic impacts of different allocation decisions.

Relationships between rice irrigation, mosquito breeding, malaria, water losses and reduced rice yields: research from the Usangu plains, Tanzania.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 15:13:00 GMT

Miscellaneous M. Machibyaa,, M. Mdemua, S.D.Tumboa, B. A. Lankford, M.D. Kajokac and E. Mwandepa 2002 Paper presented at SIMA Special Seminar during the 3rd MIM Pan-African Malaria Conference, 17-23 November 2003, Arusha, Tanzania. 9 pp. This paper presents a case study in Usangu Sub-basin, Tanzania, investigating the relationships between irrigation water management, rice productivity, and malaria incidence. The information was gathered for two paddy growing seasons from two types of irrigation systems namely large/modern and smallholder irrigation systems. The number of days that water spent in the fields and their respective daily depths were recorded for each season. Further, the annual volumetric water use for different irrigation systems were monitored from three selected sample fields. The average rice yields were then computed from each trial field and the productivity of water in Kg of paddy per cubic metres of annual volumetric water use was worked out. On the other hand, malaria incidences were recorded for two different age groups in the area with their respective occurrence period. The relationship of malaria incidence and its pattern to peak activities in the fields were used to assess the loss in rice productivity. The result suggests that there is a significant contribution of high depth flooding technique (up to 25cm), to increased malaria incidences, water losses and low productivity of irrigated water in the study area. A loss of up to 8% in rice productivity was estimated to occur per single malaria attack in wet season. In addition the findings suggest that about 40% of the water could be saved from large irrigation systems through intermittent irrigation and an obvious reduction in malaria breeding and without necessary affecting the rice productivity.

Conjoining Rainfall and Irrigation Seasonality to Enhance Productivity of Water in Large Rice Irrigated Farms in the Upper Ruaha River Basin, Tanzania.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 14:21:00 GMT

Miscellaneous M. V. Mdemu, M. D. Magayane, B. Lankford, N. Hatibu, and R. M.J. Kadigi 2003 WaterNET/WARFSA Symposium Proceedings, 15-17 October 2003, Gaborone, Botswana, Paper 87: pp 97-101 Improving productivity of water in agriculture (more crop per drop) has been identified as an urgent global priority. However, there is lack of knowledge to inform the necessary strategies and actions for achieving this goal. A study was conducted to assess water utilization and productivity in one of the largest rice irrigation schemes in the Upper Ruaha River Basin. The water balance approach was applied to determine the components of water use and rice yield. Rainfall analysis was done for trends and variability in relation to the on-set, cessation and their likely contribution during the rice-growing season using data of ten years from the meteorological station in the study area. The gross water use was 2300mm per ha, of which 28% was used for wetting up the fields during land preparation. With an average effective rainfall of 500mm, irrigation requirement was estimated to be 1800mm and productivity of irrigation water was less than 0.3kg/m3. The findings from this study show that productivity of water can be improved relatively easily up to nine percent from the current levels if the transplanting season coincides with rainfall between the last decads of December and January, the period with sufficient and uniformly distributed rainfall. This conjunctive use of water leads to shorter season lengths and savings of water that can then be considered for allocation to other intra or intersectoral uses.

The Economics of Irrigated Paddy in Usangu Basin in Tanzania: Water Utilization, Productivity, Income and Livelihood Implications.

Mon, 6 Jul 2009 14:11:00 GMT

Miscellaneous Kadigi, R. M. J., Kashaigili, J. J., and Mdoe, N. 2003 WaterNET/WARFSA Symposium Proceedings, 15-17 October 2003, Gaborone, Botswana, Paper 74: pp 79-84 Globally, there is a general lack of consensus on how the available water resources can be allocated efficiently and equitably among its competing uses. In irrigated agriculture, this decodes to the central question of how this sector can be balanced in the manner that it produces more 'crops per drop,' using less water and releasing adequate water for use by other sectors while concurrently enhancing rural income and livelihoods. This requires that the values and costs of irrigated agriculture, at all levels, are well understood and appropriate interventions made. This paper presents an economic analysis of the value of irrigated paddy in Usangu Basin. It shows that if farmers in Usangu stop producing irrigated rice, annual rice supply will shrink by around 105,000 t, or about 14.4% of the total annual rice production in Tanzania, affecting the country's current account balance of payments by around US$15.9 million per annum, and either decreasing rice exports or increasing imports depending on supply and demand for rice.

Irrigation Intake Improvement Programmes: Review and further improvements?

Thu, 2 Jul 2009 15:14:00 GMT

Miscellaneous E. H. Masija 2003 Paper Presented at Ruaha+10 Seminar, 11 & 12 December 2003, Morogoro, Tanzania. 6 pp. This paper gives a historical perspective, and overview of more recent developments, of irrigation in the Ruaha Catchment of Tanzania.

Development of integrated aquaculture-agriculture systems for small-scale farmers in the forest margins of Cameroon. Final Technical Report.

Mon, 29 Jun 2009 12:11:00 GMT

Miscellaneous Brummett, R.E. ; Pouomogne, V. ; Gockowski, J. 2006 WorldFish Center, 34 pp. WorldFish Center (formerly ICLARM) aquaculture experts, IITA economists, IRAD researchers and MINEPIA technicians formed a Research-Extension Team (RET) to undertake action research on the importance of markets in driving aquaculture intensification. The primary objective was to understand the processes that create increased opportunities for small-scale farmers to improve their livelihoods while decreasing pressure on natural resources in the forest margins of Central Cameroon. In addition, the costs and benefits of participatory research and increased availability of cultured fish for urban markets were documented.

Over five years, seven cycles of participatory research were conducted between the RET and a group of 100 farmers from four typical central Cameroonian villages, selected over a range of market access and population density domains. To increase the range of collaborative interactions and expand project impacts beyond the target villages, a network of NGOs was created to disseminate information and a Research Committee was established to manage 32 ancillary research projects through a competitive grants facility.

The project sought to intervene as a development actor at a number of levels. In terms of policy, the project worked with local and international agencies to define, describe and institutionalise a Strategic Framework for Aquaculture Development. The model was first applied in Cameroon, but through collaboration with FAO is now being adapted to a number of other countries within the region.

At ground level, the RET worked directly with farmers and non-governmental organizations (NGO) to disseminate information and improve human resource capacity in terms of aquaculture technology and delivery mechanisms. A number of training courses were undertaken to reinforce basic aquaculture technology as well as develop new research and analytical tools for use by the national agricultural research system (NARS). An email information dissemination network was established among local aquaculture development agents and regional aquatic resource scientists and managers.

Over 40 reports, 11 technical bulletins and a number of radio, television and newspaper items were produced and disseminated locally, regionally and internationally through the primary scientific literature, popular media, trade journals, information networks and participation by project staff in 33 seminars/conferences.

The findings of the project were directed at several key corollaries of the Sustainable Livelihoods development paradigm and the utility of participatory research in engendering farming systems intensification:

Changes in Fish Production & Number of Fish Farmers: Productivity of small-scale aquaculture in the target areas increased over the project period from 498 kg/ha to 2525 kg/ha. The number of active fish farmers in the target areas increased from 40 to 137, among whom cash returns from aquaculture increased by 16 times. Farmers not directly participating in project activities also benefited such that 262 small-scale farmers with 870 ponds are currently producing 14.4 tons per annum (�30,000 wholesale ) for the Yaound� market. In addition, an average of 50 kg/family/9 months and 8 kg/family/9 months in periurban and rural areas, respectively, are consumed by the farm family.

Changes on Farm / Periurban Vs Rural: Farming systems diversification through the integration of aquaculture significantly increased the productivity, intensity of production and profitability of small-scale farms in periurban areas, but not in rural areas. Among farmers with good market access, net profits rose from cfa180,000 to cfa770,000 with increases in fish pond income from cfa49,000 up to cfa870,000 over the project period. The amount of fish retained for consumption by the farming family was higher in periurban areas (26% Vs 17% in rural areas) where freezers were available to store fish for later use.

Cost of FSRP: Provision of participatory research services to the original 50 rural farmers cost an average of �26,900 per year in salaries, equipment, vehicle operation/depreciation. In periurban areas where transportation was less expensive, costs averaged �7,140 per 50 farmers per year. Calculated on a per active farmer basis (within the target villages at the end of the study) the costs come to �317 and �130 per farmer per year, respectively for rural and periurban farmers. In terms of fish supplied to the market, FSRP support cost slightly more than the retail value of the fish produced, �170,000 Vs �140,000. Nearly 80% of these costs were incurred in providing services to rural farmers. If only existing periurban farms are targeted, �10,000 worth of technical support could produce revenues of at least �51,000 on sales of 26 tons of fish per annum.

In conclusion, this research has shown that the provision of high-quality technical advice to farmers with market access can have a strong positive impact on farm productivity and profitability among small and medium-scale farmers. In areas with good market access, these impacts are quickly translated into improved cash flow and household nutrition. In areas with little or no access to markets, the number of fishponds and fish farmers can be increased and pond productivity can be improved, increasing local food supplies. However, economic impacts are not clearly visible in the short -term. Comparison between response to RET intervention on periurban and rural farms shows that, if market access by rural producers can be improved, realistic cash incentives and thus improved cash flow and sectoral growth are likely. Following pilot trials under the project, an NGO-led effort to facilitate market access and the development of a sustainable rural fish marketing business plan is continuing with RET support.

Irrigation-based livelihood trends in river basins: theory and policy implications for irrigation development.

Mon, 29 Jun 2009 11:11:00 GMT

Miscellaneous B. Lankford 2003 Physics and Chemistry of the Earth (2003) 28 (20-27) 817-825 [doi: 10.1016/j.pce.2003.08.027] This paper examines irrigation development and policy in Tanzania utilising a livelihoods and river basin perspective. On the basis of observations, the author argues that river basins theoretically exhibit a sigmoid curve of irrigation development in three stages; proto-irrigation, irrigation-momentum and river basin management. This model arises from two governing factors. Firstly, irrigation is a complex livelihood activity that, although has benefits, also has costs, risks and alternatives that integrate across many systems; farmers implicitly understand this and enter into or keep out of irrigation accordingly. In the proto-irrigation stage, irrigators are less common, and irrigation is felt to be a relatively unattractive livelihood. In the irrigation-momentum stage, irrigators are drawn very much to irrigation in providing livelihood needs. Hence, given both of these circumstances, governments should be cautious about policies that call for the need to �provide irrigation� (when farmers may not wish to irrigate) or to further increase it (when farmers already have the means and will to do so). Second, irrigation consumes water, generating externalities. Thus if irrigation momentum proceeds to the point when water consumption directly impacts on other sectors and livelihoods, (e.g. pastoralists, downstream irrigation, the environment) decision-makers should focus not necessarily on irrigation expansion, but on water management, allocation and conflict mediation. This three-stage theoretical model reminds us to take a balanced �livelihoods river-basin� approach that addresses real problems in each given stage of river basin development and to develop policy accordingly. The paper contains a discussion on livelihood factors that affect entry into irrigation. It ends with a series of recommendations on policy; covering for example new large-scale systems; problems solving; and the use of an irrigation-river basin livelihoods approach. The recommendations here might be useful for governments and other implementing and donor agencies in Sub-Sahara Africa (where irrigation has greater potential than it currently enjoys) that are considering irrigation as policy instrument for improving rural livelihoods.

Resource-centred thinking in river basins; should we revoke the crop water requirement approach to irrigation planning?

Mon, 29 Jun 2009 10:56:00 GMT

Miscellaneous B. A. Lankford 2004 Agricultural Water Management (2004) 68 (1) 33-46 [doi: 10.1016/j.agwat.2004.03.001] The paper examines the method of using project irrigation requirements (PIR) in the design and rehabilitation of small-scale smallholder irrigation systems within multi-sector and dynamic river basins. This procedure, which employs equations that determine irrigation and crop water requirements, is found embedded in irrigation thinking and planning methodologies throughout the irrigation world. The paper argues that if the PIR equations are used formally and conventionally without sufficiently accounting for changing demands for water in semi-arid river basins, they can lead to irrigation designs that over-prioritise water for individual irrigation systems and as such be labelled �irrigation-centred�. Although other adjustments and attempts at re-allocating water might be undertaken, basin managers are often unable to recognise, accommodate or transcend the irrigation focus that this approach generates thus curtailing the efficacy of re-allocation efforts. This argument is made on the basis of observations in the Usangu Plains of Tanzania of farmer-originated irrigation and donor attempts at rehabilitation and modernisation. Features of a modified planning and design methodology are suggested, which considers irrigation alongside other water sectors, and focuses on the river basin rather than on the individual system; an alternative which, it is proposed, is more flexible and �water-resource-centred�. The implications of this dualism in approaches (irrigation-centred or resource-centred) for basin management, livelihoods, conflict mediation and formal irrigation rehabilitation projects are explored.