SamuraiWiki - Recent changes [en]

1641

2013-05-22T04:35:05Z

‎Other Events of 1641:

Kafu

2013-05-22T03:17:17Z

Tsuko Ichiran

2013-05-22T02:30:58Z

1872

2013-05-21T22:39:14Z

1873

2013-05-21T22:36:17Z

Hongwu Emperor

2013-05-21T18:03:53Z

‎Early Life:

Zhou Dynasty (disambiguation)

2013-05-21T05:41:17Z

Created page with "'''Zhou''' or '''Zhou Dynasty''' can refer to: *Zhou Dynasty (1027-481 BCE) *Northern Zhou (557-581), one of the Northern and Southern Dynasties *[[Zhou Dynasty (6..."

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'''Zhou''' or '''Zhou Dynasty''' can refer to:
*[[Zhou Dynasty]] (1027-481 BCE)
*[[Northern Zhou]] (557-581), one of the [[Northern and Southern Dynasties]]
*[[Zhou Dynasty (690-705)]], ruled by [[Empress Wu]]
*Great Zhou Dynasty, also known as Dazhou, of the ''[[wako|wakô]]'' leader [[Zheng Shicheng]] ([[1354]]-[[1367]])

{{disambig}}

Shandong province

2013-05-21T05:39:39Z

Zhou Dynasty

2013-05-21T05:36:17Z

Created page with "::For other states and dynasties called Zhou, see Zhou Dynasty (disambiguation).'' *''Dates: 1027-481 BCE'' The Zhou Dynasty, which followed the Xia Dynasty, was the ..."

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::For other states and dynasties called Zhou, see [[Zhou Dynasty (disambiguation)]].''
*''Dates: 1027-481 BCE''

The Zhou Dynasty, which followed the [[Xia Dynasty]], was the second of China's legendary dynasties. Though little historical evidence providing information about the dynasty survives, according to tradition, numerous customs, beliefs, and policies are said to have continued since the Zhou Dynasty.

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[[Category:Historical Periods]]

Hongwu Emperor

2013-05-19T23:52:19Z

Romance of the Three Kingdoms

2013-05-19T21:23:08Z

Created page with "*''Written: 14th century?'' *''Published: 1522'' *''Other Names'': 三国演義 ''(C: Sanguo yanyi / J: Sangoku engi)'' *''Chinese / Japanese'': 三国志 ''(Sanguozhi / S..."

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*''Written: 14th century?''
*''Published: [[1522]]''
*''Other Names'': 三国演義 ''(C: Sanguo yanyi / J: Sangoku engi)''
*''Chinese / Japanese'': 三国志 ''(Sanguozhi / Sangokushi)''

The Romance of the Three Kingdoms is among the earliest and most famous Chinese novels. It is attributed to a 14th century author, but was first published in [[1522]], being republished in twenty further editions before the end of the [[Ming Dynasty]].

The story concerns a series of famous figures who vied for power in the [[Three Kingdoms (China)|Three Kingdoms]] period of Chinese history which followed the fall of the [[Han Dynasty]] in [[220]].

The ''Romance'' gained wide popularity in Japan as well, being published in numerous editions, and referenced in countless other works in the [[Edo period]]; it remains present in the popular consciousness today, appearing in anime, manga, video games and the like.

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==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 392.

[[Category:Historical Documents]]
[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

Wang Yangming

2013-05-19T21:07:12Z

Created page with "*''Born: 1472'' *''Died: 1529'' Wang Yangming was the preeminent Confucian scholar of the Ming Dynasty. His teachings included the notion that babies are in p..."

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*''Born: [[1472]]''
*''Died: [[1529]]''

Wang Yangming was the preeminent [[Confucian]] scholar of the [[Ming Dynasty]]. His teachings included the notion that babies are in possession of full, innate knowledge, and that people drift away from this pure and true understanding as they grow older; Wang advocated, therefore, a freer mode of education, which stimulated and encouraged children's natural enthusiasm and creativity.

Despite his later brilliance, Wang is said to have not spoken his first words until the rather late age of six. His father was a prominent scholar who scored highest on the [[Chinese imperial examinations]] in the year he undertook them; Wang himself, by contrast, though he did quite well in school as a youth, only passed the exams on his third try.

Wang enjoyed an official position at Court for a time before being sentenced to flogging and exile after writing a memorial to the emperor defending two officials who had been imprisoned for suggesting the dismissal of certain [[eunuch]] officials. While in exile in southwest China, Wang's philosophy developed further. In contrast to the great [[Song Dynasty]] [[Neo-Confucian]] founder [[Zhu Xi]], who advocated examination of the external world, Wang now advocated inner contemplation. However, he also advocated experimentation and action in the real world; that is, he suggested that the only way to learn something was to try it in reality, in action, and not to merely read about it or think about it in the abstract.

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==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 391-92.

[[Category:Muromachi Period]]
[[Category:Scholars and Philosophers]]

1522

2013-05-19T21:03:36Z

‎Other Events of 1522:

1529

2013-05-19T20:50:56Z

‎Births and Deaths:

1472

2013-05-19T20:50:15Z

‎Other Events of 1472:

1571

2013-05-19T19:49:06Z

‎Other Events of 1571:

1573

2013-05-19T19:48:09Z

‎Other Events of 1573:

1517

2013-05-19T19:46:41Z

‎Other Events of 1517:

1550

2013-05-19T19:45:51Z

‎Other Events of 1550:

Battle of Tumu

2013-05-19T19:44:03Z

Created page with "*Ming Dynasty forces vs. Oirat Mongols *''Year: 1449'' *''Location: Tumu, a post-town six days march from Beijing''<ref>Or two hours drive today.</ref> The Ba..."

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*[[Ming Dynasty]] forces vs. Oirat [[Mongols]]
*''Year: [[1449]]''
*''Location: Tumu, a post-town six days march from [[Beijing]]''<ref>Or two hours drive today.</ref>

The Battle of Tumu was a [[1449]] confrontation between forces of the Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]] and those of the Oirats, a [[Mongol]] confederation under a man named Esen (d. [[1455]]).

As the Oirats gained strength, the [[Zhengtong Emperor]] was pressured by his [[eunuch]] military advisors to launch expeditions against them, even as his chief civil advisors advised against it. In 1449, finally, the Emperor led forces into the north, where they suffered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Mongols. It was on their journey back to [[Beijing]] that the events at Tumu took place.

Tumu was at that time a remote, desolate post-station. The retreating Ming troops arrived there as a heavy rain began to fall. Seeking a source of drinking water, they began to dig for wells, but were unsuccessful in the dry Chinese north. By the time they realized there was a river nearby, the river was controlled by Oirat forces. The Emperor ordered his chief eunuch to approach the Oirats with a surrender and request for peace, but the eunuch disobeyed and ordered an attack. The entire Ming army pressed forward for about a mile, guarding the Imperial palanquin at its center. They then found themselves surrounded on all sides by Mongol forces. The Mongols called out a demand that the Chinese soldiers drop their weapons and armor, and surrender. The soldiers instead charged at the Mongols, getting cut to pieces. The Mongols loosed countless arrows, killing even the Emperor's personal guard, but spared the Emperor, capturing him and taking him back to Mongolia.

==Aftermath==
A new emperor, the [[Jingtai Emperor]], took the throne in Zhengtong's absence, and took steps to suppress the eunuch factions at Court. The Mongols exacted little concessions from the Chinese after their great victory, but did lay siege unsuccessfully to Beijing, giving up on the siege after five days. The Zhengtong Emperor was freed in [[1450]] and permitted to return to Beijing, after which a succession dispute erupted between factions supporting him, and those supporting his younger brother, the Jingtai Emperor. The dispute continued for years, finally ending in [[1457]] with the Zhengtong Emperor regaining the throne, now under the title of the Tianshun Emperor.

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 385.
<references/>

[[Category:Battles]]
[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

1449

2013-05-19T19:26:32Z

‎Other Events of 1449: oops. spelling

1435

2013-05-19T19:23:01Z

Zheng He

2013-05-19T19:17:12Z

鄭 (Zheng)

2013-05-19T04:02:09Z

Created page with " '''鄭''' (Surname: Zheng) *Zheng Chenggong (Coxinga) - 鄭成功 *Zheng He - 鄭和 '''鄭''' (Surname: Tei) *Tei Gen'i - 鄭元偉 *Tei Heitetsu - ..."

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'''鄭''' (Surname: Zheng)
*[[Coxinga|Zheng Chenggong]] (Coxinga) - 鄭成功
*[[Zheng He]] - 鄭和

'''鄭''' (Surname: Tei)
*[[Tei Gen'i]] - 鄭元偉
*[[Tei Heitetsu]] - 鄭秉哲
*[[Tei Kakun]] - 鄭嘉訓
*[[Tei Koryo|Tei Kôryô]] - 鄭弘良
*[[Tei Kotoku|Tei Kôtoku]] - 鄭孝徳
*[[Tei Ryohitsu|Tei Ryôhitsu]] - 鄭良弼

[[Category:Kanji|てい]]

鄭

2013-05-19T03:56:50Z

create redirect

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#REDIRECT [[鄭 (Zheng)]]

Zheng He

2013-05-19T03:55:52Z

Zheng He

2013-05-19T03:46:10Z

Created page with "*''Born: 1371'' *''Died: 1433'' *''Voyages: 1405-1433'' *''Chinese'': 鄭和 ''(Zheng He)'' Zheng He was a Muslim eunuch in the service of the [..."

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*''Born: [[1371]]''
*''Died: [[1433]]''
*''Voyages: [[1405]]-1433''
*''Chinese'': [[鄭]]和 ''(Zheng He)''

Zheng He was a [[Islam|Muslim]] [[eunuch]] in the service of the [[Ming Dynasty]], and an admiral who led a famous fleet of [[treasure ships]] on a series of voyages across the Indian Ocean region from [[1405]]-[[1433]].

On these missions, he reached lands including parts of east Africa (e.g. modern-day Kenya or Tanzania), India, and the Persian Gulf region. Unlike the European transoceanic voyages of exploration which were to come less than a century later, Zheng He's voyages were not missions of conquest or colonization. Rather, these were missions seeking nominal ritual expressions of submission, and payment of [[tribute]]. According to the concept of the [[Sinocentric world order]] which underlay the [[tribute]] system, it was believed that the Chinese Emperor was the universal monarch, the source from which all civilization and virtue emanated, and that it was his responsibility to extend that civilization and virtue as far as he could, in order to bring civilization and virtue to the barbarians. Moreover, it was believed that the barbarians were meant to recognize the emperor as the source of virtue, to acknowledge their submission, and to pay tribute; this was an important part of the natural order of things, and was essential to the continued harmonious workings of the universe.

That said, there were political and economic reasons for the [[Yongle Emperor]] to dispatch these missions as well. Having killed his nephew and usurped the throne, he very much needed to make efforts to boost attitudes of his legitimacy and power at home, within the Chinese Court. Missions such as these, providing the emperor with exotic luxuries from distant lands, and oaths of submission from foreign leaders, helped to serve that purpose. Among these luxuries, furthermore, were exotic animals such as giraffes, which the emperor dubbed ''[[kirin|qilin]]'' (J: ''kirin''), in an attempt to claim himself to be a [[Sage King]], like the greatest emperors of old; legends told that during the reign of the most virtuous of the Sage Kings, legendary creatures such as the ''qilin'' would appear, along with other signs.

Some scholars have suggested additional possible motives for these missions. They were not economically profitable in a gross/net profit sense - the treasure ships, despite their size, were not bringing back tons and tons of rice, precious metals, or other commodities. But, some scholars have suggested, the missions may have been undertaken in part because of the need for luxury goods to furnish the soon-to-be-rebuilt Beijing. Some scholars have also suggested that Yongle may have been seeking his nephew, the [[Jianwen Emperor]], who may have escaped the attack on the palace which brought Yongle to the throne; this theory stipulates that Yongle may have sent Zheng He, in part, to find and kill Jianwen in order to secure Yongle's claims to the throne.

Zheng He died in [[1433]], and on account of the incredible expense, the Court put an end to any such voyages.

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 378-379.

[[Category:Muromachi Period]]
[[Category:Foreigners]]
[[Category:Other Historical Figures]]

Yongle Emperor

2013-05-19T03:24:38Z

Ming Dynasty

2013-05-19T03:24:34Z

Yongle Dadian

2013-05-19T03:11:49Z

Yongle Dadain

2013-05-19T02:56:32Z

LordAmeth moved page Yongle Dadain to Yongle Dadian spelling

Yongle Dadain

2013-05-19T02:56:15Z

spelling

Yongle Emperor

2013-05-19T02:28:58Z

Created page with "*''Died: 1424'' *''Reign: 1402-1424'' *''Other Names'': 朱棣 ''(Zhu Di)'' *''Chinese/Japanese'': 永楽帝 ''(Yongle-di / Eiraku-tei)'' The Yongle Emperor was t..."

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*''Died: [[1424]]''
*''Reign: [[1402]]-1424''
*''Other Names'': [[朱]]棣 ''(Zhu Di)''
*''Chinese/Japanese'': 永楽帝 ''(Yongle-di / Eiraku-tei)''

The Yongle Emperor was the third emperor of China's [[Ming Dynasty]]. His reign saw considerable developments in economics, foreign relations, and public works, including [[kango boeki|tally trade]] relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]] for a brief time, the first of the famous voyages of Admiral [[Zheng He]], and the last change of capital in the Imperial period.

Zhu Di was the fourth son of the Ming founder, the [[Hongwu Emperor]], and uncle to Hongwu's successor, the [[Jianwen Emperor]]. Following the death of Hongwu in [[1398]], and the ascension of Jianwen to the throne, Zhu Di sought to seize power for himself, succeeding in [[1402]] with an attack on the imperial palace at [[Nanjing]], which was set aflame. The Jianwen Emperor was believed killed in the fire, and his uncle, Zhu Di, then declared himself emperor, taking the reign name Yongle. Early in his reign, however, Yongle sent missions periodically to search for the Jianwen Emperor, who it was believed might have survived the attack and escaped; these missions were then, if they found him, to kill him, securing Yongle's claim to the throne. Some scholars have suggested that searching for Jianwen may have been a secondary or ulterior motive for Yongle's launching of [[Zheng He]]'s famous voyages across the entire Indian Ocean region.

Immediately after claiming the throne, Yongle officially named [[Beijing]] the new capital of the empire; ruling in Nanjing after having set fire to that palace was profoundly troublesome for his efforts to build a sense of legitimacy. He was not, however, able to actually relocate the Court and government to Beijing until [[1420]], after a major public works project repaired and reconstructed the [[Great Canal]]. For a time, Ming tax revenues had been shipped by sea, but ''[[wako|wakô]]'' ("Japanese" pirates) attacks were making this increasingly unsafe. Once the Imperial Court, along with the army and numerous associated individuals and families, relocated to Beijing, the city grew to become, quite likely, the largest city in the world.<ref>Hansen (p377) gives the figure of 2 million residents, but this seems difficult to believe, given that other sources indicate that Beijing and [[Edo]] were roughly tied for largest city in the world at roughly 1 to 1.5 million people in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, hundreds of years later. Yokohari, Makoto. "Agro-activities in the Fringe of Asian Mega-Cities." Institute of Policy and Planning Sciences, University of Tsukuba (2003), 1-2. Nicholas Fiévé and Paul Waley, ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo'', Psychology Press (2003), 100. Other sources, speaking of the early Ming, give the city's population as reaching 1 million at that time. Lillian M. Li, Alison Dray-Novey, and Haili Kong, ''Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City'', Macmillan (2008), 27.</ref>

The ''[[Yongle Dadian]]'', the largest encyclopedia ever compiled, was commissioned by the Yongle Emperor in [[1407]]; roughly 2,000 literati were involved in its production.

Yongle continued formal [[tribute]]/[[kango boeki|tally]] trade relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], established in [[1401]]-1402 under his predecessor, receiving ambassadors from [[Kyoto]] in [[1403]]; this 1403 mission marked the first time Japanese documents containing the phrases "your subject" and "King of Japan" were formally sent to a foreign court. This first initial phase of formal relations only lasted a few short years, however, as [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]], following the death of his father [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] in [[1408]], severed ties. The Yongle Emperor sent envoys to Shogun Yoshimochi several times, in [[1417]] and [[1419]], seeking to establish formal relations, but was rebuffed both times.

Still, the great number of coins minted during the Yongle reign which eventually flowed into Japan over the course of the 15th-16th centuries (and later) is attested by the continued use in Japan, as late as in the 19th century, of the character 「永」 - the ''Yong'' in ''Yongle tongbao'' (J: ''Eiraku tsûhô''), inscribed on the coins - to refer to copper coins in general.<ref>For example, an amount to be paid might be referenced or recorded in a document as 「永二〇〇文」 (''ei nihyaku mon''), meaning 200 ''[[currency|mon]]'', in copper.</ref>

The Yongle Emperor died in [[1424]], and was succeeded by the [[Hongxi Emperor]].

<center>
{| border="3" align="center"
|- align="center"
|width="35%"|Preceded by '''[[Jianwen Emperor]]'''
|width="25%"|'''Emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] [[1402]]-[[1424]]'''
|width="35%"|Succeeded by '''[[Hongxi Emperor]]'''
|}
</center>

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 376-?.
<references/>

[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

Jianwen Emperor

2013-05-19T01:33:36Z

1402

2013-05-19T01:31:06Z

‎Births and Deaths:

Jianwen Emperor

2013-05-19T01:18:40Z

Created page with "*''Died: 1402'' *''Reign: 1398-1402'' The Jianwen Emperor was the second emperor of China's Ming Dynasty. He succeeded his grandfather, the founder of the Min..."

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*''Died: [[1402]]''
*''Reign: [[1398]]-[[1402]]''

The Jianwen Emperor was the second emperor of China's [[Ming Dynasty]]. He succeeded his grandfather, the founder of the Ming, the [[Hongwu Emperor]], following Hongwu's death in [[1398]], but was overthrown and possibly killed by his uncle, Zhu Di, who then named himself the [[Yongle Emperor]] in [[1402]].

As a teenager, he was named Hongwu's successor following the death of the Crown Prince in [[1392]]. Jianwen then took the throne in 1398. His reign did not last long, however, as his uncle, Zhu Di, attacked the palace at [[Nanjing]], setting it aflame, in [[1402]]. Zhu Di then named himself emperor, taking the name Yongle and going on to become one of the more prominent and significant emperors of the entire dynasty.

Jianwen is believed to have died in the fire, but rumors circulated for some time after the attack that he might have survived and escaped. As a result, the Yongle Emperor periodically sent missions to seek out the Jianwen Emperor and have him killed; some scholars have suggested this as a partial or ulterior motive for Yongle dispatching the great admiral [[Zheng He]] to distant parts of the hemisphere in the early decades of the 15th century.

<center>
{| border="3" align="center"
|- align="center"
|width="35%"|Preceded by '''[[Hongwu Emperor]]'''
|width="25%"|'''Emperor of [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] [[1398]]-[[1402]]'''
|width="35%"|Succeeded by '''[[Yongle Emperor]]'''
|}
</center>

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 376.

[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

Hongwu Emperor

2013-05-19T01:10:45Z

Yuan Dynasty

2013-05-18T21:06:28Z

1384

2013-05-18T21:04:14Z

‎Other Events of 1384:

Emperor Gaozu of Han

2013-05-18T20:58:45Z

Created page with "*''Reign: 202 BCE - 165 BCE'' *''Other Names'': 劉邦 ''(Liu Bang)'' *''Chinese'': 高皇帝 ''(Gao huangdi)'' or 漢高祖 ''(Han Gaozu)'' Liu Bang, also known as Emperor G..."

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*''Reign: 202 BCE - 165 BCE''
*''Other Names'': 劉邦 ''(Liu Bang)''
*''Chinese'': 高皇帝 ''(Gao huangdi)'' or 漢高祖 ''(Han Gaozu)''

Liu Bang, also known as Emperor Gao, or Gaozu of Han, was the founder of China's [[Han Dynasty]].

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[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Yayoi Period]]

Ming Dynasty

2013-05-18T20:29:56Z

Created page with "*''Dates: 1368-1644'' *''Chinese/Japanese'': 明 ''(Ming / Min)'' The Ming Dynasty was the last Chinese dynasty to be ruled by a Han Chinese Imperial line. The dy..."

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*''Dates: [[1368]]-[[1644]]''
*''Chinese/Japanese'': 明 ''(Ming / Min)''

The Ming Dynasty was the last Chinese dynasty to be ruled by a [[Han Chinese]] Imperial line. The dynasty began with the [[1368]] overthrow of the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan Dynasty]] by Han Chinese rebels, and ended with the fall of [[Beijing]] to [[Manchu]] invaders in [[1644]], marking the beginning of the [[Qing Dynasty]], China's last imperial dynasty.

The Ming is known for numerous prominent cultural developments, including the voyages of [[Zheng He]], the development of ''[[kunqu]]'' drama, and the rise of [[literati painting]] (and concordant decline in appreciation for court painting), and the reconstruction of the [[Great Wall]] and [[Forbidden City]]. Much of the Ming elements of the Great Wall and Forbidden City survive today.

The Ming Dynasty was also the first to establish [[tribute]] relations with Japan (briefly, under the [[Ashikaga shogunate]]), and with the [[Ryukyu Kingdom|Ryûkyû Kingdom]]. Though the Ming, at times, implemented strict policies of [[hai jin|maritime restrictions]], in other ways, or at other times, it was also a high point of trade and foreign relations.

==Foreign Relations==
Having overthrown the Mongols, the first foreign (barbarian) group to conquer all of China, and who ruled for nearly a hundred years, the Ming have been described as perpetually paranoid about the Mongols. The Ming Court rebuilt and expanded the Great Wall of China, and in the 1410s-20s launched numerous military expeditions deep into Mongolia. The Dynasty remained at war with various Mongol groups on and off for two hundred years, with one Emperor being captured by the Mongols in [[1449]], and a Mongol army at one point in the mid-16th century making its way to the very walls of Beijing. It was not until [[1571]] that the Ming managed to establish an official peace with the Mongols; and, only a few decades later, a separate group, the Manchus, came knocking on China's door.

==The Fall of the Ming==
The Ming suffered their first defeat to the Manchus in [[1619]], and lost Beijing in 1644. Ming loyalists remained active in southern China and [[Taiwan]] into the 1680s, however, and the Ming continued to live on in the popular imagination throughout the region. Japanese popular publications continued to associate the Ming with the true Chinese rulers, or the true Chinese culture, down into the 19th century, and the royal courts & aristocracies of [[Joseon Dynasty|Korea]] and Ryûkyû considered themselves, in certain respects, the successors to the Ming tradition - the inheritors of the true Chinese civilization, as China proper had fallen to the "barbarians" (the Manchus).

<center>
{| border="3" align="center"
|- align="center"
|width="32%"|Preceded by: '''[[Yuan Dynasty]]'''
|width="35%"|'''Ming Dynasty''' [[1368]]-[[1644]]
|width="32%"|Succeeded by: '''[[Qing Dynasty]]'''
|}
</center>

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 369-407.

[[Category:Historical Periods]]

Hongwu Emperor

2013-05-18T20:29:21Z

Created page with "*''Died: 1398'' *''Reign: 1368-1398'' *''Other Names'': 明太祖 ''(Ming Taizu)'', 朱元璋 ''(Zhu Yuanzhang)'' *''Chinese/Japanese'': 洪武帝 ''(Hongwu-di / K..."

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*''Died: [[1398]]''
*''Reign: [[1368]]-1398''
*''Other Names'': 明太祖 ''(Ming Taizu)'', [[朱]]元璋 ''(Zhu Yuanzhang)''
*''Chinese/Japanese'': 洪武帝 ''(Hongwu-di / Koubu-tei)''

Zhu Yuanzhang was the first emperor of China's [[Ming Dynasty]], and the first dynastic founder to come from a genuinely humble, peasant, birth. Having led a successful rebellion to overthrow the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan Dynasty]] in [[1368]], he named himself the Hongwu Emperor, marking the beginning of a new dynasty, and came to be known as well as "Ming Taizu," or "Great Ancestor/Founder of Ming."

Zhu was born into a poor peasant family, and was the only one of his siblings (six in total) to not be adopted out of the family, or married into another family, at a young age. His parents died from an epidemic when he was sixteen. He later grew up to become a rebel leader, leading a successful uprising against the Mongol leaders of the Yuan Dynasty.

Perhaps because of his peasant origins, the Hongwu Emperor adhered to a conservative Confucian notion of the importance of agriculture as the foundation of the State and of the economy, disparaging the merchant class. In a reversal from earlier policies, he returned the taxation system to one based on agricultural production, reducing or eliminating commercial taxes, and, at times (in [[1370]] and [[1398]]), banning private overseas voyages entirely. In accordance with these conservative attitudes, the Hongwu Emperor also had tax rates frozen at a given rate, based on land surveys from the beginning of his reign. The country's agricultural production was prosperous enough to support the population, and the State, for a time, but the State's financial needs grew over the course of the Ming period, along with agricultural and commercial production, which the frozen tax rates failed to capture. Meanwhile, coin became for the first time widely available enough that the people shifted from paper money to an all-cash (metal currency) economy by 1450.

{{stub}}

==References==
*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 371.

[[Category:Emperors]]
[[Category:Muromachi Period]]

Yuan Dynasty

2013-05-18T19:48:25Z

‎Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty:

1449

2013-05-18T19:38:49Z

‎Other Events of 1449:

1370

2013-05-18T19:33:23Z

‎Other Events of 1370:

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 *First official records of Dutch commerce at Nagasaki (''[[fusetsugaki|fûsetsugaki]]'') are produced.
 *Monopoly privileges on silk under the ''[[itowappu]]'' system are extended to the Dutch East India Company.
 *A fire destroys the five-story pagoda at [[To-ji|Tô-ji]].
 *Women associated with the [[Yoshiwara]] are forbidden from leaving the quarter without special permission.

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 *''Other Names'': 系図 ''(J: keizu)''
-''Kafu'' were family registry records of the [[Ryukyuan aristocracy]] written in ''[[kanbun]]'', which included lineages and individual personal or career histories. The gentry were required to submit records of their lineages in [[1670]],<ref>[[Robert Sakai]], “The Ryukyu (Liu-ch’iu) Islands as a Fief of Satsuma,” in [[John K. Fairbank]], ''The Chinese World Order'', Harvard University Press (1968), 128.</ref> and an office known as the ''[[keizuza]]''<!--系図座--> was formally established within the government of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Kingdom of Ryûkyû]] in [[1689]] to create and maintain these records in a more formal and standardized manner; however, it is likely that ''kafu'' existed in some form before then.
+''Kafu'' were family registry records of the [[Ryukyuan aristocracy]] written in ''[[kanbun]]'', which included lineages and individual personal or career histories.
-Following the establishment of the ''keizuza'', records of each aristocratic lineage were systematically produced, with one copy being kept by the royal government, and one, stamped with the royal seal, kept by the family described in that record. With this system in place, an aristocrat could prove his lineage, and ancestral hometown.
+''Kafu'' likely existed in some form earlier, but the system was first formally put into place beginning in [[1670]], when [[Sho Shoken|Shô Shôken]] required members of the aristocracy to submit records of their lineages.<ref>[[Robert Sakai]], “The Ryukyu (Liu-ch’iu) Islands as a Fief of Satsuma,” in [[John K. Fairbank]], ''The Chinese World Order'', Harvard University Press (1968), 128.</ref>. In [[1689]], an office known as the ''[[keizuza]]''<!--系図座--> was formally established within the government of the [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Kingdom of Ryûkyû]] to create and maintain these records in a more formal and standardized manner.
 Today, these serve as valuable primary sources for historical research.
 ==References==
 *"[http://ryukyushimpo.jp/news/storyid-40947-storytopic-121.html Kafu]." Okinawa Compact Encyclopedia (沖縄コンパクト事典, ''Okinawa konpakuto jiten''). Ryukyu Shimpo. 1 March 2003. Accessed 6 October 2010.
 <references/>

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 *''Japanese:'' 通航一覧 ''(Tsuukou ichiran)''
-''Tsûkô ichiran'' is a compilation of documents related to the foreign relations of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. Compiled in [[1853]] by [[Hayashi Fukusai]] and others, it spans the period from [[1566]] to [[1825]]. Descriptions of Japan's relations are organized chronologically within sections divided by country, across 350 volumes.
+''Tsûkô ichiran'' is a compilation of documents related to the foreign relations of the [[Tokugawa shogunate]]. Compiled in [[1853]] by [[Hayashi Fukusai]], [[Miyazaki Seishin]], and twelve others associated with the [[Shoheizaka gakumonjo|Shôheizaka gakumonjo]], it spans the period from [[1566]] to [[1825]]. Descriptions of Japan's relations are organized chronologically within sections divided by country, across 350 volumes.
-The text was reprinted in moveable type and published in eight volumes, from 1912-1913, the 23 volume appendix on coastal defenses, ''Tsûkô ichiran zokushû'', being published as well.
+The text was reprinted in moveable type and published in eight volumes, from 1912-1913.
 ==References==
 *[http://ambitious.lib.hokudai.ac.jp/hoppodb/kyuki/doc/0A026750000000.html Description at Hokkaido University Library Website]
 [[Category:Historical Documents]]
 [[Category:Edo Period]]

@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 *1872/9/23-27 Soejima Taneomi meets with Charles DeLong and [[Charles LeGendre]] (legal and policy advisor to the Meiji government), and is advised that since the Chinese do not exert effective (''de facto'') control over certain sections of [[Taiwan]] - those dominated by aborigines - the territory is essentially ''terra nullius'', and if Japan were to occupy the territory, under Western/modern international law, it could be rightfully Japan's.
 *1872/10/14 Representatives of the Kingdom of Ryûkyû, led by Giwan Chôho, are informed in [[Tokyo]] of the annexation by Japan of the kingdom as [[Ryukyu han|Ryûkyû han]], and the "promotion" of King [[Sho Tai|Shô Tai]] to "Lord of Ryûkyû han" and a member of the [[kazoku|peerage]]. The envoys return to [[Okinawa]] and inform King Shô Tai of this development.
 ==Other Events of 1872==

@@ Line 2: / Line 2: @@
 ==Timeline of 1873==
 *1873/2/7 An edict is issued explaining that killing in the name of revenge is illegal and that only the government reserves the right to punish murderers (i.e. to exact justice).
 *1873/6 [[Foreign Minister]] [[Soejima Taneomi]] visits Beijing.
@@ Line 11: / Line 12: @@
 ==Other Events of 1873==
 *[[Ako castle|Akô castle]] is demolished.
 *[[Amagasaki castle]] is torn down.

@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 ==Early Life==
-Zhu was born into a poor peasant family, and was the only one of his siblings (six in total) to not be adopted out of the family, or married into another family, at a young age. His family was officially classed as "gold panners" under the Yuan system which required people to continue the occupations of their fathers; this despite the fact that there were no gold mines in that local area. Zhu's parents died from an epidemic when he was sixteen, and he became a monk for a time, begging for a living.
+Zhu was born into a poor peasant family, and was the only one of his siblings (six in total) to not be adopted out of the family, or married into another family, at a young age. His family was officially classed as "gold panners" under the Yuan system which required people to continue the occupations of their fathers; this despite the fact that there were no gold mines in that local area.
-He later grew up to become a rebel leader, leading a successful uprising against the Mongol leaders of the Yuan Dynasty.
+When he was sixteen, Zhu lost his entire family - with the exception of one brother - to the [[Black Death]], and had to scrape and beg to survive for a time. He had been promised to a monastery when he was a child, and in [[1345]]-[[1352]] joined that monastery, becoming an itinerant monk & beggar. It was during that time that he was first exposed to the philosophy of the bandit/rebel group known as the [[Red Turbans]]. He joined the Red Turbans, and married a daughter of one of the rebel leaders.
 ==Policies==

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 Shandong is a [[provinces of China|province]] in northeastern China, with its capital at Jinan. It is famous as the site of [[Taishan]] (Mt. Tai), one of the most sacred sites in [[Taoism]], and as the birthplace of both [[Confucius]] and [[Mencius]].
-Southern Shandong was long known for its endemic bandit problem, an association with spirit-possession and spiritual practices, and as a home of martial arts. As far back as the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (c. 1050-256 BCE), the State of [[Qi (state)|Qi]], based in Shandong, was known for its shamans and their powers of spirit-possession.
+Southern Shandong was long known for its endemic bandit problem, an association with spirit-possession and spiritual practices, and as a home of martial arts. As far back as the [[Zhou Dynasty]] (c. 1027-481 BCE), the State of [[Qi (state)|Qi]], based in Shandong, was known for its shamans and their powers of spirit-possession.
 The [[Red Eyebrows Uprising]] of [[18]]-[[27]] CE, as well as the [[Yellow Turbans Rebellion]] of [[184]]-[[205]] CE (during the [[Han Dynasty]]), the [[Huang Chao]] rebellion of the [[Tang Dynasty]], the [[Song Dynasty]] Bandit-Heroes of the famous story of the ''[[Water Margin]]'', and the [[Boxer Rebellion]] (c. [[1900]]) of the late [[Qing Dynasty]] were all based in Shandong.

@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 Zhu Yuanzhang was the first emperor of China's [[Ming Dynasty]], and the first dynastic founder to come from a genuinely humble, peasant, birth. Having led a successful rebellion to overthrow the [[Mongol]] [[Yuan Dynasty]] in [[1368]], he named himself the Hongwu Emperor, marking the beginning of a new dynasty, and came to be known as well as "Ming Taizu," or "Great Ancestor/Founder of Ming."
-Zhu was born into a poor peasant family, and was the only one of his siblings (six in total) to not be adopted out of the family, or married into another family, at a young age. His family was officially classed as "gold panners" under the Yuan system which required people to continue the occupations of their fathers; this despite the fact that there were no gold mines in that local area. Zhu's parents died from an epidemic when he was sixteen. He later grew up to become a rebel leader, leading a successful uprising against the Mongol leaders of the Yuan Dynasty.
+==Early Life==
 Perhaps because of his peasant origins, the Hongwu Emperor adhered to a conservative Confucian notion of the importance of agriculture as the foundation of the State and of the economy, disparaging the merchant class. In a reversal from earlier policies, he returned the taxation system to one based on agricultural production, reducing or eliminating commercial taxes, and, at times (in [[1370]] and [[1398]]), banning private overseas voyages entirely. In accordance with these conservative attitudes, the Hongwu Emperor also had tax rates frozen at a given rate, based on land surveys from the beginning of his reign. The country's agricultural production was prosperous enough to support the population, and the State, for a time, but the State's financial needs grew over the course of the Ming period, along with agricultural and commercial production, which the frozen tax rates failed to capture.
@@ Line 37: / Line 41: @@
 ==References==
 *Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 371-376.
 [[Category:Emperors]]
 [[Category:Muromachi Period]]

@@ Line 11: / Line 11: @@
 *[[Mori Motonari|Môri Motonari]] marries [[Myokyu|Myôkyû]], daughter of [[Kikkawa Kunitsune]].
 *[[Odani castle]] is built.
 *[[Unitora]]<!--鬼虎--> of [[Yonaguni]] is defeated by forces of the Ryûkyû Kingdom.

@@ Line 16: / Line 16: @@
 *[[Soma Moritane|Sôma Moritane]] is born (d. 1601).
 *[[Takeda Nobukado]], brother of [[Takeda Shingen]], is born (d. 1582).
 <center>

←Older revision		Revision as of 20:50, 19 May 2013
Line 6:		Line 6:
	*The [[Ming Dynasty\|Ming Court]] imposes limits on the size and frequency of [[Kingdom of Ryukyu\|Ryukyuan]] [[tribute]] missions.		*The [[Ming Dynasty\|Ming Court]] imposes limits on the size and frequency of [[Kingdom of Ryukyu\|Ryukyuan]] [[tribute]] missions.
	*[[Takeda Nobumasa]] defeats an allied group of [[Shinano province]] warlords.		*[[Takeda Nobumasa]] defeats an allied group of [[Shinano province]] warlords.
		+
		+	===Births and Deaths===
		+	*[[Wang Yangming]] is born (d. [[1529]]).

@@ Line 14: / Line 14: @@
 *[[Akechi Mitsuhide]] builds [[Sakamoto Castle]] at the foot of [[Mt. Hiei]], on the shores of [[Lake Biwa]].
 *Amami Ôshima submits to the authority of the Kingdom of Ryûkyû.
 *The [[Shimazu clan]] of [[Satsuma province]] launches a punitive expedition against [[Amami Oshima|Amami Ôshima]] in response to [[Kingdom of Ryukyu|Ryukyuan]] refusals to submit to Shimazu authority.
 *The [[Kanze school]] of [[Noh]] relocates to Tokugawa Ieyasu's headquarters of [[Hamamatsu]].

@@ Line 5: / Line 5: @@
 ==Other Events of 1573==
 *[[Oda Nobunaga]] drives [[Ashikaga Yoshiaki]] from [[Kyoto]], marking the end of the [[Ashikaga shogunate]].
 *A port near [[Pusan]] is reopened to Japanese ships.

@@ Line 8: / Line 8: @@
 *[[Ashina Morikiyo]] becomes head of the [[Ashina clan]].
 *[[Imagawa Ujichika]] withdraws troops from [[Kai province]].
-*Portuguese are denied permission to trade in China.
+*Portuguese arrive in China for the first time, and are denied permission to trade.
 ===Births and Deaths===

←Older revision		Revision as of 19:45, 19 May 2013
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	==Other Events of 1550==		==Other Events of 1550==
		+	*A [[Mongol]] band under [[Altan Khan]] steps around or between sections of the [[Great Wall of China]], and makes its way to the gates of [[Beijing]]. After issuing demands for access to Chinese markets, they leave peacefully, without attacking the city.
	*[[Shimazu Takahisa]] decides to no longer support [[Christianity]]. He expels [[Francis Xavier]] from his domain; Xavier relocates to [[Hirado]].		*[[Shimazu Takahisa]] decides to no longer support [[Christianity]]. He expels [[Francis Xavier]] from his domain; Xavier relocates to [[Hirado]].

@@ Line 6: / Line 6: @@
 *[[Ashikaga Yoshimasa]], who succeeded [[Ashikaga Yoshikatsu]] in [[1443]], is officially named [[shogun]].
 *[[Ashikaga Shigeuji]] becomes [[Kamakura Kubo|Kamakura Kubô]], with [[Uesugi Noritada]] as his deputy.
-*[[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] Emperor captured by [[Mongols]].
+*[[Battle of Tumu]] - [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] Emperor [[Zhengtong Emperor|Zhengtong]] is captured by [[Mongols]].
 *The [[Murakami clan (Chugoku)|Murakami clan]] and [[Kono clan|Kôno clans]] attack [[Sare castle]] in [[Iyo province]].

←Older revision		Revision as of 19:23, 19 May 2013
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	==Other Events of 1435==		==Other Events of 1435==
	*A [[kango boeki\|tally trade]] mission, consisting of six ships, and co-sponsored by the [[Yamana clan]], the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], [[Sokoku-ji\|Sôkoku-ji]], [[Sanjusangendo\|Sanjûsangendô]], and the [[Daijo-in\|Daijô-in]], arrives in China.		*A [[kango boeki\|tally trade]] mission, consisting of six ships, and co-sponsored by the [[Yamana clan]], the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], [[Sokoku-ji\|Sôkoku-ji]], [[Sanjusangendo\|Sanjûsangendô]], and the [[Daijo-in\|Daijô-in]], arrives in China.
		+
		+	===Births and Deaths===
		+	*The [[Xuande Emperor]] dies, and is succeeded by the eight-year-old [[Zhengtong Emperor]].

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 ==Treasure Ships==
-Zheng He headed a fleet of over three hundred ships, the largest of which were 120 meters long and 48 meters wide, by far the largest wooden sailing ships known to have ever sailed the seas. The largest caravels or galleons of the height of the European "Age of Sail" were a fraction of the size of these largest of the Ming treasure ships. The treasure ships, further, are said to have been equipped with incredible luxuries, including compartments filled with water so the crews could keep, raise, and enjoy fresh fish during their journey.
+Zheng He headed a fleet of over three hundred ships, the largest of which were 120 meters long and 48 meters wide, by far the largest wooden sailing ships known to have ever sailed the seas, and carrying a total of 2200 metric tons of goods and gear. The largest caravels or galleons of the height of the European "Age of Sail" were a fraction of the size of these largest of the Ming treasure ships. Each ship cost roughly 1,000 piculs (担, ''tan'') of rice, and are said to have been equipped with incredible luxuries, including compartments filled with fresh water, not only for drinking, but also so the crews could keep, raise, and enjoy fresh fish during their journey. Water-tight compartments allowed the ship to suffer some damage and still float, with repairs being able to be undertaken while still at sea.
-The fleet included as many as 28,000 men.
+The fleet navigated by the stars, and by use of the [[compass]], which Chinese seafarers had used since the ninth or tenth century; stern-post rudders, designed such that a single ship could adjust for shallower or deeper waters by simply changing out rudders of different sizes, had been used in China since the second or third century CE. A 10.8 meter long rudder post excavated near Nanjing is among the material evidence that these treasure ships were, likely, as large as the records indicate they were.
 ==Voyages==
-On these missions, he reached lands including parts of east Africa (e.g. modern-day Kenya or Tanzania), India, and the Persian Gulf region. Unlike the European transoceanic voyages of exploration which were to come less than a century later, Zheng He's voyages were not missions of conquest or colonization. Rather, these were missions seeking nominal ritual expressions of submission, and payment of [[tribute]]. According to the concept of the [[Sinocentric world order]] which underlay the [[tribute]] system, it was believed that the Chinese Emperor was the universal monarch, the source from which all civilization and virtue emanated, and that it was his responsibility to extend that civilization and virtue as far as he could, in order to bring civilization and virtue to the barbarians. Moreover, it was believed that the barbarians were meant to recognize the emperor as the source of virtue, to acknowledge their submission, and to pay tribute; this was an important part of the natural order of things, and was essential to the continued harmonious workings of the universe.
+On these missions, Zheng He and his men reached lands including parts of east Africa (e.g. modern-day Kenya or Tanzania), India, and the Persian Gulf region. Unlike the European transoceanic voyages of exploration which were to come less than a century later, Zheng He's voyages were not missions of conquest or colonization. Nor were they missions of exploration - Zheng's fleet carried a 6.3 meter long map of the Indian Ocean region, which included relatively accurate placenames, descriptions of the peoples of various locales, and a rough understanding of the shape of coastlines and rough distances, though the map was not drawn to scale.
-That said, there were political and economic reasons for the [[Yongle Emperor]] to dispatch these missions as well. Having killed his nephew and usurped the throne, he very much needed to make efforts to boost attitudes of his legitimacy and power at home, within the Chinese Court. Missions such as these, providing the emperor with exotic luxuries from distant lands, and oaths of submission from foreign leaders, helped to serve that purpose. Among these luxuries, furthermore, were exotic animals such as giraffes, which the emperor dubbed ''[[kirin|qilin]]'' (J: ''kirin''), in an attempt to claim himself to be a [[Sage King]], like the greatest emperors of old; legends told that during the reign of the most virtuous of the Sage Kings, legendary creatures such as the ''qilin'' would appear, along with other signs.
+That said, there were political and economic reasons for the [[Yongle Emperor]] to dispatch these missions as well. Having killed his nephew and usurped the throne, he very much needed to make efforts to boost attitudes of his legitimacy and power at home, within the Chinese Court. Missions such as these, providing the emperor with exotic luxuries from distant lands, and oaths of submission from foreign leaders, helped to serve that purpose. Among these luxuries, furthermore, were exotic animals such as giraffes, which the emperor dubbed ''[[kirin|qilin]]'' (J: ''kirin''), in an attempt to claim himself to be a [[Sage King]], like the greatest emperors of old; legends told that a ''qilin'' had not been seen since ancient times, but that, were a truly virtuous Sage King to ascend to the throne, legendary creatures such as the ''qilin'' would appear again, along with other signs. One such giraffe was obtained in [[1414]], in Bengal; the local ruler had obtained it as a gift from a ruler in Kenya, but was persuaded to give it, in turn, as his own gift to the Chinese Emperor. Zheng's missions also brought back ostriches, rhinoceroses, leopards and lions.
 Some scholars have suggested additional possible motives for these missions. They were not economically profitable in a gross/net profit sense - the treasure ships, despite their size, were not bringing back tons and tons of rice, precious metals, or other commodities. But, some scholars have suggested, the missions may have been undertaken in part because of the need for luxury goods to furnish the soon-to-be-rebuilt Beijing. Some scholars have also suggested that Yongle may have been seeking his nephew, the [[Jianwen Emperor]], who may have escaped the attack on the palace which brought Yongle to the throne; this theory stipulates that Yongle may have sent Zheng He, in part, to find and kill Jianwen in order to secure Yongle's claims to the throne.
-Zheng He died in [[1433]], and on account of the incredible expense, the Court put an end to any such voyages.
+The Yongle Emperor died in [[1424]], and missions of this sort were suspended for nearly ten years. Only one further mission, Zheng's seventh, took place, departing China in [[1433]]. Zheng He died within the year, and on account of the incredible expense, the Court put an end to any such voyages. A desire to curb the power and influence of the eunuch captains may have contributed to the desire to end the voyages. The ships were placed in dry dock, and eventually rotted; in [[1477]], much of the records of the voyages were destroyed.
 ==References==
-*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 378-379.
+*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 378-384.
 [[Category:Muromachi Period]]
 [[Category:Foreigners]]
 [[Category:Other Historical Figures]]

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 *''Chinese'': [[鄭]]和 ''(Zheng He)''
-Zheng He was a [[Islam|Muslim]] [[eunuch]] in the service of the [[Ming Dynasty]], and an admiral who led a famous fleet of [[treasure ships]] on a series of voyages across the Indian Ocean region from [[1405]]-[[1433]].
+Zheng He was a [[Islam|Muslim]] [[eunuch]] in the service of the [[Ming Dynasty]], and an admiral who led a famous fleet of so-called treasure ships on a series of voyages across the Indian Ocean region from [[1405]]-[[1433]].
 On these missions, he reached lands including parts of east Africa (e.g. modern-day Kenya or Tanzania), India, and the Persian Gulf region. Unlike the European transoceanic voyages of exploration which were to come less than a century later, Zheng He's voyages were not missions of conquest or colonization. Rather, these were missions seeking nominal ritual expressions of submission, and payment of [[tribute]]. According to the concept of the [[Sinocentric world order]] which underlay the [[tribute]] system, it was believed that the Chinese Emperor was the universal monarch, the source from which all civilization and virtue emanated, and that it was his responsibility to extend that civilization and virtue as far as he could, in order to bring civilization and virtue to the barbarians. Moreover, it was believed that the barbarians were meant to recognize the emperor as the source of virtue, to acknowledge their submission, and to pay tribute; this was an important part of the natural order of things, and was essential to the continued harmonious workings of the universe.

@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 Immediately after claiming the throne, Yongle officially named [[Beijing]] the new capital of the empire; ruling in Nanjing after having set fire to that palace was profoundly troublesome for his efforts to build a sense of legitimacy. He was not, however, able to actually relocate the Court and government to Beijing until [[1420]], after a major public works project repaired and reconstructed the [[Great Canal]]. For a time, Ming tax revenues had been shipped by sea, but ''[[wako|wakô]]'' ("Japanese" pirates) attacks were making this increasingly unsafe. Once the Imperial Court, along with the army and numerous associated individuals and families, relocated to Beijing, the city grew to become, quite likely, the largest city in the world.<ref>Hansen (p377) gives the figure of 2 million residents, but this seems difficult to believe, given that other sources indicate that Beijing and [[Edo]] were roughly tied for largest city in the world at roughly 1 to 1.5 million people in the mid-18th to early 19th centuries, hundreds of years later.<br>Yokohari, Makoto. "Agro-activities in the Fringe of Asian Mega-Cities." Institute of Policy and Planning Sciences, University of Tsukuba (2003), 1-2.<br>Nicholas Fiévé and Paul Waley, ''Japanese capitals in historical perspective: place, power and memory in Kyoto, Edo and Tokyo'', Psychology Press (2003), 100.<br>Other sources, speaking of the early Ming, give the city's population as reaching 1 million at that time. Lillian M. Li, Alison Dray-Novey, and Haili Kong, ''Beijing: From Imperial Capital to Olympic City'', Macmillan (2008), 27.</ref>
-The ''[[Yongle Dadian]]'', the largest encyclopedia ever compiled, was commissioned by the Yongle Emperor in [[1407]]; roughly 2,000 literati were involved in its production.
+The ''[[Yongle Dadian]]'', the largest encyclopedia ever compiled, was commissioned by the Yongle Emperor in [[1407]]; roughly 2,000 literati were involved in its production. He also commissioned, in [[1414]], the production of a definitive edition of the "Four Books" - the four classical texts identified by [[Zhu Xi]] as the core of the [[Neo-Confucian]] curriculum.
 Yongle continued formal [[tribute]]/[[kango boeki|tally]] trade relations with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], established in [[1401]]-1402 under his predecessor, receiving ambassadors from [[Kyoto]] in [[1403]]; this 1403 mission marked the first time Japanese documents containing the phrases "your subject" and "King of Japan" were formally sent to a foreign court. This first initial phase of formal relations only lasted a few short years, however, as [[Ashikaga Yoshimochi]], following the death of his father [[Ashikaga Yoshimitsu]] in [[1408]], severed ties. The Yongle Emperor sent envoys to Shogun Yoshimochi several times, in [[1417]] and [[1419]], seeking to establish formal relations, but was rebuffed both times.
 Still, the great number of coins minted during the Yongle reign which eventually flowed into Japan over the course of the 15th-16th centuries (and later) is attested by the continued use in Japan, as late as in the 19th century, of the character 「永」 - the ''Yong'' in ''Yongle tongbao'' (J: ''Eiraku tsûhô''), inscribed on the coins - to refer to copper coins in general.<ref>For example, an amount to be paid might be referenced or recorded in a document as 「永二〇〇文」 (''ei nihyaku mon''), meaning 200 ''[[currency|mon]]'', in copper.</ref>
 The Yongle Emperor died in [[1424]], and was succeeded by the [[Hongxi Emperor]].

@@ Line 9: / Line 9: @@
 ==Foreign Relations==
-Having overthrown the Mongols, the first foreign (barbarian) group to conquer all of China, and who ruled for nearly a hundred years, the Ming have been described as perpetually paranoid about the Mongols. The Ming Court rebuilt and expanded the Great Wall of China, and in the 1410s-20s launched numerous military expeditions deep into Mongolia. The Dynasty remained at war with various Mongol groups on and off for two hundred years, with one Emperor being captured by the Mongols in [[1449]], and a Mongol army at one point in the mid-16th century making its way to the very walls of Beijing. It was not until [[1571]] that the Ming managed to establish an official peace with the Mongols; and, only a few decades later, a separate group, the Manchus, came knocking on China's door.
+Having overthrown the Mongols, the first foreign (barbarian) group to conquer all of China, and who ruled for nearly a hundred years, the Ming have been described as perpetually paranoid about the Mongols. The Ming Court rebuilt and expanded the Great Wall of China, and in the 1410s-20s launched five military expeditions deep into Mongolia. The Dynasty remained at war with various Mongol groups on and off for two hundred years, with one Emperor being captured by the Mongols in [[1449]], and a Mongol army at one point in the mid-16th century making its way to the very walls of Beijing. It was not until [[1571]] that the Ming managed to establish an official peace with the Mongols; and, only a few decades later, a separate group, the Manchus, came knocking on China's door.
 ==The Fall of the Ming==

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 The ''Yongle Dadian'' is a Chinese encyclopedia compiled in [[1407]], and the largest encyclopedia ever written.
-It was commissioned by the [[Yongle Emperor]] in 1407, who commanded 2,000 [[literati]] to assemble it. The final product is divided into 22,877 chapters, and contains the complete canon of the [[Chinese Classics]].
+It was commissioned by the [[Yongle Emperor]] in 1407, who commanded 2,000 [[literati]] to assemble it. The final product was divided into 22,877 chapters, and contained the complete canon of the [[Chinese Classics]].
 {{stub}}
 ==References==
-*Plutschow, Herbert. ''A Reader in Edo Period Travel''. Kent: Global Oriental, 2006. p13.
+*Valerie Hansen, The Open Empire, New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 377.
 [[Category:Historical Documents]]
 [[Category:Muromachi Period]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 *''Compiled: [[1407]]''
-*''Chinese/Japanese'': 永楽大典 ''(yongle dadain / eiraku daiten)''
+*''Chinese/Japanese'': 永楽大典 ''(yongle dadian / eiraku daiten)''
-The ''Yongle Dadain'' is a Chinese encyclopedia compiled in [[1407]], and the largest encyclopedia ever written.
+The ''Yongle Dadian'' is a Chinese encyclopedia compiled in [[1407]], and the largest encyclopedia ever written.
 It was commissioned by the [[Yongle Emperor]] in 1407, who commanded 2,000 [[literati]] to assemble it. The final product is divided into 22,877 chapters, and contains the complete canon of the [[Chinese Classics]].

@@ Line 4: / Line 4: @@
 The Jianwen Emperor was the second emperor of China's [[Ming Dynasty]]. He succeeded his grandfather, the founder of the Ming, the [[Hongwu Emperor]], following Hongwu's death in [[1398]], but was overthrown and possibly killed by his uncle, Zhu Di, who then named himself the [[Yongle Emperor]] in [[1402]].
-As a teenager, he was named Hongwu's successor following the death of the Crown Prince in [[1392]]. Jianwen then took the throne in 1398. His reign did not last long, however, as his uncle, Zhu Di, attacked the palace at [[Nanjing]], setting it aflame, in [[1402]]. Zhu Di then named himself emperor, taking the name Yongle and going on to become one of the more prominent and significant emperors of the entire dynasty.
+As a teenager, he was named Hongwu's successor following the death of the Crown Prince in [[1392]]. Jianwen then took the throne in 1398. In [[1401]], he received a formal envoy from the [[Ashikaga shogunate]], sending a mission back to [[Kyoto]] the following year, officially naming the shogun "King of Japan," and thus becoming the first Chinese Emperor to enter into formal [[tribute]] trade / [[kango boeki|tally trade]] relations with Japan.
 Jianwen is believed to have died in the fire, but rumors circulated for some time after the attack that he might have survived and escaped. As a result, the Yongle Emperor periodically sent missions to seek out the Jianwen Emperor and have him killed; some scholars have suggested this as a partial or ulterior motive for Yongle dispatching the great admiral [[Zheng He]] to distant parts of the hemisphere in the early decades of the 15th century.

←Older revision		Revision as of 01:31, 19 May 2013
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	===Births and Deaths===		===Births and Deaths===
−	*The Jianwen Emperor is murdered by his uncle Zhu Di, who then takes the throne as the [[Yongle Emperor]].	+	*The [[Jianwen Emperor]] is murdered by his uncle Zhu Di, who then takes the throne as the [[Yongle Emperor]].

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 The [[Mongols|Mongol]] Yuan Dynasty was the first foreign dynasty to rule over all of China. Founded by [[Kubilai Khan]] in [[1271]], the Yuan took [[Hangzhou]] (the capital of the [[Southern Song Dynasty]]) in [[1276]], and had complete control of China by [[1279]]. The dynasty eventually fell to a peasant rebellion, the [[Han Chinese]] leader of which then established the [[Ming Dynasty]] in [[1368]].
-The Yuan Court established a new capital at Dadu; this marks the origins of the city that is later renamed [[Beijing]]. The Court maintained various elements of the nomadic Mongol traditions and identity, while also adopting many elements of Chinese culture and ways of doing things. A dual government on the [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]] model was put into place, in which both Mongol and Chinese modes of rule and administration were employed, governing the two separate populations.
+The Yuan Court established a new capital at Dadu; this marks the origins of the city that is later renamed [[Beijing]]. The Court maintained various elements of the nomadic Mongol traditions and identity, while also adopting many elements of Chinese culture and ways of doing things. A dual government on the [[Liao Dynasty|Liao]] model was put into place, in which both Mongol and Chinese modes of rule and administration were employed, governing the two separate populations. The government was headed by a chancellor, who was second in authority only to the Emperor, and who oversaw the Six Boards of government: the Boards of Rites, Revenue, Civil Appointments, War, Punishments, and Public Works. Towards the end of the dynasty, this chancellor came to exercise more ''de facto'' power than the emperor himself.
 A tiered system of social status was implemented based on ethnicity, with Mongols at the top, other nomadic peoples next, followed by Han Chinese from northern China, and then, on the bottom, Han Chinese from southern China, who comprised roughly 80 percent of the population of the Yuan Empire. Han Chinese throughout the empire were forbidden from riding horses, possessing firearms, speaking the Mongol language, or intermarrying with Mongols. Many Chinese scholar-officials retreated to the countryside, excluded from government service, and philosophically opposed to serving under barbarian invaders in any case. The [[Chinese imperial examinations|Confucian civil service exams]] were discontinued after the Mongol invasion, not being brought back into use until a generation later, in [[1315]].

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 ==Other Events of 1384==
 *Kurokawa castle, which will later be known as [[Aizu-Wakamatsu castle]], is constructed by the [[Ashina clan]].
 *[[Zeami]] becomes the second head of the [[Kanze school]] of [[Noh]].

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 A system of so-called tax farmers (local or regional intermediaries who collected taxes on behalf of the central government) was established, along with an extensive communication system based around a network of post-towns. Metal or wooden paiza tablets ("Mongol passports") were required for one to be permitted use of the inns, supplies, and horses at these post-towns.
 ==Emperors of the Yuan Dynasty==
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 |- align="center"
 |width="32%"|Preceded by:<br>'''[[Southern Song Dynasty]]'''
-|width="35%"|'''Song Dynasty'''<br> [[1271]]-[[1368]]
+|width="35%"|'''Yuan Dynasty'''<br> [[1271]]-[[1368]]
 |width="32%"|Succeeded by:<br>'''[[Ming Dynasty]]'''
 |}
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 ==References==
-*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 335-368.
+*Valerie Hansen, ''The Open Empire'', New York: W.W. Norton & Company (2000), 335-369.
 <references/>
 [[Category:Historical Periods]]

←Older revision		Revision as of 19:33, 18 May 2013
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	==Other Events of 1370==		==Other Events of 1370==
	*The [[Ming Dynasty]] sends a second envoy to the [[Southern Court]]'s ''[[Sei-sei shogun-fu\|Sei-sei shôgun-fu]]'' (Office for the Subjugation of the West). Unlike the violent treatment of the Ming envoys the previous year, this time [[Prince Kanenaga]] sends the envoys back with horses and other gifts, and roughly seventy Chinese men who had been captured by ''[[wako\|wakô]]'' and were in this way being freed and repatriated. This marks the beginning of relations between China and the Southern Court, though not with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]].		*The [[Ming Dynasty]] sends a second envoy to the [[Southern Court]]'s ''[[Sei-sei shogun-fu\|Sei-sei shôgun-fu]]'' (Office for the Subjugation of the West). Unlike the violent treatment of the Ming envoys the previous year, this time [[Prince Kanenaga]] sends the envoys back with horses and other gifts, and roughly seventy Chinese men who had been captured by ''[[wako\|wakô]]'' and were in this way being freed and repatriated. This marks the beginning of relations between China and the Southern Court, though not with the [[Ashikaga shogunate]].
		+	*The Ming Dynasty bans Chinese private sea travel.