geography and environment

2018-03-15T23:25:00.000+06:00

Basic Principles and Demographic Aspects: Concept of Sustainable Development, population dynamics, urbanization, environmental pollution, and health issues

The concept of Sustainable Development

Sustainable Development:

The future of our planet is a matter of great concern. Environmental issues have been part of human society from the beginning. Sustainable development has become a recognized goal for human society since the deterioration of environmental conditions in many parts of the world (Bossel, 1999).

The sustainable development of society refers to three major components of human existence: economical, ecological and human.

According to International Institute for Sustainable Development (SSID) "Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Sustainability can be defined as the practice of maintaining processes of productivity indefinitely—natural or human made—by replacing resources used with resources of equal or greater value without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems. (Wikipedia)

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it two key concepts:

Ø The concept of 'needs', in particular, the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and

Ø The idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs. (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987)

The importance of sustainable development

The use of renewable resources does not exceed their rate of regeneration with emphasis on preservation of natural resources. In this eco-centric approach, natural resources are assigned an intrinsic value, independently of their usefulness to human beings. It is a romantic vision that sees nature as an antidote to industrialized society.

The use of renewable resources cannot exceed the replacement rate. In this case the emphasis is on conservation of natural resources. This approach is deeply anthropocentric - nature has value to the extent that sustains life and human activity is prevalent even today.

The release of harmful substances shall not exceed the capacity of natural systems to absorb and compensate. In this case the general welfare of the ecosystem should be the first priority, and human aspirations and needs to be resized and re-evaluated by the fact that they are not a priority, but a small element among many other items.

Components of Sustainable Development:

Economic component:

Economic development desired to produce a maximum flow of income in terms of rational use, resource efficiency, particularly scarce resources. The main concern of economic development is related to how countries develop their economies. Rapid economic growth with obtaining maximum benefits creates a heavy burden on the ability of the planet to support. From the perspective of sustainable development, economic growth should be such that negative environmental impact is limited. Economic development must conceive that aims at accelerating economic growth, reducing inequality and poverty eradication. On the one hand, the economic dimension aims to ensure a balanced and sustainable economic environment by producing goods and services continuously to maintain manageable levels of government and external debt and avoid extreme sectoral imbalances affecting agriculture and production industrial, and in order to achieve needed training a competitive industry, diversification of industrial production and attracting investment. (Duran et al 2015)

Ecological component:

Ecological development is closely correlated growth and interrelation with environmental laws, the ecological balance. In other words, environmental development is the capacity to grow and to bring the environment and its peculiarities, while ensuring the protection and renewal of natural resources and environmental heritage. Environmental protection is considering physical and biological system stability, developing their capacity to adapt to change and less conservation status considered ideal (Bran, 1991). Economic growth should not affect the environment in order to talk about sustainable development. International organizations have proposed environmental policy, but there are a lot of people who do not like the actions targeting the environment, on the issue as a political commonplace.

Human component:

Human component aimed at socio-cultural stability, achieve fairness both at the same time a generation is concerned maintaining cultural diversity as the prevention or cure of diseases, reduce the lacking of job satisfaction, the end of the history of uncertainties about the nearer future etc. It is imperative to protect and improve the state of the environment that represents the possibility to create and maintain the welfare of both the present generation and those to come.

Minica and Frant (2008) synthesize the human aspect of sustainable development worldwide involves the following objectives:

v Promotion of education, training and public support for the environment

v Protecting and promoting human health (focused on access to medical facilities, especially in rural areas, control of infectious diseases, risks pollution and ecological risk).

v Fight against poverty (through access of the poor to sustainable livelihoods, promoting human development and integrated policy investment in human capital).

v Demographic threatening sustainable development (focusing on population growth, especially in developing countries).

Population Dynamics

A population is a group of individuals (all members of a single species) who live together in the same habitat and are likely to interbreed. Each population has a unique physical distribution in time and space. It may contain individuals of different ages and its size (density) is likely to change over time, growing or shrinking according to the reproductive success of its members.

Population Dynamics is the changes in the populations of organisms over time. Population ecology is the study of populations. Their size, density, distribution and changes over time. By doing this ecologists are able to gather data that can help them predict growth trends, health, manage sizes. The study of population dynamics focuses on these changes -- how, when, and why they occur.

Dynamic characteristics of populations

§ Population

§ Population size, Number of Individuals(N)

§ Density(N/Area)

§ Age Distribution

§ Dispersion

· Random

· Uniform

· Clumped

Urbanization

Urbanization is the process by which there is an increase in the proportion of people living in urban area. Accordingly, urbanization is very common in developing and developed worlds as more and more people have the tendency of moving closer to towns and cities to acquire “privileged” social and economic services as well as benefits. These include social and economic advantages such as better education, health care, sanitation, housing, business opportunities, and transportation.

§ Urbanization occurs because people move from rural areas (countryside) to urban areas (town and cities)

§ Amongst the first countries to become urbanized were Great Britain and some European countries

§ Their urbanization was relatively slow, allowing governments time to plan and provide for the needs of increasing urban populations.

The world is undergoing the largest wave of urban growth in history. More than half of the world’s population now lives in towns and cities, and by 2030 this number will swell to about 5 billion. Much of this urbanization will unfold in Africa and Asia, bringing huge social, economic and environmental transformations.

Urbanization has the potential to usher in a new era of well-being, resource efficiency and economic growth. But cities are also home to high concentrations of poverty. Nowhere is the rise of inequality clearer than in urban areas, where wealthy communities coexist alongside, and separate from, slums and informal settlements.

UNFPA works with partners in government, the UN system and civil society to advocate for the welfare and sustainability of rapidly urbanizing communities. UNFPA’s works includes ensuring people’s access to essential services, particularly sexual and reproductive health care, as they move to and live in urban areas.

Causes of Urbanization

Ø Industrial Revolution

Ø Industrialization following the Industrial Revolution

Ø Emergence of large manufacturing centers

Ø Job Opportunities

Ø Availability of easy transportation

Ø Migration

Ø Commercialization

Ø Social benefits and services

Ø Rural urban transformation

Ø Modernization and changes in the mode of living

Effects of Urbanization

Positive Effects:

Ø Cities act as beacons for the rural population because they represent a higher standard of living

Ø Benefits include reduced transport costs, exchange of ideas, and sharing of natural resources.

Ø Cities offer opportunities to people not available in the countryside

Ø Social & Religious taboos/ sanctions disappearing

Ø Education is a tool to eradicate social evils

Ø Industrialization, Urbanization, Education, Legislation, Secularization-sequence of development

Ø Diffusion of urban culture to rural areas

Negative Effects:

Ø Housing problems

Ø Overcrowding

Ø Unemployment

Ø Development of slums

Ø Water and sanitation problems

Ø Poor health and spread of diseases

Ø Traffic congestion

Ø Urban crime

Solutions of Urbanization

Ø Building sustainable and environmentally friendly cities

Ø Provision of essential services

Ø Creation of more jobs

Ø Population control

Environmental Pollution

The term Pollution can be defined as influence of any substance causing nuisance, harmful effects, and uneasiness to the organisms. Any substance causing Nuisance or harmful effects or uneasiness to the organisms, then that particular substance may be called as the Pollutant.

Environmental Pollution occurs when pollutants contaminate the surroundings; which brings about changes that affect our normal lifestyles adversely. Pollutants are the key elements or components of pollution which are generally waste materials of different forms. Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the balance in the environment. With modernization and development in our lives pollution has reached its peak; giving rise to global warming and human illness. Environmental pollution had been a fact of life for many centuries but it became a real problem since the start of the industrial revolution.

Renowned author Miguel A. Santos identifies at least three general characteristics of environmental pollutants:

· Pollutants don't recognize boundaries, i.e. they are transboundary;

· Many of them can't be degraded by living organisms and therefore stay in the ecosphere for many years; and

· They destroy biota and habitat.

Types of Environment Pollution:

Environmental Pollution occurs in different forms; air, water, soil, radioactive, noise, heat/ thermal and light. Every form of pollution has two sources of occurrence; the point and the non-point sources. The point sources are easy to identify, monitor and control, whereas the non-point sources are hard to control. Generally speaking, there are many types of environmental pollution but the most important ones are:

· Air pollution

· Water pollution

· Soil pollution (contamination)

Some of the most notable air pollutants are sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and airborne particles, with radioactive pollutants probably among the most destructive ones (specifically when produced by nuclear explosions).

Water pollutants include insecticides and herbicides, food processing waste, pollutants from livestock operations, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), heavy metals, chemical waste and others.

Some soil pollutants are: hydrocarbons, solvents and heavy metals.

Sources and Causes of Environmental Pollution

The sources and causes of environmental pollution includes the following:

Industrial activities: The industries all over the world that brought prosperity and affluence, made inroads in the biosphere and disturbed the ecological balances. The pall of smoke, the swirling gases, industrial effluents and the fall-out of scientific experiments became constant health hazards, polluting and contaminating both air and water. The improper disposals of industrial wastes are the sources of soil and water pollution. Chemical waste resulting from industry can pollute lakes, rivers and seas and soil too as well as releasing fumes.

Dumping solid waste: Household and commercial waste pollutes the environment when not disposed of properly.

Vehicles: The smoke emitted by vehicles using petrol and diesel and the cooking coal also pollutes the environment. The multiplication of vehicles, emitting black smoke that, being free and unfettered, spreads out and mixes with the air we breathe. The harmful smoke of these vehicles causes air pollution. Further, the sounds produced by these vehicles produce causes noise-pollution.

Rapid urbanization and industrialization: The urbanization and the rapid growth of industrialization are causing through environmental pollution the greatest harm to the plant life, which in turn causing harm to the animal kingdom and the human lives.

Population overgrowth: Due to the increase in population, particularly in developing countries, there has been surge in demand for basic food, occupation and shelter. The world has witnessed massive deforestation to expand absorb the growing population and their demands.

Combustion of fossil fuels: The combustion of fossil fuels pollutes the air, the soil and the water with noxious gases such as CO2 and CO.

Agricultural waste: Fertilizers and pesticides used in agriculture are key causes of environmental pollution.

Health Issue

A Health Issue is a health related matter that is of interest, importance or worry to someone, who may be the patient, patient's family or patient's health care provider .The "Health Issue" concept is often used interchangeably with "Condition" or "Issue"

Health issue is the level of functional and metabolic efficiency of a living organism. In humans it is the ability of individuals or communities to adapt and self-manage when facing physical, mental, psychological and social changes with environment. The World Health Organization (WHO) defined health in its broader sense in its 1948 constitution as "a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.

· A health issue may be identified from different perspectives:

- Patient

- Family member/career

- Providers (physician, surgeon, physical therapist, respiratory therapist, nutritionist, health educator, social worker, etc.)

Most Common Health Issues

Physical Activity and Nutrition

Research indicates that staying physically active can help prevent or delay certain diseases, including some cancers, heart disease and diabetes, and also relieve depression and improve mood. Inactivity often accompanies advancing age, but it doesn't have to. Check with your local churches or synagogues, senior centers, and shopping malls for exercise and walking programs. Like exercise, your eating habits are often not good if you live and eat alone. It's important for successful aging to eat foods rich in nutrients and avoid the empty calories in candy and sweets.

Overweight and Obesity

Being overweight or obese increases your chances of dying from hypertension, type 2 diabetes, coronary heart disease, stroke, gallbladder disease, osteoarthritis, sleep apnea, respiratory problems, dyslipidemia and endometrial, breast, prostate, and colon cancers. In-depth guides and practical advice about obesity are available from the National Heart Lung and Blood Institute of the National Institutes of Health.

Tobacco

Tobacco is the single greatest preventable cause of illness and premature death in the U.S. Tobacco use is now called "Tobacco dependence disease." The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) says that smokers who try to quit are more successful when they have the support of their physician.

Substance Abuse

Substance abuse usually means drugs and alcohol. These are two areas we don't often associate with seniors, but seniors, like young people, may self-medicate using legal and illegal drugs and alcohol, which can lead to serious health consequences. In addition, seniors may deliberately or unknowingly mix medications and use alcohol. Because of our stereotypes about senior citizens, many medical people fail to ask seniors about possible substance abuse.

HIV/AIDS

Between 11 and 15% of U.S. AIDS cases occur in seniors over age 50. Between 1991 and 1996, AIDS in adults over 50 rose more than twice as fast as in younger adults. Seniors are unlikely to use condoms, have immune systems that naturally weaken with age, and HIV symptoms (fatigue, weight loss, dementia, skin rashes, swollen lymph nodes) are similar to symptoms that can accompany old age. Again, stereotypes about aging in terms of sexual activity and drug use keep this problem largely unrecognized. That's why seniors are not well represented in research, clinical drug trials, prevention programs and efforts at intervention.

Mental Health

Dementia is not part of aging. Dementia can be caused by disease, reactions to medications, vision and hearing problems, infections, nutritional imbalances, diabetes, and renal failure. There are many forms of dementia (including Alzheimer's Disease) and some can be temporary. With accurate diagnosis comes management and help. The most common late-in-life mental health condition is depression. If left untreated, depression in the elderly can lead to suicide. Here's a surprising fact: The rate of suicide is higher for elderly white men than for any other age group, including adolescents.

Injury and Violence

Among seniors, falls are the leading cause of injuries, hospital admissions for trauma, and deaths due to injury. One in every three seniors (age 65 and older) will fall each year. Strategies to reduce injury include exercises to improve balance and strength and medication review. Home modifications can help reduce injury. Home security is needed to prevent intrusion. Home-based fire prevention devices should be in place and easy to use. People aged 65 and older are twice as likely to die in a home fire as the general population.

Environmental Quality

Even though pollution affects all of us, government studies have indicated that low-income, racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to live in areas where they face environmental risks. Compared to the general population, a higher proportion of elderly are living just over the poverty threshold.

Immunization

Influenza and pneumonia and are among the top 10 causes of death for older adults. Emphasis on Influenza vaccination for seniors has helped. Pneumonia remains one of the most serious infections, especially among women and the very old.

Access to Health Care

Seniors frequently don't monitor their health as seriously as they should. While a shortage of geriatricians has been noted nationwide, URMC has one of the largest groups of geriatricians and geriatric specialists of any medical community in the country. Your access to health care is as close as URMC, offering a menu of services at several hospital settings, including the VA Hospital in Canandaigua, in senior housing, and in your community.

Reference:

§ Bossel, H., (1999). Indicators for sustainable development: theory, method, applications. Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development.

§ Duran et al. (2015), The components of sustainable development - a possible approach , Procedia Economics and Finance 26 ( 2015 ) 806 – 81

§ Minica; M., Franţ, F., (2008). The dimensions of durable development. Annals of the University of Craiova Economic Science XXXVI7, 34323439.

§ Soloman, Maurice E. Population Dynamics. London: Edward Arnold, 1969.

§ Santos, M. A. (1990). Managing Planet Earth: Perspectives on Population, Ecology, and the Law. Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey, p. 44.

§ Ibid, pp. 44 – 45

§ http://www.bcb.uwc.ac.za/envfacts/facts/urbanisation.html

§ https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world face book/fields/2212.html

§ http://www.unfpa.org/urbanization

Fluvial Morphology

2016-12-04T21:34:00.000+06:00

Fig. Long profile of a river within a catchment, showing how fluvial processes change from headwaters to river outlet.

Fluvial Morphology: Definition, concept, scope, and importance

Introduction:

The history of mankind is always connected with the history of a river as well as fluvial geomorphology. Fluvial geomorphology is strictly the geomorphology of rivers. As rivers have always held a prominent role in the study of landforms, it is not surprising that debates about fluvial, as to whether rivers could produce their valleys, continued to rage early in the nineteenth century until uniformitarianism prevailed, whence temperate areas were seen as the result of rain and rivers.

Geomorphology:

Geomorphology is the scientific study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform history and dynamics, and to predict future changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments, and numerical modeling.

Fluvial:

Fluvial refers to the processes associated with rivers and streams. Fluvial and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glaciofluvial or fluvioglacial is used.

Fluvial Geomorphology

Fluvial geomorphology is the study of the form and function of streams and the interaction between streams and the landscape around them.

In addition, Fluvial Morphology is the study of landforms and the fluvial processes that shape them. Fluvial processes which are associated with flowing including sediment erosion, transport, and deposition.

“Fluvial geomorphology has as its object of study not only individual channels but also the entire drainage system.”

Kruska and Lamarra (1973) cited by Schumm (1977)

“A primary objective of fluvial geomorphology must be to contribute to an explanation of relationships among the physical properties of flow in mobile-bed channels, the mechanics of sediment transport driven by the flow, and the alluvial channel forms created by spatially differentiated sediment transport.”

Richards (1987)

“Geomorphology is the study of Earth surface forms and processes; fluvial phenomena those related to running water.”

Graf (1988)

“The science that seeks to investigate the complexity of behavior of river channels at a range of scales from cross sections to catchments; it also seeks to investigate the range of processes and responses over a very long time scale but usually within the most recent climatic cycle.”

Newson and Sear (1998),

Concept:

Fluvial Geomorphology considered is a most significant discipline in modern period for its’ The term “fluvial geomorphology” is combined with two words Fluvial and Geomorphology where Fluvial produced by a river; from Latin fluvius and from Greek, Geo - earth, morphs - form and -ology – science. So Geomorphology is the science dealing with the nature and origin of the earth's topographic features.

Fluvial geomorphology is a science devoted to understanding rivers, both in their natural setting as well as how they respond to human-induced changes in a watershed. One goal is to predict what changes will occur to a stream channel in response to alterations in watershed conditions; and, in turn, how these changes will impact human infrastructure and fish habitat.

The Bradshaw Model is a geographical model which describes how river's characteristics vary between the upper course and lower course of a river. It shows that discharge, occupied channel width, channel depth and average load quantity increases downstream. Load particle size, channel bed roughness, and gradient are all characteristics which decrease downstream.

Figure 1: Stream Morphology Monitoring Stations in the Credit River Watershed and their Status (2012).

The Scope of Fluvial Morphology:

The scope of a science may be defined as - extent or range of view, outlook, application, operation, effectiveness, etc.

Interestingly different scholars have described the scope of fluvial morphology differently. This is because they all define fluvial morphology in a different light. These definitions set the parameters for the nature of river landform studies by Geomorphologists.

In Present time, there are many portions of fluvial geomorphology for more transparency and analysis is used in the world. There are some fluvial geomorphologic objectives are given below-

1. Qualitative fluvial geomorphology: Here this subject discusses abut traditional Fluvial Geomorphology. Such as-

River system
Catchments area
Water flow flood management
River features
Flood control etc.

2. Quantitative Fluvial Geomorphology:

Water Technology
Water Quality treatment
Stream discharge
Changing nature of the river
Quantitative analysis of river depth, width, length etc.

Some particular scopes and objectives of Fluvial Geomorphology which are found in modern period are given below-

River channels and drainage basin
River Management System
The engineer sees the river
The Geomorphologist sees the river
Channel types
Floodplains and terraces
Bankfull flow
Types of river

River channels and drainage basin

A channel has two basic functions within a drainage basin. It must convey all of the— WATER, and SEDIMENT that the drainage basin delivers by the various runoff and hillslope processes. In order to accomplish these tasks, any channel must take on a particular form, by which we mean its width, depth, sinuosity, and distribution of such small-scale features as pools and bars.

River Management System:

Activities and processes, linked through economics and human actions—irrigation, navigation, etc are shown through the following figure.

Fig: River management.

River engineering:

Adjacent sets of isolated, independent processes and problems—bank erosion, flooding, etc…

Fig: River engineering.

River Channel system:

River Channel system is the most important object of fluvial geomorphology. Such as-

(1) The landscape is a system that produces and transports runoff and sediment.

(2) Channel network is like the veins of the landscape.

(3) Channels collect sediment produced on hill slopes and transport it to basin outlets.

(4) Channels influenced by sediment production, transport, routing, and storage processes.

Fig: River Channel system

Floodplains System:

To a Geomorphologist, a floodplain is a surface that has been built by a river channel under the current hydrologic and sediment logical regime. It is composed of alluvium, the sediment carried by the river. An alluvial channel is bounded by a floodplain; conversely, a channel formed within a true floodplain is by definition alluvial.

Fig: Floodplain system

Importance of Fluvial Morphology

Fluvial geomorphology is developing rapidly with the expansion of modern technology in present time. If this development process continues, this discipline will merely advance within few years. The importance of fluvial geomorphology is increasing day by day. There are about 72.5% areas of the world is water body and 65 - 70% elements of the human body are water. For this importance, all living things are directly depended on water as well as Fluvial geomorphology. So we can say that the future of fluvial geomorphology will be so much developed and highly speeded each area of the world. There are great possibilities to develop in future following things of fluvial geomorphology.

Fluvial morphology is particularly important to the hydraulic engineer as many of his greatest problems arise because of the form of streams brought about by the transportation and deposition of sediment by them. For the proper solution of these problems, a knowledge of the principles of fluvial morphology is often necessary. Among the problems in which fluvial morphology is a very important factor is many of those dealing with water resources development and include some of the most important river problems in the world. Examples of these are flood control on the Lower Mississippi and on the lower Colorado Rivers, the development of the hydraulic resources of the Missouri and Arkansas Rivers, the Yellow and Huai River flood problems in China, the Iiosi River floods in India. As stream s become more highly developed, and changes in sediment movement due to stream developments slowly become evident, the importance of the morphological aspect of river control problems will be increasingly appreciated.

One of the best contributions made by the geomorphologists to the science of fluvial morphology is the nomenclature which they have introduced.

As previously mentioned, the Geomorphologist is interested in fluvial morphology principally as a tool in explaining the origin of the present form of the surface of the earth. The science appears to be of comparatively recent origin. Although many able men contributed to its early development, the outstanding work is that of W. M. Davis. According to the Davis conception, the primary action in the formation of the earth by moving water is the geographical or geomorphic cycle which is a cycle of erosion passing through several stages.

Conclusion:

Geographic research on a broadened range of resource use and specific inquiry into the spatial and ecological linkages of various technologies appears to be required. The more important natural water is related to every step of our life. For this fluvial geomorphology considered a significant discipline in the modern period. A framework for assessing social desirability still needs devising but it could be hastened by careful assessment of that actually follows water resource development. Geographers freed from the traditional distraction between human and physical geography and with their sensibility towards the water, earth, and man, have in this both opportunity and challenge.

References:

Doyle, M.W., C.F. Rich, J.M. Harbor, and A. Spacie. 2000. Physical Geography 21: 155-181

Charlton, Ro (2008). Fundamentals of fluvial geomorphology. London: Rutledge. p. 234

Leopold, L.B., Wolman, M.G., Miller, J.P., 1964, Fluvial Processes in Geomorphology, San Francis

Thornberry, D.W., 1958, Principles of Geomorphology, London: John Wiley & sons Publications.

Lobeck, A. L.; 1939; Geomorphology; McGraw-Hill Book Company

Trimble, S.W. 1997. Science, 1442-1444.

§Fluvial Geomorphology (2012, December) retrieved from http://www.creditvalleyca.ca/watershed-science/watershed-monitoring/credit-river-watershed-health-report/chapter-7-fluvial-geomorphology/

FluvialGeomorphology http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/brh010/research/fluvial_geomorphology.html

http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/Webcourse-contents/IIT%20Kharagpur/Water%20Resource%20Engg/pdf/m2l08.pdf

http://www.csupomona.edu/~marshall/rs414/RS414_Readings/Miller_Kochel_09_Restor_Project_Assess.pdf

http://sgo.pccu.edu.tw/GEOG/CHI/D/D1/D1A/D1A/D1A-1/15B--Hydraulic%20geometry%20river%20sediment%20and%20the%20definition%20of%20bedrock%20channels.pdf

Social Norms and Social Values

2014-02-21T19:05:00.000+06:00

“Wash your hands before dinner.” “Thou shalt not kill.” “Respect your elders.” All societies have ways of encouraging and enforcing what they view as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what they consider to be inappropriate behavior. They also have a collective idea of what is good and desirable in life—or not.Two fundamental concepts within sociology are those of norms and values. They help to describe the framework of perceptions and ideas which influence an individual's or group's behaviour.

Social Norms

Every society has expectations about how its members should and should not behave. A norm is a guideline or an expectation for behavior. Each society makes up its own rules for behavior and decides when those rules have been violated and what to do about it. Norms change constantly.

Norms are the established standards of behavior maintained by a society. For a norm to become significant, it must be widely shared and understood. For example, in movie theaters in the United States, we typically expect that people will be quiet while the film is shown. Of course, the application of this norm can vary, depending on the particular film and type of audience. People who are viewing a serious artistic film will be more likely to insist on the norm of silence than those who are watching a slapstick comedy or horror movie.

Types of Norms

Sociologists speak of at least four types of norms: folkways, mores, taboos, and laws. Folkways, sometimes known as “conventions” or “customs,” are standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. For example, belching loudly after eating dinner at someone else's home breaks an American folkway. Mores are norms of morality. Breaking mores, like attending church in the nude, will offend most people of a culture. Certain behaviors are considered taboo, meaning a culture absolutely forbids them, like incest in U.S. culture. Finally, laws are a formal body of rules enacted by the state and backed by the power of the state. Virtually all taboos, like child abuse, are enacted into law, although not all mores are. For example, wearing a bikini to church may be offensive, but it is not against the law.

Social Values

Values are the ideas which define what is good, right or fair. They are held by individuals and groups and are a product of the culture they find themselves within. A person's values may be tied to their religious or political beliefs, influenced by their family, heritage and upbringing, or by their social environment. Specific to an individual, they differ from person to person. An example of which could be the level of altruism or selfishness they show to others.

A group's values are determined by the values of it's members. They define what is important to the group and can be demonstrated in those individuals a group chooses to praise or condemn. The brave fire fighter, the compassionate hospice nurse, the evil drug dealer or soulless murderer all show traits and behaviours regarded by the society as inherently good or evil.

Norms and values are closely linked, with norms outlining acceptable behaviour in a situation while values determine what should be considered good or bad.

Trade and Commerce

2013-11-20T02:40:00.001+06:00

Trade

Trade is the transfer of ownership of goods and services from one person or entity to another. Trade is sometimes loosely called commerce or financial transaction or barter .A network that allows trade is called a market.
The original form of trade was barter, the direct exchange of goods and services. Later one side of the barter were the metals, precious metals (poles, coins), bill, paper money Modern traders instead generally negotiate through a medium of exchange, such as money. As a result, buying can be separated from selling, or earning.
The invention of money (and later credit, paper money and non-physical money) greatly simplified and promoted trade. Trade between two traders is called bilateral trade,
while trade between more than two traders is called multilateral trade.

Principle and characteristics of trade

• Trade exists for man due to specialization and division of labor, most people concentrate on a small aspect of production, trading for other products. Trade exists between regions because different regions have a comparative advantage in the production of some tradable commodity, or because different regions' size allows for the benefits of mass production. As such, trade at market prices between locations benefits both locations. between locations benefits both locations.

• Retail trade consists of the sale of goods or merchandise from a very fixed location, such as a department store, boutique or kiosk, or by mail, in small or individual lots for direct consumption by the purchaser. Wholesale trade is defined as the sale of goods or
merchandise to retailers, to industrial, commercial, institutional, or other professional business users, or to other wholesalers and related subordinated services.

• Trading can also refer to the action performed by traders and other market agents in the financial markets.

Commerce

While business refers to the value-creating activities of an organization for profit, commerce means the whole system of an economy that constitutes an environment for business. The system includes legal, economic, political, social, cultural, and technological systems that
are in operation in any country . Thus, commerce is a are in operation in any country . Thus, commerce is a system or an environment that affects the business prospects of an economy or a nation-state. We can also define it as a second component of business which includes all activities, functions and institutions involved in transferring goods from producers to consumers.

Ancient Geography of India

2013-11-10T11:24:00.000+06:00

Ancient Geography of India

The first text in Greek devoted entirely to India was written by Ctesias in the fourth century BC. Only fragments of it survive. Yet he was probably the most widely quoted author on India, although Aristotletreated him with contempt. However, soon after Aristotle drew upon Ctesias’ writings, as did Plato,Xenophon and Plutarch. From all these account India became a happy land, a kind of utopia. Pliny (AD 24-79) put forth the age-old notion that India covered one-third of the surface of the earth. Indian kings from Father Tiber to Alexander had reigned 6451 years and three months.

Anaximander of Miletus, born in 610 BC, was the first Greek to draw a map of the earth. It was shown there that the earth was shaped like two half moons of land. The one on the north was Europe and the southern one consisted of Asia and Africa. Together these two half moons enclosed an inland sea – theMediterranean, truly meaning the middle (medi) of the land (terra). Herodotus drew upon such an authority of the past and put forth his idea of the inhabited world – oikoumene. His notion of the earth was an oblong one, running from west to east. This was divided into three continents – Europe, Asia and Libya. He inform in one place in his writings that the boundaries of Europe were unknown and there was not a man who could say whether any sea girdled it round either to the north or to the east. He thought the farthest settled land in this world reached out to the Persian province of Punjab. Aristotle added that between the Pillars of Hercules (modern Gibraltar) and India there was nothing but ocean.

World Map of Herodotus

This was the sum of knowledge when Alexander began his conquests from Macedon, the tiny kingdom in distant Greece. With all the details given by the advanced parties through marches before the great expedition began across Europe, Alexander believed India to be a peninsula of no great depth, which just jutted eastward to the sea, and which on its northern flank was bordered by the chain of mountains. North of this, at no great distance beyond the River Jaxartes was the ocean. To Alexander India meant the land of the Indus River. Whether that mighty river was the source of the Nile or whether it flowed into the ocean was beyond his interest. He must have questioned the local interpreters on arrival with his vast army on the other side of the Indus. Most of the local people did not even know the meaning of the term ocean.

Ptolemy (AD 90–168) was a Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet. His second book is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. In it he says that the true shape of India, the most striking feature of the land, is the acute angle formed by the meeting of the two coasts of the peninsula in a single coastline running almost straight from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga River.

Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang AD 602 – 664) was a famous Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator who described the interaction between China and India in the early Tang period. The same division of five provinces – Five Indies – continue in his description of the land he travelled. He packs together the shape of India to a half moon with the diameter or broad side to the north and the narrow end to the south. This is not unlike the configuration of India in Ptolemy’s Geography; yet much more accurate. In fact the Chinese pilgrim author brings in a touch of humour when he says rather wryly that the people’s faces are the same shape as the country – narrow downward and broad on the top.

source : encyclopedia

References

Alexander Cunningham. The Ancient Geography of India. Adamant Media Corporation, 2003.

Amazon

2013-11-08T19:55:00.002+06:00

Amazon

Definition

In Greek mythology, the Amazons were a race of warlike women noted for their courage and pride who lived at the outer limits of the known world, sometimes specifically mentioned as the city of Themiskyra on the Black Sea. Their queen was Hippolyta and although Homer tells us they were ‘the equal of men’, they fought and lost separate battles against three Greek heroes:Hercules, Theseus and Bellerophon. Scenes from these battles were popular in Greek art, especially on pottery and in monumental sculpture adorning some of the most important buildings in the Greek world.

In mythology, the Amazons were daughters of Ares, the god of war. They were a women-only society where men were welcomed only for breeding purposes and all male infants were killed. In legend, the Amazons burnt off their right breast in order to better use a bow and throw a spear, indeed, the word amazon may signify ‘breastless’. Interestingly though, Amazons are not depicted in Greek art with a missing breast. They are most often depicted wearing hoplite armour and frequently ride a horse. The most common weapon is the bow and spear but there are also examples where Amazons carry axes.

The first meeting between Greeks and Amazons was when Hercules was sent by Eurystheus, the king ofMycenae, Tiryns and Argos on one of his celebrated twelve labours, this time to fetch the girdle of the Amazon queen Hippolyta. The girdle was given by her father Ares and the task was set by Eurystheus precisely because it was an impossibly dangerous endeavour. In some versions of the story Hercules goes alone but in other accounts he first assembles an army led by the finest Greek warriors, including Theseus. In some versions, the taking of the girdle turned out to be rather easier than expected when Hippolyta willingly handed it over but in other versions, Hera - always against Hercules because he was the fruit of her husband’s illicit affair with Alkmene - stirred up the Amazons to give the Greek hero and his army a hot reception. Fine fighters though the Amazons were, they were no match for the invincible Hercules who took the girdle back to Eurystheus. Intriguingly, our earliest depictions of the story in pottery predate the literary sources for the tale by two centuries and they sometimes show Hercules fighting an Amazon named Andromache or Andromeda and in none is a belt ever depicted. This is, once again, evidence that the oral myths were more complicated and varied than the literary versions that have survived. A more definite plot element is that during this expedition Theseus fell in love with and abducted (or eloped with) the Amazon Antiope, an action which would lead to a second encounter between Greeks and Amazons.

Hercules fighting Amazons was represented in sculpture on the frieze of the Treasury of the Athenians atDelphi (490 BCE), on the Temple of Apollo at Bassae, on the Hephaisteion of Athens (449 BCE) and on metopes on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia (470-456 BCE). The throne of the cult statue of Zeus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world, was also decorated with scenes from this famous myth.

Theseus eventually became the ruler of Athens but the Amazons had not forgotten the loss of one of their members and so launched an expedition to rescue Antiope. Theseus defeated the barbarian invaders but during the battle, Antiope was killed. Theseus abducting Antiope is the subject of the pediment from the Temple of Apollo at Eretria (c. 510 BCE) and on the metopes of The Treasury of the Athenians at Delphi.

Bellerophon was involved in a third meeting between Greeks and Amazons. He was another hero who had to perform impossible tasks in service to a king. This time Proitos, king of Argos, outraged at (false) accusations from his wife that Bellerophon had attacked her, the king sent the hero to serve Iobates. It was he who set the hero the task of killing the Chimera - a fantastic creature which was a fire-breathing mix of lion, snake and goat - and when Bellerophon managed that feat he was told to go off and fight the Amazons. Naturally, the Greek hero won the day and was even made heir to Iobates’ kingdom in Lycia on his victorious return.

A fourth and final meeting with Amazons came towards the end of the Trojan War. In the Epic Cycle we are told that the Amazon Penthesilea aided the Trojans but was killed in battle by Achilles. In some accounts Achilles fell in love with his victim when he removed her helmet and the scene is captured on a celebrated black-figure vase by Exekias (c. 540 BCE).

More general Amazonomachies (battles with Amazons) were present on the shield of the cult statue ofAthena Parthenos in the Parthenon (438 BCE), on the west pediment of the Temple of Asklepios atEpidaurus (395-375 BCE), on the Temple of Athena Nike on the Athenian Acropolis (c. 425-420 BCE), on the Tholos of Delphi (380-370 BCE) and on the Temple of Ares in the Athens agora. The oldest depiction of a warrior fighting an Amazon is on a terracotta votive shield from 700 BCE. Hercules fighting Amazons is the hero’s second most popular labour depicted on Greek black-figure pottery (after the Nemean lion) with almost 400 surviving examples. Amazons fighting unnamed warriors were common throughout the 6th and 5th centuries both on black and red-figure pottery.

In particular, during the 5th century BCE in Athens, these mythological battles with Amazons came to represent contemporary events, i.e. the battles between Greeks and the invading Persian Armies of Darius at Marathon (490 BCE), Xerxes at Salamis and the Persian attack on Athens itself in 480 BCE. In this sense, Amazons came to represent barbarous foreigners; indeed depictions of Amazons on pottery in this period are shown actually dressed in Persian costume. Public buildings and their accompanying sculpture were, without doubt, an important method of mass communication and depictions of heroes fighting Amazons reminded ordinary people that the political leaders had successfully defended Greek culture against the threat of foreign, and in Greek eyes less civilized, invaders.

source

Observation : Advantages and Disadvantages

2013-11-06T21:39:00.000+06:00

What is observation?

Observation is way of gathering data by watching behavior, events, or noting physical characteristics in their natural setting. Observations can be overt (everyone knows they are being observed) or covert (no one knows they are being observed and the observer is concealed). The benefit of covert observation is that people are more likely to behave naturally if they do not know they are being observed. However, you will typically need to conduct overt observations because of ethical problems related to concealing your observation.

Observations can also be either direct or indirect. Direct observation is when you watch interactions, processes, or behaviors as they occur; for example, observing a teacher teachinga lesson from a written curriculum to determine whether they are delivering it with fidelity. Indirect observations are when you watch the results of interactions, processes, or behaviors; for example, measuring the amount of plate waste left by students in a school cafeteria to determine whether a new food is acceptable to them.

What are the advantages of observation?

>> Collect data where and when an event or activity

is occurring.
>> Does not rely on people’s willingness or ability
to provide information.
>> Allows you to directly see what people do rather
than relying on what people say they did.

What are the disadvantages of observation?

>> Susceptible to observer bias.
>> Susceptible to the “hawthorne effect,” that is,
people usually perform better when they know
they are being observed, although indirect
observation may decrease this problem.
>> Can be expensive and time-consuming compared
to other data collection methods.
>> Does not increase your understanding of why
people behave as they do.

Solar System

2013-11-05T19:45:00.002+06:00

Solar System

The Solar System comprises the Sun and its planetary system of eight planets, their moons, and other non-stellar objects. It formed 4.6 billion years ago from the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud. The vast majority of the system's mass is in the Sun, with most of the remaining mass contained in Jupiter. The four smaller inner planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars, also called the terrestrial planets, are primarily composed of rock and metal. The four outer planets, called the gas giants, are substantially more massive than the terrestrials. The two largest, Jupiter and Saturn, are composed mainly of hydrogen and helium; the two outermost planets, Uranus and Neptune, are composed largely of substances with relatively high melting points (compared with hydrogen and helium), called ices, such as water, ammonia and methane, and are often referred to separately as "ice giants". All planets have almost circular orbits that lie within a nearly flat disc called the ecliptic plane.

The Solar System also contains a number of regions populated by smaller objects.The asteroid belt, which lies between Mars and Jupiter, is similar to the terrestrial planets as it mostly contains objects composed of rock and metal. Beyond Neptune's orbit lie the Kuiper belt and scattered disc, linked populations of trans-Neptunian objects composed mostly of ices. Within these populations are several dozen to more than ten thousand objects that may be large enough to have been rounded by their own gravity. Such objects are referred to as dwarf planets. Identified dwarf planets include the asteroid Ceres and the trans-Neptunian objects Pluto, Eris , Haumea, and Makemake. In addition to these two regions, various other small-body populations includingcomets, centaurs and interplanetary dust freely travel between regions. Six of the planets, at least three of the dwarf planets, and many of the smaller bodies are orbited by natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon. Each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other small objects.

The solar wind, a flow of plasma from the Sun, creates a bubble in the interstellar medium known as the heliosphere, which extends out to the edge of the scattered disc. The Oort cloud, which is believed to be the source for long-period comets, may also exist at a distance roughly a thousand times further than the heliosphere. The heliopause is the point at which pressure from the solar wind is equal to the opposing pressure of interstellar wind. The Solar System is located within one of the outer arms of the Milky Way galaxy, which contains about 200 billion stars.

source : wikipedia

Ecosystem : Meaning and Definition

2013-11-04T12:08:00.002+06:00

Ecosystem

The term ecosystem was first used by A. G. Tansley in 1935 who defined ecosystem as 'a particular category of physical systems, consisting of organisms and inorganic components in a relatively stable equilibrium, open and of various sizes and kinds'.
An Ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water, mineral soil), interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific limited spaces (although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem)-From http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

According to Tansley the ecosystem is comprised of two major parts viz. biome and habitat and thus 'all parts of such an ecosystem-organic and inorganic, biome and habitat may be regarded as interacting factors which, in a mature ecosystem, are in approximate equilibrium, it is through their interactions that the whole system is maintained'- (A. G. Tansley, 1935)
F. R. Fosberg (1963) has defined ecosystem as 'a functioning, interacting system composed of one or more living organisms and their effective environment, both physical and biological'.
According to R. L. Lindeman (1942) the term ecosystem applies to 'any system composed of physical-chemical-biological processes, within a space-time unit of any magnitude'.
According to A. N. Strahler and A. H. Strahler (1976), 'the total assemblage of components interacting with group of organisms is known as ecological system or more simply, an ecosystem. Ecosystems have inputs of matter and energy, used to build biological structure, to produce and to maintain necessary internal energy levels. matter and energy are also exported from an ecosystem. an ecosystem tends to achieve a balance of the various processes and activities within it'.

Based on the contents of above definitions of ecosystem provided by various scientists it may be pointed out that ' ecosystems are therefore unities of organisms connected to one another and to their environment'.

Reference:

S. Singh, Environmental Geography

See what is Ecology

Ecology : Meaning and Definitions

2013-11-03T21:07:00.000+06:00

Ecology meaning

Ecology in a very simple term. The word ‘ecology’ (‘oecology’ or ‘oekology’) derived from two greek words, ‘oikos’ meaning house or dwelling as habitat and ‘logos’ meaning the study of.

Ecology definitions

The term ‘ecology’ was first coined and used by the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel in 1869, a few conceptual terms were already proposed to reveal relationships between organisms and their environment. ecology is a science that studies the interdependent, mutually reactive and interconnected relationships between the organisms and their physical environment on the one hand and among the organisms on the other hands.

For Example, French zoologist, Isodore geoffroy St. Hilaire used the term ecology in 1859, for the study of the relations of the organisms within the family and society in the aggregate and in the community.

It may be summarized that : ecology is a science that studies interrelationships between biotic and abiotic components of a natural ecosystem of one hand and among organisms on the other hand.

Reference:

S. Singh, Environmental Geography

Dulhazra Safari Park( Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Safari Park) - Bangladesh

2013-11-02T23:44:00.001+06:00

Dulahazra Safari Park

Figure : Map of Dulahazra Safari Park

Location: Chakaria, Dulahazra Union,Cox’s Bazar

Climate: The climate is subtropical in nature. The average annual rainfall is 3599 mm, hottest month is October, coldest month is January, driest month is December, wettest month is July, average maximum temperature is 34.20C and average minimum temperature is 15.60C .

How to get there

It takes 2.5 hours from Chittagong.

From Cox’s Bazar you can reach Chakaria by Bus/ Microbus or Chander Gari ( One kind of Jeep).

Where to stay

After visiting this park you have to come back to Cox’s Bazar.There are many hotels and restaurant you can find in Cox’s Bazar to stay and fooding.

Entry Permits/Fees

Adults: BDT 20

Students(Below 15 years): BDT 10

Student group( 30 to 100 persons): BDT 200

Student group( More than 100 persons): BDT 400

Foreigner : BDT 350/ USD 5

Visit by safari bus : BDT 20

Parking fee:

Bus: BDT 100

Car/Microbus: BDT 50

Opening time

9.00 AM

Closing time

5.00 PM

Figure 2 :We are in safari park (GES 1st year field work team)

Bangladesh is a diverse country that attracts thousands of visitors each year. Tourists flock to the country to experience its unique culture, meet its friendly locals and enjoy the magnificence of the country’s wildlife. Many reserves and conservation projects have been established in Bangladesh to protect its rare wildlife and bird populations, and one such breathtaking eco-tourism initiative is the Dulahazra Safari Park.

Dulahazara Safari Park was established in 1996.This is the only safari park in Bangladesh, situated 107 km south of Chittagong City under Chakaria Upazila of Cox’sBazar District. Dulahazra Safari Park was developed on an undulating landscape of around 2,224 acres of area at Chakaria Upazila in Cox's Bazar District, Bangladesh, some 50 km away from the cox'sbazar, with an objective to create facilities for Eco-tourism, research work and entertainment aside from conserving wild animals in a natural environment. Dulahazra Park is home to at least 4,000 animals of 165 species. There are several attractions inside the park. After entering the park, you'll find the orchid collections at right, and a museum at the left side, both are equally attractive. You can travel inside the park by transport system of the park or by feet. Attractive animals include Lions, Bengal Tigers, Crocodiles, Bears, Chitals and lots of different types of birds and monkeys. There has a watch tower from top of which you’ll enjoy the vast ocean of green plants.

Many individuals also 'donated' some of the animals to the park . The seized and donated animals recently sent to the park include 90 spotted deer (chital), 42 barking deer (maya, a species of muntjac deer), three sambar deer, one freshwater crocodile, one saltwater crocodile, nine black bear, four pythons, 17 peacocks, 19 Turkish pheasants and two emus. Other source of animal includes the Dhaka Zoo. While the animal population in Dhaka zoo has increased over the years due to their breeding, the Dhaka zoo donates a number of lions and tigers to the Dulhazra Safari Park. Visitor Attractions: The park itself protects a large number of wild elephants which are native to the area. In the safari park there are domesticated elephants which are available for a ride. Other animal attractions include lions, Bengal tigers, Crocodiles, Bears, Chitals and lots of different types of birds and monkeys. Since the park was made open to the public, it has been drawing a huge crowd all year round — 6,000 visitors daily during peak season.

Figure 3: monkeys in safari park

Dulahazra Safari Park is absolutely located for visitors to take pleasure in day trips out to this amazing conservation area. The park has got concentration as a recreation spot for universal mass of the people and for the biologists. It is one of the learning spots as well. The place has now become a Safari Park and a Zoo. Now a days, if any wild animal is unlawfully or unintentionally caught anywhere of the country, is being transported and placed in this area. Large number of people visits Safari Park because of its magnificent natural scenic beauty and attractive undulated landscape with green coverage. Hills and water bodies are interwoven with each other. It is also recognized for its ecological importance, and scientific, aesthetic and recreational values. The forest of Dulahazara range sustains subtropical evergreen and semi evergreen trees and wildlife. This area is important feeding ground of wild elephants because the herd of wild elephants often visits this area and damages public property.

Dulahazra Safari Park project got underway Between the years 1998 and 1999, occupying only a little piece of land, which has now mature to over two thousand acres of sheltered land. The government began to play an dynamic role in the improvement of the park in 2007, ensuring that unlawfully owned animals was held and taken to the park, with many of the animals also being donated by their owners. This has allowed the park’s population to grow to nearly four thousand animals, providing visitors with 165 species to marvel at. The variety of animals that have been seized and donated is astounding, with the park taking in saltwater crocodiles, black bears, barking deer, spotted deer, pythons, emus, freshwater crocodiles, peacocks and pheasants. All the animals have been given huge areas to roam freely, with lush forests and brush for their habitats. Some animals are kept at a distance from visitors for safety reasons. The Dhaka Zoo has also assisted in growing the number of animals in Dulahazra Safari Park through their reproduction program, enabling visitors to view other wildlife such as monkeys, lions, parrots, horses, giraffes, tigers, elephants, lizards, zebras and frogs. Some of the elephants at the park are domesticated, and visitors are able to interact with them.

Visitors can be driven through the Dulahazra Safari Park by jeep to explore the extraordinary wildlife, and there is a specially constructed tower for tourists where they are able to look out over the park and view numerous animals. It is really the ideal attraction for a family outing, as it is also a research centre that focuses on conserving the environment as well as educating the public.

Objectives

With the major goal of serving the national need of biodiversity conservation education, research, recreation and in-situ and ex-situ conservation of the threatened, extinct and endangered animals. The park was established in 1998 with following objectives :-

Conservation and breeding of the extinct and endangered wild animal species. in the park as ex-situ condition.

To provide assistance for in-situ conservation of critically endangered wildlife through out the country.

Development of rescue center and veterinary hospital to provide assistance to injured wildlife in the country.

Development of the Nature Interpretation Center with light and sound model for creation of conservation awareness among the public.

To bring large water body for migratory birds under scientific management.

Establishment of aviary for extinct, rare endangered species of bird.

Establishment of a Natural History Museum for plants and animals endemic to the area.

Weathering ?

2013-11-01T10:30:00.000+06:00

weathering

what is Weathering ?

Weathering is a static process. The process of disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ is generally called weathering.

weathering definition

Weathering refers to the breakdown or disintegration and decomposition of rocks in situ through mechanical and chemical changes in the rocks and their minerals effected by water, temperature, wind, different atmospheric gases and organisms provided that there is no large-scale transport of weathered products by denudational processes except massmovement of rockwastes down the slope under the impact of gravity.

According to C.D. Ollier (1969), “weathering is the breakdown and alteration of minerals near the earth’s surface to products that are more in equilibrium with newly imposed physico-chemical conditions”

According to P. Reiche (1950), “weathering is the response of minerals which were in equilibrium within the lithosphere to conditions at or near its contact with the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and perhaps still more importantly ,the biosphere.”

B. B. Polynov(1937), has very precisely defined weathering as ‘the change of rocks from the massive to the clastic state.’

According to B. W. Sparks, “weathering may be defined as the mechanical fracturing or chemical decomposition of rocks by natural agents at the surface of the earth”

Arthur Holmes has presented more elaborate definition of weathering which also includes the processes of weathering.According to him “ weathering is the total effect of all the various subaerial processes that cooperate in bringing about the decay and disintegration of rocks, provided that no large-scale transport of the loosened products is involved. the work of rainwash and wind, which is essentially erosional, is thus excluded”

-A. Homes (1952)

It appears from the above definitions that weathering is essentially the breakdown of rocks due to chemical and mechanical processes at their places.

What is environment ?

2013-10-29T12:46:00.000+06:00

Meaning Of Environment

The word environment’ has been derived from the French word ‘environer’ meaning to encircle or to surround. The Dictionary meaning of the word ‘environment’ is a ‘surrounding’ ; external conditions influencing development or growth of people, animals or plants; living or working conditions etc.

definition

Environment may refer to the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism.

Primarily,the concern of all geographers is with the environment of man. But man cannot exist or be understood in isolation from the other forms of life and from plant life’

-(A.N. Strahler and A.H. Strahler,1976, p.4)

Environment refers to the sum total of conditions which surround man at a given point in space and time’

-(C.c. Park,1980, p.28)

Environment is defined more comprehensively by others “as a holistic view of the world as it functions at any point of time, with a multitude of spatial elemental and socio-economic systems distinguished by quality and attributes of space and mode of behaviour of abiotic and biotic forms’ -(K. R. Dikhshit, 1984)

Thus environment is defined as ‘(1)The circumstances and conditions (physical conditions) that surround (and affect) an organism or group of organisms , or (2) the social and cultural conditions that affect an individual or community.Since human inhabit the natural world as well as the ‘built’ or technological, social and cultural world, all constitute parts of our environment’

-(W. P. cunnigham and M.A. Cunnigham, 2004)

Reference:

Singh S. ,Environmental geography

What is Computer ?

2013-10-29T01:40:00.002+06:00

Computer

A device that computes, especially a programmable electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.

A computer is a general purpose device that can be programmed to carry out a set of arithmetic or logical operations. Since a sequence of operations can be readily changed, the computer can solve more than one kind of problem.

Conventionally, a computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central processing unit (CPU) and some form of memory. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logic operations, and a sequencing and control unit that can change the order of operations based on stored information. Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source, and the result of operations saved and retrieved.

The first electronic digital computers were developed between 1940 and 1945. Originally they were the size of a large room, consuming as much power as several hundred modern personal computers (PCs). In this era mechanical analog computers were used for military applications.

Modern computers based on integrated circuits are millions to billions of times more capable than the early machines, and occupy a fraction of the space. Simple computers are small enough to fit into mobile devices, and mobile computers can be powered by small batteries. Personal computers in their various forms are icons of the Information Age and are what most people think of as “computers.” However, the embedded computers found in many devices from MP3 players to fighter aircraft and from toys to industrial robots are the most numerous.

Source: Web Search and Google

what is environmental geography

2013-10-28T00:03:00.002+06:00

Meaning of Environmental Geography

‘Environmental geography is basically the study of Environment’. If this is so, why it should not be termed as “geography of environment” ? The answer is easy, the term of Environmental geography lays more emphasis on man-environment relationships.Probably K. Hewitt and F. K. Hare first used the term of ‘environmental geography’ in Man and Environment.

Environmental Geography definition -: Define Environmental Geography

Environmental geography is the study of systematic description of different components of environment and interactions of man with these components.

Thus the definition of Environmental geography may be further broadened as follows:

“Environmental geography is the study of characteristic features of various components of the Environment, the interactions between and among the components in a geoecosystem in terms of ecosystem of varying spatial and temporal scales.”

Savindra Singh defined Environmental Geography in 1989 as follows :

“Thus broadly speaking, environmental geography may be defined as the study of spatial attributes of interrelationships between living organisms and natural environment in general and between technologically advanced ‘economic man’ and his natural environment in particular in temporal and spatial framework.”

The final definition of environmental geography may be formulated as follows :

“environmental geography may be defined as that branch of geography which studies the characteristics, compositions and functions of different components of the natural environmental system, mutual interdependence of different components, various processes that link the components, the interactions of different components with each other and among themselves and consequent responses (environmental problems) in spatial and temporal context in terms of ‘geoecosystem.’ as well as interactions of technologically advanced ‘economic man’ with different components of natural ‘geoecosystem’ and resultant modifications and changes in the natural geoecosystem leading to environmental degradation and pollution, the techniques and strategies of pollution control measures and management of ecological resources” .

-(Savindra Singh,1989)

Why Research ?

2013-10-27T00:45:00.000+06:00

Why Research-

Research- search for knowledge, is the process of inquiry and discovery.

• The primary purposes of basic research (as opposed to applied research) are documentation, discovery, interpretation, or the research and development of methods and systems for the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge.

• Approaches to research depend on epistemologies (Knowledge Science), which vary considerably both within and between humanities and sciences.

Why Do We Research -

We do research for explain something.
we do research for explore something.
We do research for describe something.
We do research to learn something new.
we do research to developing critical thinking.
we do research for the development of our conditions.
We do research for knowing and understanding the world.

Types of Research

2013-10-26T01:23:00.001+06:00

TYPOLOGY OF RESEARCH

 Research can be classified in many different ways on the basis of the methodology of research.

The basic types of research are as follows:

Basic Research

Basic research ( also called pure research, fundamental research ) is driven by a scientist's curiosity or interest in a scientific question. The
main motivation is to expand man's knowledge , not to create or invent something. There is no obvious commercial value to the discoveries that result from basic research.

For example, basic science investigations probe for answers to questions such as-

• How did the universe begin?

• What are protons, neutrons, and electrons composed of?

• How do slime molds reproduce?

• What is the specific genetic code of the fruit fly?

Applied Research

Applied research, variously known as action research, operation research, social research, decison-linked research, is a type of research that covers a wide range of social science areas.Applied research is designed to solve practical problems of the modern world, rather than to acquire knowledge for knowledge's sake.The goal of the applied scientist is to improve the human condition .

For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to: For example, applied researchers may investigate ways to:

• improve agricultural crop production

• treat or cure a specific disease

• improve the energy efficiency of homes, offices, or modes of transportation.

Evaluative research

It is concerned with the evaluation of such occurrences as social and organizational programs or interventions. Very often health and family planning activities are implemented for years but never assessed. In such cases, evaluative research can be a valuable approach for examining retrospectively or cross-sectional effects of the program activities. So, Evaluative research attempts to -

• Assess implemented activities and examine the short term effects of these activities
• Determine the impact of a program.
• Evaluate the success of the intervention.
Example, different health programs operated by the Ministry of health and family planning or by World

health organization.

Academic Vs Professional Research

• Academic Research- Academic research refers to those researches which are done in educational institutes to get knowledge and degrees. For example, masters or Ph.D. research. Example, masters or Ph.D. research.

• Professional Research- Professional research refers to that type of research that is done by any consultant farm or person and they are paid for that research. For example, The feasibility study for Padma Bridge.

Qualitative Vs Quantitative research

• Qualitative research- Understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. Asking a broad question and collecting word-type data that is analyzed searching for themes. This type of research looks to describe a population without attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to attempting to quantifiably measure variables or look to potential relationships between variables.

• Quantitative research- Systematic empirical investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena and their relationships. Asking a narrow question and collecting numerical data to analyze utilizing statistical methods. The quantitative research designs are experimental, correlation, and survey.

Some research are:

• Scientific Research

• Social Research

• Exploratory research

• Constructive research

• Primary research

• Secondary research

• Explanatory Research

• Experimental Research

• Constructive research

• Empirical research

• Experimental Research

• Evaluation Research

• Descriptive Research

• Policy Research

Definitions of Research

2013-10-24T21:59:00.001+06:00

Research definition :

Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998).
See What is Research ?

Research Scholars definition :

Some scholars has been defined Research in a number of different ways:

• Martin Shuttleworth - In the broadest sense of the word,
the definition of research includes any gathering of data,
information and facts for the advancement of knowledge.

• Creswell - Research is a process of steps used to collect and
analyze information to increase our understanding of a
topic or issue. It consists of three steps: Pose a question,
collect data to answer the question, and present an answer collect data to answer the question, and present an answer to the question.

• The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary -a studious inquiry
or examination; especially : investigation or
experimentation aimed at the discovery and interpretation
of facts, revision of accepted theories or laws in the light of
new facts, or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws.

Research ?

2013-10-24T21:53:00.002+06:00

What is Research ?

The word ‘research’ perhaps originates from the old French word recerchier that meant to ‘search again’. Research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict and control the observed phenomenon. Research involves inductive and deductive methods (Babbie, 1998).

Research is-

1. Search for knowledge.

2. Any systematic investigation with an open mind to establish noble facts.

Solve new or existing problems, prove new ideas or develop new theories.

See Definitions of Research

Food Web ?

2013-10-24T13:49:00.002+06:00

Food Webs

A food web is made up of interconnected food chains. Most communities include various populations of producer organisms which are eaten by any number of consumer populations. The green crab, for example, is a consumer as well as a decomposer. The crab will eat dead things or living things if it can catch them. A secondary consumer may also eat any number of primary consumers or producers. This non-linear set of interactions which shows the complex flow of energy in nature is more easily visualized in the following diagram.

In a food web nutrients are recycled in the end by decomposers. Animals like shrimp and crabs can break the materials down to detritus. Then bacteria reduce the detritus to nutrients. Decomposers work at every level, setting free nutrients that form an essential part of the total food web.

See what is Food Web

Food Chain ?

2013-10-23T19:42:00.001+06:00

Food Chains

All living organisms (plants and animals) must eat some type of food for survival. Plants
make their own food through a process called photosynthesis. Using the energy from the
sun, water and carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and nutrients, they chemically make
their own food. Since they make or produce their own food they are called producers.
Organisms which do not create their own food must eat either plants or animals. They are
called consumers. Some animals get their energy from eating plants while other animals
get energy indirectly from plants by eating other animals that already ate the plants.
Animals that eat only plants are called herbivores. Animals that eat both plants and other
animals are called omnivores. Animals that eat only other animals are called carnivores.
Some animals eat only dead or decaying materials and are called decomposers.
In the marine food web, special producers are found. They are tiny microscopic plants
called phytoplankton. Since the water is the home for these special tiny plants; it is also
the home for tiny microscopic animals called zooplankton. And of course, zooplankton
eat phytoplankton. Sometimes zooplankton and phytoplankton are collectively referred to
as plankton.
Food chains show the relationships between producers, consumers, and decomposers,
showing who eats whom with arrows. The arrows show the movement of energy through
the food chain. For example, in the food chain shown below, the small fish (silverside)
gets its energy by eating the plankton and the large fish (bluefish) gets its energy by
eating the small fish. Finally, the bacteria eats the fish after it dies, getting its energy from
the large fish. The bacteria also returns nutrients back to the environment for use by the
phytoplankton.

PHYTOPLANKTON ~~> ZOOPLANKTON ~~> SILVERSIDE ~~> BLUEFISH

NUTRIENTS <~~ BACTERIA

Thus the food chain becomes a complete circle. Animals may eat more than one type of
food. They may eat many different types of plants or many different animals. This makes
everything more complicated and the food chain becomes a food web.

See what is Food Web