If you know you are going to be in an area that is prone to protests and tear gas, a little preparation is called for.

• Avoid use of oils, lotions and detergents because they can trap the chemicals and thereby prolong exposure.
• Wash your clothes, your hair and your skin beforehand in a detergent-free soap (such as Dr.Bronner’s or most eco-friendly products).
• Don’t put vaseline, mineral oil, oil-based sunscreen or moisturizers on skin as they can trap chemicals.
• Don’t wear contact lenses, which can trap irritating chemicals underneath.
• Use a water or alcohol-based sunscreen (rather than oil-based). If your choice is between oil-based or nothing, use the sunscreen. Getting pepper sprayed on top of a sunburn is not fun.
• Minimize skin exposure by covering up as much as possible.
• Gas masks provide the best facial protection, if properly fitted and sealed.
• A bandanna soaked in water or vinegar and tied tightly around the nose and mouth is a last resort, but remember that it is merely a barrier and not a filter and so won’t do much for long-term protection.
• For protecting your eyes, a shatter-resistant swim goggles work well, as they have a tight seal. Most goggles have air holes to prevent fogging–fill these with epoxy. Covering these holes with duct tape can work in a pinch, though not for long term protection. Try them on with your respirator or bandanna to ensure that they are compatible and that both will provide a tight seal.

HOW TO DEAL WITH EXPOSURE

• Get out of there! As quickly and calmly as you can, remove yourself from the gas-filled area.
• STAY CALM. Panicking increases the irritation. Breathe slowly.
• If you see it coming or get a warning, put on protective gear, if able, try to move away or get upwind.
• Face the wind. Fresh air will help blow excess tear gas powder off of you and will prevent it from blowing back into your mouth or eyes.
• Blow your nose, rinse your mouth, cough and spit. Try not to swallow.
• If you wear contacts, try to remove the lenses or get someone to remove them for you, with CLEAN, uncontaminated fingers.
• DO NOT RUB IT IN.

REMEDIES

• For the eyes and mouth, use a solution of half liquid antacid (like Maalox) and half cold water to rinse. Rinse your eyes from the inner to the outer corner, with head tilted back and slightly towards the side being rinsed. Avoid allowing the contaminated water to run onto your skin or clothes. A spray bottle is ideal but a bottle that has a squirt cap works as well.
• For the skin, use canola oil followed by alcohol. Carefully avoiding the eyes, vigorously wipe the skin that was exposed to the chemical with a rag or gauze sponge saturated with canola oil. Follow this immediately with a rubbing of alcohol. Rinse your clothing and body with cold water. DO NOT use hot water. Using hot water will open your pores and allow the chemicals to seep further in, resulting in even more skin irritation.
• Herbal Remedies: Rescue Remedy (made from an essence of five flowers) is a popular and effective remedy. It is available in an alcohol-based liquid, pastilles, spray, or cream. For a DIY-remedy, apply a cooled tea compress of calendula, lavender, chamomile, and/or marshmallow to affected areas.

Source

• http://medic.wikia.com/wiki/For_pepper_spray_on_the_skin
• https://www.warresisters.org/about-tear-gas

Often office buildings have gravity fed water systems. You can access the water from the outside by way of a locked water spigot.These water spigots are often found on the walls of gas stations, rest stops, retail stores like Wal-mart, and big high-rises. Mostly where a business might need outdoor water. With the rising prices of water in many locations these days these businesses don’t want you taking it in the night so they choose to use a spigot that unlocks with a Sillcock key.

A Sillcock key, also known as a 4-way water wrench, usually will open 1/4 in., 9/32 in., 5/16 in. and 11/32 in. stem to service most Sillcocks on building sides.

The best strategy for surviving riots is avoidance. If you use common sense, you can predict areas where riots may take place. If you stay informed and avoid these areas, you have already won the battle; however, there are times you simply cannot avoid these areas. If chaos ensues, here are some ways to get to safety:

• Stay calm. The worst thing you can do in a riot is to panic. Think about the situation and comprise a plan to get you and your family to safety.
• Blend in and don’t draw attention to yourself. To blend in, walk the same direction as the crowd. Appear angry, and if the crowd is shouting you must shout along with them.
• Avoid confrontation with the mob, police or military. If somebody gets in your face and you have the option, back down.
• If you are indoor, stay away from doors and windows. These are where rioters will strike first. Find an interior room and stay there until you have a chance for escape.
• Do not take sides. Many times a riot will consist of two groups of people with opposing views. Staying neutral is the best way to avoid confrontation.
• Avoid “kill zones”. Any area where the crowd is funneled into a narrow passage is dangerous, especially if it allows a high ground position. These are areas where mobs, military, and police will try to affect the riot.
• If you are in a car, stay in the car. The vehicle gives you some level of protection, so staying inside can help your situation. Try to keep moving and assume people will get out of your way. Avoid driving towards the police or military as they will see this as a threat and will use force.
• Go with the flow. If the whole crowd is moving in one direction, it is important that you move in that same direction. You can still work your way towards safety, but do it by moving in a diagonal direction. Do not move against the crowd or perpendicular to their flow.
• If you fall, ball up and protect yourself. Often times, deaths in riots are caused by trampling. Cover your head and protect your vital organs until you can safely get up.
• If you are with family, lock arms as you work your way through the crowd. One of the biggest issues with riots is getting separated.
• Do not make eye contact. Direct eye contact tells people that you want them to acknowledge you and possibly engage with you. Keep your eyes down and get to safety.
• Keep away from smoke. In a riot there are only two sources of smoke, fire and tear gas. Both are bad.
• Avoid any authority figures. This may seem counter intuitive, but they assume that all civilians are dangerous and will act in a violent nature.
• Try to actively spot threats by constantly looking around. Keep looking and adjust your plan as needed.
• Do not pull a weapon unless your life is in danger. One of the easiest ways to get a mob to turn on you is to pull out a gun or knife in the middle of the crowd. Weapons should be a last resort.
• Do not use pepper spray. Even a slight breeze could blow it back in your face. In addition, there is a good chance that you will only irritate the attackers.
• Be selfish. Protect only your family and yourself. You will see plenty of strangers that need help, but helping them jeopardizes you and your family. Focus on what is most important.
• Stay away from stores. Often people will use riots as an excuse to loot. Stores are where they will attack. Try to stay away from these building.
• Always have an exit. If you are at home and decide to defend your home, be ready to bail. Sometimes hunkering down and fighting off the mob is a good idea, but if they breach your security you have to be ready to run.
• Know your area. Always know the gravel roads and back alleys that will get you to safety without funneling into the traffic jam. Buy a map and find routes that nobody else would think of.
• Fortify your home. If you are going to stay home, board up the windows and the doors. Often rioters will go after these weak points first.
• Create a safe room. If you can find a room in your house with no windows, you can create a safe room to protect you from violent intruders. Install a metal door and keep it stocked with food, water, and firearms. A safe room is rarely 100% secure, but it’s much better than sitting on your front porch.
• Make sure you have more than one passport. If large scale riots break out, leaving the country may be a good option. However, authorities may confiscate passports on their sweep through your area. Having a backup would allow you to leave the country if you felt it was the best option.
• Avoid public transportation. Buses and taxis are easy targets for an angry mob.
• Have a plan. For any emergency situation, you should develop a plan to get your family together and get them to safety. Consider both situation where you have the ability to travel by vehicle and scenarios where you have to travel on foot.
• Get your back against a wall. If you find yourself stuck in a riot, you need to protect yourself as much as possible. Putting yourself against a wall allows you to defend yourself from the front while not worrying about somebody approaching you from behind.
• Wear baggy clothes. This is often the best defense against sharp objects. When a riot breaks out, knives and glass are a major threat.
• Get a fire extinguisher. One of the biggest dangers with riots is fire. Having a fire extinguisher will help you control the blaze knowing that your local fire department will likely not come to your rescue.
• Pretend to be the press. Get a large video camera. For some reason, angry mobs rarely attack the press. If you can look like a member of the press, you may be able to move through the crowd unharmed.
• Network with other preppers. If a riot breaks out, having a large group of like-minded people may deter the crowd. Make sure you get together with other people that are prepared for civil unrest.
• Neutralize tear gas if possible. You can move to higher ground to avoid these gasses. They normally settle in low areas. You can also soak a cloth with lemon juice or vinegar and place it over your mouth to help with your breathing.

If martial law or state of emergency has be implemented, the following suggestions could help you survive:

• “Loose lips sink ships”. I’m sure you have heard this saying before. In a martial law scenario, information is the most effective tool the government has. The right information can help them seize your food, water, vehicles, and possible yourself.
• Avoid the roundup. In many martial law scenarios, the government will try to gather citizens in military camps. Since the constitution has been nullified, you may spend a very long time in these camps. If you see a roundup, get as far away as possible.
• Reprogram your family to not trust the police. Most families tell their children that you need to trust police and be scared of bad guys. The opposite may be true in this situation.
• Try to pull your cash. When the government takes over, they may try to confiscate your funds or shut down banks entirely. Try to withdraw it early and if not possible, try to transfer it to another account.
• Stop using your cell phone. If cellular service is still operational, the government will likely tap in to conversations and use this information to gain more control. Anything you say on a cell phone puts you at greater risk.

While I would like to think that these situations will not happen, history says otherwise. If you look at both US and world history, it is littered with accounts of riots and martial law. The nature of modern society is that it will only take so much abuse before something snaps. It may only be a matter of time, so be prepared.

If you have decided the best route for now is to bug-in, there are a few things you will need to do.

Secure the Perimeter

If you are bugging-in, you will definitely need some security.

• Make sure you have the doors and windows locked at all times. Barricade doors and windows where needed.
• Be prepared to turn away neighbors and defend what you have worked so hard to build.
• At night, you’ll want to make sure you don’t display too many lights – lights mean people are inside, which means supplies. Use blackout curtains and candles to maintain a dark silhouette.

Maintain a Routine

It’s good to get on a routine during a SHTF bug-in situation, just as you are normally on a daily routine. Get up at a certain time every morning, eat at certain times, perform certain tasks at certain times — all of these things will help make life as normal as possible and keep morale high (especially if you have young children). If you assign tasks to everyone, it will also help to make things a little more normal for the kids. Get them involved with daily chores to keep their mind off of whatever emergency you may be facing.

Make a Plan

After the first few days, if you haven not already started to form a plan for a long-term SHTF disaster, it would be wise to do it now. Evaluate your situation — what type of situation are we dealing with? …how safe are we where we are? …how long will this scenario last? Once you have answered those basic three questions to the best of your ability, you will know what you need to do next to ensure your survival.

Prepare to Bug-Out

If things are starting to close in on you, and you have run out of other options, the only thing left that you can do is to get out of Dodge. Grab your bug-out gear and prepare to make tracks! Be sure you know the best route to take and have a bug-out plan ready to go. No matter how safe you think you are right now, the last thing you want to do is to be caught without an escape plan. In a SHTF situation, things can go from bad to worse in the blink of an eye. (On a side note, it’s good to have an exit plan ready and practiced anyway just in case!)

Major Issues with Bugging-In

Water

As a good prepper, you probably already have mass amounts of water already stored, right? However, if it comes time to actually bug-in, you will definitely need to plan for how to collect more. It is safe to assume that if you are in this situation, city water will not last for long, if it is even safe to drink given your particular situation. If you have a well, you are likely better off. Rainwater will become your friend either way. It is best to learn to purify water, too, just in case you have to resort to less-than-reliable sources. Also, be sure to pick up a good gravity-fed water filtration system. This one will hold up to 5 gallons of water at a time.

Food

Just as with water, you may already have a stockpile of emergency food, but it is not going to last forever. If it is safe to be outside for long periods of time, you can forage, hunt, trap, and grow a garden. If it is not safe, however, you will need to ration the food you have stored to ensure you don’t run out too fast. Remember, this is an emergency SHTF situation, not a buffet. Practice fasting and rationing your food now so you’re better prepared in a SHTF situation. Practice fasting and rationing food now so you’re prepared in a #SHTF situation. CLICK TO TWEET

Trash

In this state of emergency, it stands to reason that the trash truck won’t be running. So what will you do with all of your smelly trash? If it sits around stagnant for too long, you can be assured it will draw flies and rats. The trash alone isn’t sanitary to keep around your family, but when you add pests to the equation, it’s an outright health hazard! You’ll need a plan for your trash. If you are in a true SHTF situation, you may be ok to burn your trash, but remember “where there’s smoke, there’s fire” — and where there’s fire, there’s usually life. This could draw attention to your position and let people know you’re there. That’s fine if you want to be noticed, but if you’re concerned about OpFor, it’s probably not the best thing to do for your security.

Human Waste

If you thought your problems were bad because of the trash piling up, can you imagine what would happen if the plumbing stopped functioning properly? It’s a disgusting thing to think about, but if you don’t plan ahead, it could be cause for real panic in the face of emergency. Learning to dig a latrine will be a handy little trick. Keep in mind the best practices for disposing of human waste. You could also build a makeshift outhouse with a “go bucket” inside.

Source

• http://survivalathome.com/when-bugging-out-isnt-necessary-bug-in/

So, what am I afraid of now?
Everything that can harm my family, both man made and natural.

So am I a Prepper now?

I have a wife and two of the most adorable kids and I will do anything to protect them. I live in an environment and times when any of these can harm my family:

1. EARTHQUAKE (the next big earthquake is looming around the corner for bay area)
2. Tsunami (An earthquake in the ocean can easily trigger a tsunami)
3. Terrorism (We all know this is part of reality now)

I want to be prepared to handle these situations and if that makes me a Prepper or a Survivalist, then so be it.

But, I am not a traditional Prepper. I will hoard knowledge and not things. I will prepare with the minimum gear needed to protect my family in an urban situation. Being a geek, I am more interested in the science, technology, and common sense required to create/replace things in any survival situation. What I will prep is the knowledge & skills required for an urban survival. This makes me more of an Urban Survivalist.

Survival Dojo is where I will write about my journey acquiring gear and gaining the knowledge required to survive in an urban SHTF situation.

The human body requires a minimum intake of water in order to be able to sustain life before mild and then severe dehydration occurs. Adverse health effects have been noted from both mild and severe dehydration and the latter can be fatal.

The US National Institutes of Health (NIS) provides a definition of dehydration as:

• Mild dehydration: loss of 3-5% of body weight due to fluid loss
• Moderate dehydration: 6-10% loss of body weight
  • Signs of mild to moderate dehydration:
    • Thirst
    • Dry or sticky mouth
    • Not urinating much
    • Darker yellow urine
    • Dry, cool skin
    • Headache
    • Muscle cramps
  • Mild & moderate dehydration can be reversed by increased fluid intake and this may be enhanced through the use of salt replacement solutions.
• Severe dehydration: (which is a medical emergency) 9-15% loss of body weight.
  • Signs of severe dehydration:
    • Not urinating, or very dark yellow or amber-colored urine
    • Dry, shriveled skin
    • Irritability or confusion
    • Dizziness or lightheadedness
    • Rapid heartbeat
    • Breathing rapidly
    • Sunken eyes
    • Listlessness
    • Shock (lack of blood flow through the body)
    • Unconsciousness or delirium
  • Severe dehydration will require rehydration strategies involving more than simple fluid replacement, and often food or other osmolar intake is needed; the process may take up to 24 hours.
• A loss of fluids equaling 20% of a person’s body weight is fatal

Exams and Tests to detect dehydration

Your health care provider will look for these signs of dehydration:

• Low blood pressure
• Blood pressure that drops when you stand up after lying down
• White finger tips that do not return to a pink color after your doctor presses the fingertip
• Skin that is not as elastic as normal. When your health care provider pinches it into a fold, it may slowly sag back into place. Normally, skin springs back right away.
• Rapid heart rate

How much water do you need in an emergency?

In their review, White et al. (1972) suggested that 2.6 litres of water per day is lost through respiratory loss, insensible perspiration, urination and defecation. In addition, a significant quantity of water is lost through sensible perspiration if hard work is performed. These figures led them to suggest that a daily minimum of water required in tropical climates would be around 3 litres per person.

Kleiner (1999) suggests that, based on US National Research Council guidelines in relation to hydration needs resulting from average energy expenditure and environmental exposure in the USA, the average male should consume a minimum 2.9 litres per day and the average female 2.2 litres. Approximately one-third of this fluid was considered likely to be derived from food.

As rehydration primarily relates to the replacement of lost fluid from natural processes, it is important to consider the losses of fluid from different age groups when considering vulnerable sub-populations. The losses of water from the bodies of small children are proportionally considerably greater than for adults, 15% of fluid per day as opposed to 4%. These proportionately higher losses explain why a 7 kg child requires 1 litre per day fluid to replace lost fluid compared to 2.9 litres for a 70kg adult male, the increase in replacement fluid being a factor of three compared to a 10-fold difference in weight (Kleiner, 1999). Lowbirth-weight infants need proportionally even greater fluid replacement per kilogram of weight than do other infants (Roy and Sinclair, 1975).

Pregnant women also require additional fluid replacement to ensure that foetal needs are met, as well as providing for expanding extra-cellular space and amniotic fluid. The US National6 Research Council suggests an allowance of an extra 30ml per day during pregnancy (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989). Lactating women have additional water requirements, leading to an additional requirement of 750ml to 1 litre per day for the first six months of lactation (Food and Nutrition Board, 1989).

The elderly may not require additional volumes of water, but may be at greater risk from dehydration due to decreasing thirst sensations (Phillips et al., 1984). Furthermore, studies have noted a relationship between age and the ability of the body to concentrate urine, suggesting an increasing water requirement to maintain good renal functioning (Rowe et al., 1976).

For the terminally ill, Jackonen (1997) highlights a range of benefits and burdens related to dehydration, with benefits accrued from lower levels of distress and lower awareness of pain and reduced requirements for urination with the pain and discomfort that this may cause. Benefits of hydration include preventing dehydration and malnourishment as well as prolonging life and avoiding health problems such as renal failure. The benefits and burdens associated with dehydration amongst the terminally ill often relate to medical hydration (intravenous, nasogastric or nutrition administration) and therefore will have little impact on volumes of water required in a general domestic supply.

In developing countries, White et al. (1972) and Gleick (1996) suggest that a minimum of 3 litres per capita per day is required for adults in most situations. However, households with least access to water supplies are more likely to be engaged in at least moderate activity and often in above-average temperatures. Data from the US Army reported in White et al. (1972) provides estimates of water quantity needs at different temperatures and activity levels. This indicates that at 25oC with moderate activity in the sun (for instance agricultural work) approximately 4.5 litres are required to maintain hydration. This rises to about 6 litres at 30oC or when hard work in the sun is undertaken at 25oC. Although the US Army has more recent recommendations for hourly intake of water per hour in relation to heat categories and activity intensity to prevent heat injury, this do not easily translate into non-military activity. They do, however, stipulate that hourly fluid intake should not exceed 1.08 quarts (1.03 litres) and that daily intake should not exceed 12 quarts (11.35 litres) (United States Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine, 2003).

Overdrinking of water

The SPHERE project is a collaboration of a wide range of NGOs and humanitarian agencies that has produced guidelines on the minimum standards for provisions for refugees. It recommends 2-4 gallons/day (7.5-15 litres/day) as the basic water needed per person per day in emergencies. In some situations, only water used for drinking and preparing food needs to be treated, which still amounts to 1.5-2.5 gallons/day (5.5-9 litres/day). In refugee situations, the UNHCR calculates 5.25 gallons per person per day (20 litres/person/day) for domestic needs and personal hygiene. The absolute minimum amount of water required for survival is 1.8 gallons/day (7 litres).

Survival needs: water intake (drinking and food) 2.5 – 3 litres per day Depends on the climate and individual physiology Basic hygiene practices 2 – 6 litres per day Depends on social and cultural norms Basic cooking needs 3 – 6 litres per day Depends on food type and social and cultural norms Total basic water needs 7.5 – 15 litres per day

Water Treatment for Drinking

Chemical Treatment

If water is polluted with dirt or sediment, strain it into a container through paper towels, paper coffee filters, or several layers of clean cloth to remove any sediment or floating matter.

Disinfect the strained water with liquid household chlorine bleach (chlorine) OR with tincture of iodine. Household bleach consists of chlorine (Cl₂) gas dissolved in an alkali-solution, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl).

NOTE: DO NOT use the granular form of household bleach, it is POISONOUS!

To disinfect water, use the following formula: Amount of chlorine bleach to add: Amount of tincture of iodine 2% to add: Amount of water Clear water Cloudy water Clear water Cloudy water 1 quart 2 drops 4 drops 3 drops 6 drops 1 gallon 8 drops 16 drops 12 drops 24 drops 5 gallons ½ teaspoon 1 teaspoon ¾ teaspoon 1½ teaspoons NOTE: If liquid chlorine bleach is older than one year, the amount used should be doubled, as it loses strength over time. Purchase an eye dropper to add bleach or iodine to the water. Use the eye dropper for this purpose ONLY. Mix well by stirring or shaking the water in a container. Let stand for 30 minutes before using. A slight chlorine odor should be detectable in the water. If not, repeat the dosage and let stand for an additional 15 minutes before using. If the water can be boiled, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommend that it be boiled for at least 1 minute. This should remove any harmful bacterial contamination. Check with your local Health Department for local recommendations. Water purification tablets are available in drug stores and sporting goods stores and are recommended for your first aid kit. Follow the directions on the package to purify water. Water purification tablets have a shelf life of 2 years and lose their effectiveness if they get damp before use. Purify only enough water at one time to last for 48 hours. This will minimize the chances of re-contamination.

Calculate the number of gallons of water in a box-type container:

Volume (gallons) = 7.5 x L x W x H

L = length in feet W = width in feet H = height in feet

Example: If a water container is 6 feet long, 3 feet wide and 2 feet high, then the volume is 7.5 x 6 x 3 x 2 or 270 gallons. Therefore, use 3 tablespoons of liquid chlorine bleach for disinfection.

Calculate the number of gallons of water in a cylindrical container:

Volume (gallons) = 6 x D2 x H

D = diameter in feet H = height in feet

Example: If a water container is 4 feet in diameter and 5 feet high, then the volume is 6 x 42 x 5 which is the same as 6 x 16 x 5 or 480 gallons. Therefore, 5 tablespoons of liquid chlorine bleach should be used for disinfection.

How does chlorine disinfection work?

Chlorine kills pathogens such as bacteria and viruses by breaking the chemical bonds in their molecules. Disinfectants that are used for this purpose consist of chlorine compounds which can exchange atoms with other compounds, such as enzymes in bacteria and other cells. When enzymes come in contact with chlorine, one or more of the hydrogen atoms in the molecule are replaced by chlorine. This causes the entire molecule to change shape or fall apart. When enzymes do not function properly, a cell or bacterium will die.

When chlorine is added to water, underchloric acids (HOCL) form:

• Cl₂ + H₂O -> HOCl + H⁺ + Cl^–*

Depending on the pH value, underchloric acid partly expires to hypochlorite ions (OCl^–):

• Cl₂ + 2H₂O -> HOCl + H3O + Cl^–
  HOCl + H₂O -> H₃O⁺ + OCl^–*

This falls apart to chlorine and oxygen atoms:

• OCl^– -> Cl^– + O*

Underchloric acid (HOCl, which is electrically neutral) and hypochlorite ions (OCl^–, electrically negative) will form free chlorine when bound together. This results in disinfection. Both substances have very distinctive behaviour. Underchloric acid is more reactive and is a stronger disinfectant than hypochlorite. Underchloric acid is split into hydrochloric acid (HCl) and atomair oxygen (O). The oxygen atom is a powerful disinfectant. The disinfecting properties of chlorine in water are based on the oxidizing power of the free oxygen atoms and on chlorine substitution reactions.

The cell wall of pathogenic microorganisms is negatively charged by nature. As such, it can be penetrated by the neutral underchloric acid, rather than by the negatively charged hypochlorite ion. Underchloric acid can penetrate slime layers, cell walls and protective layers of microorganisms and effectively kills pathogens as a result. The microorganisms will either die or suffer from reproductive failure.

The effectivity of disinfection is determined by the pH of the water. Disinfection with chlorine will take place optimally when the pH is between 5.5 and 7.5. Underchloric acid (HOCl) reacts faster than hypochlorite ions (OCl^–); it is 80-100% more effective. The level of underchloric acid will decrease when the pH value is higher. With a pH value of 6 the level of underchloric acid is 80%, where as the concentration of hypochlorite ions is 20%. When the pH value is 8, this is the other way around. When the pH value is 7.5, concentrations of underchloric acid and hypochlorite ions are equally high.

Which factors determine the effectivity of chlorine disinfection?

Factors which determine chlorine disinfection effectivity: Chlorine concentrations, contact time, temperature, pH, number and types of microorganisms, concentrations of organic matter in the water.

Disinfection time for several different types of pathogenic microorganisms with chlorinated water, containing a chlorine concentration of 1 mg/L (1 ppm) when pH = 7.5 and T = 25 °C

Read more: http://www.lenntech.com/processes/disinfection/chemical/disinfectants-chlorine.htm#ixzz3fuRhGTZr

How UV Disinfection Works Unlike chemical approaches to water disinfection, UV provides rapid, effective inactivation of microorganisms through a physical process. When bacteria, viruses and protozoa are exposed to the germicidal wavelengths of UV light, they are rendered incapable of reproducing and infecting. UV light has demonstrated efficacy against pathogenic organisms, including those responsible for cholera, polio, typhoid, hepatitis and other bacterial, viral and parasitic diseases. In addition, UV light (either alone or in conjunction with hydrogen peroxide) can destroy chemical contaminants such as pesticides, industrial solvents, and pharmaceuticals through a process called UV-oxidation. UV light damages the DNA and RNA of microorganisms and prevent them from infecting Microorganisms are inactivated by UV light as a result of damage to nucleic acids. The high energy associated with short wavelength UV energy, primarily at 254 nm, is absorbed by cellular RNA and DNA. This absorption of UV energy forms new bonds between adjacent nucleotides, creating double bonds or dimers. Dimerization of adjacent molecules, particularly thymine, is the most common photochemical damage. Formation of numerous thymine dimers in the DNA of bacteria and viruses prevents replication and inability to infect.

Effectiveness of UV A significant body of scientific research has proven UV light’s ability to inactivate an extensive list of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa. UV offers a key advantage over chlorine-based disinfection, due to its ability to inactivate protozoa that threaten public health – most notably Cryptosporidium and Giardia. The release of these harmful microorganisms into receiving lakes and rivers by wastewater facilities utilizing chlorine disinfection increases the potential of contamination in communities that rely on these same bodies of water for their drinking water source and recreational use. Drinking water treatment plants can benefit by using UV since it can easily inactivate chlorine-resistant pathogens (protozoa), while reducing chlorine usage and by-product formation.

SOLAR DISINFECTION (SODIS)

SODIS is the process of using the sun’s energy to disinfect water. Sunlight has two components that make this happen: ultraviolet and infrared radiation. These two types of radiation work together in synergy to kill up to 99.9% of microorganisms.

SODIS Process

• Choose colorless, transparent PET water or soda pop bottles with few surface scratches for use.

  • PET bottles are marked with “recyclable #1”. Most 2 liter coke bottles are PET bottles, so these are very common

  

  • containers cannot be more than 4 inches thick. Standard 2 liter or smaller soda bottles are fine.
  • Containers must be clear; not colored, and not opaque. Colored bottles absorbs UV-A light.
  • At least 2 bottles for each member of the family should be exposed to the sun while 2 other bottles are ready for consumption, so each family member requires 4 plastic bottles for SODIS.
  • Check the water tightness of the bottles, including the condition of the screw cap.
  • Remove labels and wash the bottles before first use.
    • You can sterilize bottles by placing them closed, empty in the sun for six hours or by washing them thoroughly (and triple-rinsing with agitation) with sterile water.
  • PET breaks down in the sun, so you eventually have to replace the container.
  • Replace cloudy, scratched, or leaky containers.
  • Do not use PVC containers except as a last resort. PVC leaches chemicals into the water, especially when placed in the sun.

• Water from contaminated sources is filled into the bottles.

  • To improve oxygen saturation, bottles can be filled three-quarters, shaken for 20 seconds (with the cap on), then filled completely and recapped.

  • Very cloudy water with a turbidity higher than 30 NTU must be filtered prior to exposure to the sunlight.

    • 
    • Test of water turbidity: if you place bottle with water on a newspaper, can you read a headline through it (from neck to bottom)?
    • To decide whether the water needs filtering, place the filled bottle on the SODIS Logo (see Figure below) on top of a table in the shade (to avoid light interference) and look through the bottle from top to bottom. If you can read the letters through the water, water turbidity is less than 30 NTU. If you can still see the sun rays of the Logo, turbidity is less than 20 NTU. If water turbidity is higher than 30 NTU, coarse and settleable solids can be separated by storing the raw water for one day, and turbidity can be reduced possibly by flocculation / sedimentation (using alum sulphate or crushed Moringa oleifera seeds) or by filtration.

    

• Filled bottles are then exposed to the Sun.

  • Bottles will heat faster and to higher temperatures if they are placed on a sloped Sun-facing corrugated metal roof as compared to thatched roofs.
  • The bottles must be laid horizontally in the sun, not vertically. This increases the area exposed to the sunlight and reduces the depth of the water the light must penetrate. (With turbidity of 26 NTU, only half of the UV-A radiation penetrates farther than 10cm)
  • Ideally, you should place the bottles in a hot place; on a roof, on a sheet of corrugated metal, or on asphalt or dark rocks. If these are not available, at least try to shield the bottles from cooling breeze, but don’t shade them.
• The treated water can be consumed directly from the bottle or poured into clean drinking cups.
  • The risk of re-contamination is minimized if the water is stored in the bottles.

A total solar radiation intensity of at least 500 W/m2 is required for approximately 6 hours for SODIS to be effective.The most favorable regions for this is located between latitude 15°N and 35°N, and also 15°S and 35°S. These regions have high levels of solar radiation, with limited cloud cover and rainfall, and with over 90% of sunlight reaching the earth’s surface as direct radiation. The second most favorable region lies between latitudes 15°N and 15°S. these regions have high levels of scattered radiation, with about 2500 hours of sunshine annually, due to high humidity and frequent cloud cover.

Drawbacks of SODIS

• It does not remove chemical contaminants.
• It does not improve the taste of the water.

For Geeks: How does SODIS work?

Three effects of solar radiation are believed to contribute to the inactivation of pathogenic organisms:

• UV-A interferes directly with the metabolism and destroys cell structures of bacteria.
• UV-A (wavelength 320–400 nm) reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) that are believed to also damage pathogens.

• Cumulative solar energy (including the infrared radiation component) heats the water. If the water temperatures rises above 50 °C (122 °F), the disinfection process is three times faster.

  • In fact, water does not have to be boiled to kill microorganisms. Heating the water to an elevated temperature over a long period of time (50-60°C for one hour) has the same effect as boiling.
  • At a water temperature of about 30 °C (86 °F), a threshold solar irradiance of at least 500 W/m2 (all spectral light) is required for about 5 hours for SODIS to be efficient. This dose contains energy of 555 Wh/m2 in the range of UV-A and violet light, 350–450 nm, (This is about 6 hours of mid-latitude (European) midday summer sunshine).
  • At water temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F), synergistic effects of UV radiation and temperature further enhance the disinfection efficiency.

  

The figure above shows scanning electron micrograph of oocysts of C. parvum. (a) Healthy C. parvum. (b) C. parvum after heating to 40◦C for 10 h. (c) C. parvum after heating to 40 ◦C and applying sunlight (870W/m2) for 10h. (source)

http://www.sodis.ch/methode/anwendung/ausbildungsmaterial/dokumente_material/manual_e.pdf

If you live in an earthquake prone region like the western United States, Alaska, Hawaii, South Carolina, and the central and northeastern parts of the nation, it is very likely that the next large earthquake will affect you: either directly, by damaging your home, neighborhood, or workplace, or indirectly, by damaging services like electricity, water, sewer, and infrastructure that may limit access in and out of your region. Fire and police departments will be dealing with the most serious situations and may be unable to respond quickly to issues in your community. You might be left to fend for yourself until there is help.

Before an earthquake

Preparing before earthquake strikes will give you confidence that you and your family will stay safe when earthquake hits. The following steps contain a basic set of recommended actions to get prepared at home or in the workplace.

Step 1: Make a plan

Plan to be safe by creating a disaster plan and deciding how you will communicate and what each person will do before, during and after an emergency. Have occasional earthquake “drills” to practice your plan.

This plan will also be useful for other emergencies.

• Plan NOW to be safe during an earthquake:

  • Practice “drop, cover, and hold on” frequently with everyone in your family. (See “During an earthquake” section below)
    • By planning and practicing what to do, you can condition yourself and your family to react correctly when an emergency occurs.
  • Identify safe spots in every room you can easily reach in just a few steps, such as under sturdy desks and tables.
  • Install smoke alarms and test them monthly.
    • Change the battery once a year, or when the alarm emits a “chirping” sound (low-battery signal).
  • Evaluate your home for safety; including ensuring your home can withstand a serious earthquake or other emergency. See step 3 below.
  • Make sure children, house guests and childcare providers know your safety procedures.

• Plan NOW to respond after an earthquake:

  • Learn how to shutoff Water, Gas and Electricity to your home in an emergency. See this article for help.
  • Prepare an emergency evacuation plan for your home.
    • Each room should have at least 2 ways to escape in case one is blocked.
    • For easy planning, download National Fire Protection Agency’s escape planning grid and draw a map, with escape routes of your home. This is a great way to get children involved in fire safety in a non-threatening way.
    • If you are in a multistoried house, make sure your rooms have escape ladder
    • If you live in an apartment, know the locations of emergency exits, fire alarms, and fire extinguishers.
      • If you are trapped in a highrise, if possible, hang a white sheet outside your door so firemen can find you.
  • Make sure you have a plan for traveling between work and home, and other commonly visited locations.
    • Use this FEMA supplied commuter emergency plan [pdf]to list your normal and some alternative routes you can use to get to your destinations.
    • Keep a copy of this plan in your wallet or another safe place where you can access it in the event of a disaster.
  • Store a fire extinguisher where you can easily get to it or attach it to a wall.
    • Learn how to use fire extinguishers before they are needed.
    • You should keep a fire extinguisher in high-risk areas such as the kitchen and workshop.
  • Teach everyone in your household to use emergency whistles and/or to knock three times repeatedly if trapped. Rescuers searching collapsed buildings will be listening for sounds.
  • Plan for household members and neighbors with special requirements or situations, such as use of a wheelchair, walking aids, special diets, or medication.

  • Take a Red Cross first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) training course.

    • Important: Learn who else in your neighborhood is trained in first aid and CPR and make sure you can contact them in a hurry.

  • Work with your neighbors to identify who has skills and resources that will be useful in an emergency, and who may need special attention (children, elderly, disabled, etc).

  • Check with your city or county to see if there is a Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) in your area.

1. Plan NOW to communicate and recover after an earthquake:
   • Have a land line phone that does not require power.
   • Select a safe place outside of your home to meet your family or housemates after the shaking stops.
   • Designate an out-of-area contact person who can be called by everyone in the household to relay information.
     • During an emergency , completing local telephone calls may be difficult, it may be easier to telephone someone out of the area.
   • TEXT, DON’T TALK.
     • Unless you are in immediate danger, send a text. Texts often have an easier time getting through during emergencies, and you don’t want to tie up phone lines needed by emergency responders (like 911).
   • Use this FEMA parent plan to provide all family members with a list of important contact phone numbers.
   • Use this FEMA provided child plan to note important contact numbers, meeting points and other important details needed for children.
   • Determine where you might live if your home cannot be occupied after an earthquake or other disaster. (See XYZ for a list of urban shelters you can build in an emergency)
   • Know about the earthquake plan developed by your children’s school or day care.
     • Keep your children’s school emergency release card current.
   • Keep copies of essential documents, such as identification, insurance policies, and financial records, in a secure, waterproof container, and keep with your disaster supplies kits.
     • Include a household inventory (a list and photos or video of your belongings).

Step 2: Organize Disaster Supplies

Prepare and maintain an emergency preparedness kit with enough supplies on hand to be self-sufficient for at least 3 days, and preferably up to one week. See this article for a list of urban disaster supplies that can be used in any kind of emergency.

Place a sturdy pair of shoes and a working flashlight in a bag and tie it to one of your bed legs.

Step 3: Secure your home by identifying hazards and securing movable items.

Take the Earthquake Home Health Quiz to see if your home needs retrofitting. See ABAG for more information and how to work with contractors.

Always store flammable material safely away from ignition sources like water heaters, furnaces and stoves. Go outside to see if your street number is clearly visible from the road. If not, paint it on the curb or install house numbers to ensure that responding emergency personnel can find your home.

1. Move heavy or large items, such as potted plants or large speakers to the floor or low shelves.
2. Move things that can fall on you away from where you spend a lot of time (bed, couch, desk, etc.).
3. Move heavy or unstable objects away from doors and escape routes.
4. Examine all natural gas appliances (water heaters, dryers, stoves, ovens, furnaces) to see if they are anchored to the floor or walls, and have flexible pipe connections.
5. Know where your main water valve is so that you can shut it off if you have a water leak.
6. Secure a water heater to wall studs with two metal straps.
7. Secure refrigerator and other major appliances to wall studs using earthquake appliance straps.
8. Secure cabinet doors using child-proof latches, hook and eye latches, or positive catch latches designed for boats. This prevents the doors from opening during earthquakes, allowing glassware and dishes to crash to the floor.
9. Secure top-heavy furniture such as bookcases and filing cabinets to wall studs using flexible fasteners such as nylon straps. This allow tall objects to sway without falling over, reducing the strain on the studs.
10. Hang mirrors and pictures on closed hooks so that they can’t bounce off the walls. Pictures and mirrors can also be secured at their corners with earthquake putty.
11. Secure (or brace) electronic items such as computers and TVs with flexible nylon straps and buckles for easy removal and relocation.
12. Prevent small objects from falling by using museum putty or wax.
13. Install latches on kitchen cabinets.
14. Use flexible connections where gas lines meet appliances (such as water heaters, ovens, and clothes dryers).
15. Secure overhead light fixtures.
16. Secure free-standing wood stoves or fireplace inserts.
17. Check if your house is earthquake safe or if it needs to be retrofitted for earthquake safety. http://www.earthquakecountry.org/step4/index.html

During an Earthquake

When an earthquake strikes, Drop, Cover, and Hold On!

1. DROP down onto your hands and knees.
2. COVER your head and neck (and your entire body if possible) under a sturdy table/desk.
   • • DON’T run to another room to find a table. Immediately protect yourself and be patient
   • If there is no shelter nearby, then you should get down near an interior wall (or next to a low-lying furniture that won’t fall on you), and cover your head and neck with your arms and hands.
   • Don’t run downstairs or rush outside while the building is shaking or while there is danger of falling and hurting yourself or being hit by falling glass or debris.
   • DO NOT get in a doorway!! In modern houses and buildings, doorways will not protect you. Find a table, people!
   • Avoid exterior walls, windows, hanging objects, mirrors, tall furniture, large appliances, and kitchen cabinets with heavy objects or glass.
3. HOLD on to your shelter (or to your head and neck) until the shaking stops.
   • Be prepared to move with your shelter if the shaking shifts it around.

• IF YOU ARE IN BED, stay in bed and cover your head with pillow.
• IF YOU ARE INDOORS, STAY THERE! “DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON.”
• IF YOU ARE OUTSIDE, GET INTO THE OPEN, away from buildings, power lines, chimneys, and anything else that might fall on you.
• IF YOU ARE DRIVING, STOP, but carefully.
  • Switch on the hazard lights.
  • Move your car as far out of traffic as possible.
  • Do not stop on or under a bridge or overpass or under trees, light posts, power lines, or signs.
  • Stay inside your car until the shaking stops.
  • When you resume driving, watch for breaks in the pavement, fallen rocks, and bumps in the road.
• IF YOU ARE ON OR NEAR A STEEP HILLSIDE, WATCH OUT FOR LANDSLIDES, falling rock, trees, and other debris that could be loosened by earthquakes.
• IF YOU ARE IN A HIGH-RISE BUILDING, and you are not near a desk or table, move against an interior wall, and protect your head with your arms. Do not use the elevators.
• IF YOU ARE OUTDOORS, move to a clear area, away from trees, signs, buildings, or downed electrical wires and poles.
• IF YOU ARE ON A SIDEWALK NEAR BUILDINGS, duck into a doorway to protect yourself from falling bricks, glass, plaster, and other debris.
• IF YOU ARE IN A CROWDED STORE, do not rush for exits. Move away from display shelves containing objects that could fall.
• IF YOU ARE IN A WHEELCHAIR, stay in it. Move to cover, if possible, lock your wheels, and protect your head with your arms.
• IF YOU ARE IN THE KITCHEN, move away from the refrigerator, stove, and overhead cupboards.
• IF YOU ARE IN A STADIUM/THEATER, stay in your seat and protect your head with your arms. Do not try to leave until the shaking is over. Then leave in a calm, orderly manner.
• If you are near the ocean, DROP, COVER, AND HOLD ON.
  • Watch for falling objects until the earthquake is over.
  • MOVE TO HIGHER GROUND or inland away from the coast immediately.
    • Go on foot if possible.
  • If you notice a sudden drop or rise in water level or hear a loud noise coming from the water, a tsunami may be coming.
  • The first waves may reach the coast within minutes after the ground shaking stops.
  • The first wave is almost never the largest. Later waves may be spaced tens of minutes apart and can continue arriving for many hours.
  • STAY AWAY FROM THE COAST. Do not return to the shore after the first wave. Waves may continue to arrive for hours.
  • LISTEN TO A RADIO FOR AN “ALL CLEAR” before returning to the shore.

Be prepared for AFTERSHOCKS, and plan where you will take cover when they occur. Aftershocks can occur in the first hours, days, weeks, or even months after the quake. Be prepared to Drop, Cover, & Hold again. DO NOT believe the “triangle of life” allegation. This concept has been discredited by leading experts.

residents are urged to store supplies of food and water that will last at least 72 hours.

After an Earthquake

Here are some general guidelines on what to do after an earthquake. Remember, aftershocks may occur, so be prepared to Drop, Cover, & Hold. After an earthquake, be prepared to –

• Check for injuries to your family and your surrounding neighbors.
  • Do not attempt to move seriously injured persons unless they are in danger of further injury.
• Check for fires or fire hazards.
• If indoors, check the structural integrity of the building.
  • If any part of the structure appears to be unsafe, evacuate the building until a more detailed inspection can be made.
  • Buildings that are damaged by the main shock could receive additional damage from aftershocks.
• Wear shoes in all areas near debris or broken glass.
• Do not touch downed power lines or objects touched by the downed wires.
• Immediately clean up spilled medicines, drugs, and other potentially harmful materials.
  • Use extreme caution when cleaning up spilt chemicals, they may have mixed with other chemicals during shaking and could cause harmful effects.
  • Open windows to provide ventilation.
  • If you begin to feel any effects from the material that you are handling, stop what your doing and seek medical help.
• Check for damaged utilities.
  • Inspect for leaking gas lines by smell only; do not use candles, matches, or other open flames.
  • If you smell gas, open all windows and doors so gas can escape.
  • Shut off the main valve at your gas meter, leave the house immediately, and notify authorities of the leak.
  • Do not re-enter the house until repairs have been made and the dwelling has been declared safe.
  • If water pipes are broken, shut off the main valve which brings water into the house.
  • If the house is properly wired, internal trouble with the electricity is very unlikely.
  • If there is a short circuit, turn off the electricity at the meter box.
• If water is off, emergency water may be obtained from:
  • melted ice cubes,
  • from canned vegetables,
  • from toilet tanks (if no blueing or sanitizing chemicals have been added),
  • from swimming pools and spas,
  • from water heaters (strain this water through a clean handkerchief first).
• Check to see that sewage lines are intact before permitting continued flushing of toilets.
• Do not eat or drink anything from open containers near shattered glass. Liquids can be strained through a clean handkerchief or cloth if the danger of glass contamination exists.
• If power is off, check your freezer and plan meals to use up foods which will spoil quickly.
• Use outdoor charcoal or propane broilers for emergency cooking.
  • Do not bring these items indoors. The accumulation of fumes from their use can be deadly.
• Do not use your telephone except for genuine emergency calls.
• If you have a chimney, check its entire length for cracks and damage, particularly in the attic and at the roof line.
  • Unnoticed damage could lead to a fire or collapse in aftershocks.
  • The initial check should be made from a distance. Approach chimneys with caution.
• Check closets and storage shelf areas.
  • Open closet and cupboard doors carefully and watch for objects falling from shelves.
• Do not spread rumors. They often do great harm following disasters.
• Tune-in to local radio stations for information and danger reports.
• Do not go sightseeing.
  • Do not use your vehicle unless there is a genuine emergency.
  • Keep the streets clear for emergency vehicles.
• Be prepared for additional aftershocks.
  • Although most of these are smaller than the main shock, some may be strong enough to cause additional damage.
• Respond to requests for help from police, fire fighting, civil defense, and relief organizations, but do not go into damaged areas unless your help has been requested.
  • Cooperate fully with public-safety officials.
  • In some areas, you may be arrested for getting in the way of disaster operations.
• Information concerning the welfare of separated family members will be handled by the American Red Cross.
  • Do not call or go to the police or fire department for this information.
  • If you have an emergency communications plan in place, use it instead.