Here is the definition of DNA and some detailed information about it:

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living organisms and some viruses. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of information. DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints or a recipe, or a code, since it contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.

And DNA testing is:

DNA testing (also called Genetic fingerprinting , DNA typing, or DNA profiling) is a technique used to distinguish between individuals of the same species using only samples of their DNA. Its invention by Dr. Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester was announced in 1984. Two humans will have the vast majority of their DNA sequence in common. Genetic fingerprinting exploits highly variable repeating sequences called minisatellites. Two unrelated humans will be unlikely to have the same numbers of minisatellites at a given locus. In STR profiling, which is distinct from DNA fingerprinting, PCR is used to obtain enough DNA to then detect the number of repeats at several loci. It is possible to establish a match that is extremely unlikely to have arisen by coincidence, except in the case of identical twins, who will have identical genetic profiles. But not fingerprints.

So DNA and DNA testing are may be more important for us than others. Some may want a dna testing, Easy DNA may help you a lot.

I like, especially the newsletter section as it includes precious recommendations and articles about daily common psychological problems. For example in one of the article:

If this were your last day on earth would you be happy with the way your spent it?” If you answer yes, then you are truly living your life. If you answer no, then you have two choices. Don’t change anything but stop complaining or dreaming about change. Nothing will change, so stop dreaming. Nobody cares about your uninteresting life.

I am one of those who strictly believe that psychology is a self-practiced science and articles and recommendations like these helps people improve their mental health.

The first step is to identify the boundaries of your comfort level in both your personal and professional life. Next, try to attempt one small modification each day that makes you a little uncomfortable, but not too stressed. Remember, even a small accomplishment can ultimately lead to a desired goal. Lastly, determine if maintaining your comfort zone is actually the real problem. Apprehension and fear could be stopping you

Dr. Svec, especially, focuses on diagnosis and treatments of ADD and ADHD. You can buy and download presentations about ADD here, you can buy his book, or request an appointment through contact page. You can listen free mp3s about Why You Can’t diagnose ADHD in 5 minutes, 6 Mistakes to Avoid When Choosing a Counselor or Therapist, How we Treat Pain! on the frontpage of the site.

You can view Dr. Svec’s biography here and you can subscribe the free newsletter here.

Freud was born on May 6, 1856, in Freiberg, Moravia, in what is now the Czech Republic. He was the oldest of eight children, and his father was a wool merchant. When Freud was 4 years old, his family moved to Vienna, the capital of Austria. He graduated from the medical school of the University of Vienna in 1881. Freud later decided to specialize in neurology, the study and treatment of disorders of the nervous system.

In 1885, Freud went to Paris to study under Jean Martin Charcot, a famous neurologist. Charcot was working with patients who suffered from a condition now called hysteria. Some of these people appeared to be blind or paralyzed, but they actually had no physical defects. Charcot found that their physical symptoms could be relieved through hypnosis.

Freud returned to Vienna in 1886 and began to work extensively with hysterical patients. He gradually formulated ideas about the origin and treatment of mental illness. Freud used the term psychoanalysis both for his theories and for his method of treatment. When he first presented his ideas in the 1890’s, other doctors reacted with hostility. But Freud eventually attracted a group of followers, and by 1910 he had gained international recognition.

During the following decade, Freud’s reputation continued to grow. But two of his early followers, Alfred Adler and Carl Jung, split with Freud and developed their own theories of psychology . Freud was constantly modifying his own ideas, and in 1923, he published a revised version of many of his earlier theories. That same year, he learned he had cancer of the mouth. He continued his work, though the cancer made working increasingly difficult. In 1938, the Nazis gained control of Austria. Under their rule, Jews were persecuted. Freud, who was Jewish, went to England with his wife and children to escape persecution. He died there of cancer in 1939.

Freud wrote many works. His most important writings include The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality (1905), Totem and Taboo (1913), General Introduction to Psychoanalysis (1920), The Ego and the Id (1923), and Civilization and Its Discontents (1930).

His theories

On behaviour. Freud observed that many patients behaved according to drives and experiences of which they were not consciously aware. He thus concluded that the unconscious plays a major role in shaping behaviour. He also concluded that the unconscious is full of memories of events from early childhood. Freud noted that if these memories were especially painful, people kept them out of conscious awareness. He used the term defence mechanisms for the methods by which individuals handled painful memories. Freud believed that patients used vast amounts of energy in forming defence mechanisms. Tying up energy could affect a person’s ability to lead a productive life, causing an illness that Freud called neurosis.

Freud also concluded that many childhood memories dealt with sex. He believed that his patients’ reports of sexual abuse by a parent were fantasies reflecting unconscious desires. He theorized that sexual functioning begins at birth, and that a person goes through several psychological stages of sexual development. Freud believed the normal pattern of psychosexual development is interrupted in some people. These people become fixated at an earlier, immature stage. He felt such fixation could contribute to mental illness in adulthood. This theory is known as Freud’s theory of psychosexual development.

On the mind. Freud divided the mind into three parts: (1) the id, (2) the ego, and (3) the superego. He recognized that each person is born with various natural drives that he called instincts, such as the need to satisfy sexual desires and the need to be aggressive. The id is the source of such instincts. The desire for sexual pleasure, for example, comes from the id. The ego resolves conflicts between instincts and external reality. For example, it determines socially appropriate ways to obtain physical satisfaction or to express aggression. The superego is a person’s conscience. A person’s ideas of right and wrong–learned from parents, teachers, and other people in authority–become part of the person’s superego.

All people have some conflict among the three parts of the mind, but certain people have more conflict than others. For example, the superego might oppose angry behaviour. In that case, the id and the superego would clash. If the parts of the mind strongly oppose one another, psychological disturbances result.

On treatment. At first, Freud treated neurotic patients by using the hypnotic techniques he had learned from Charcot and the Austrian doctor Josef Breuer. But he later modified this approach and simply had patients talk about whatever was on their minds. He called this free association. By free associating–that is, by speaking freely–the patient sometimes came upon earlier experiences that contributed to the neurosis.

Often, however, the painful feelings that caused the neurosis were held in the unconscious through defence mechanisms. Freud then analysed the random thoughts that had been expressed during free association. He did this in an effort to penetrate the patient’s defence mechanisms. He also interpreted the patient’s dreams, which he believed contained clues to unconscious feelings. Freud talked with the patient about the person’s earlier experiences in order to understand the root of the problem. He paid particular attention to transference, the patient’s shifting of painful feelings–hostility or love, for example–toward Freud himself. If the psychoanalyst could help the patient understand and deal with unpleasant feelings or painful memories, the symptoms of the neurosis might then disappear.

His influence

Freud was one of the world’s most influential thinkers. He showed the crucial importance of unconscious thinking to all human thought and activity. Freud’s strongest impact occurred in psychiatry and psychology. His work on the origin and treatment of mental illness helped form the basis of modern psychiatry. In psychology, Freud greatly influenced the field of abnormal psychology and the study of the personality.

Freud’s theories on sexual development led to open discussion and treatment of sexual matters and problems. His stress on the importance of childhood helped teach the value of giving children an emotionally nourishing environment. His insights also influenced the fields of anthropology and sociology. Most social scientists accept his concept that an adult’s social relationships are patterned after early family relationships.

In art and literature, Freud’s theories influenced surrealism . Like psychoanalysis, surrealistic painting and writing explores the inner depths of the unconscious mind. Freudian ideas have provided subject matter for authors and artists. Critics often analyze art and literature in Freudian terms.

Since the 1970’s, many scholars and mental health professionals have questioned some of Freud’s theories. Feminists attacked Freud because he seemed to believe that in some respects women were inferior to men. For example, he thought that women had weaker superegos than men and were driven by envy. Other people challenged the theory that patients’ memories of early sexual abuse reflected fantasies rather than actual experiences.

As a result of such criticism, most scholars and psychoanalysts now take a more balanced approach to Freud’s theories. They use the ideas and techniques from Freud that they find most useful without strictly following all of his teachings. No one, however, disputes Freud’s enormous influence.

http://www.a2zpsychology.com/great_psychologists/sigmund_freud.htm

Libido was Freud’s word for psychic and sexual energy. How libido is expressed depends on the stage of development. But in each stage of development there are frustrations. If those frustrations are not successfully dealt with, then the libido will be tied to that stage of development more than it should. There is only so much libido for each person, and to develop successfully a person cannot use too much of their libido in one stage, because then there will less for the others. Such overuses will be reflected in later behavior in one of two ways.

Fixation may occur, which would mean that there are lingering desires for pleasure from the source experienced at that stage
Reaction Formation may occur, which would be taking the lingering desire for pleasure from some source and acting in the opposite way

Stages of Development

Freud proposed that there were 5 stages of development. Freud believed that few people successfully completed all 5 of the stages. Instead, he felt that most people tied up their libido at one of the stages, which prevented them from using that energy at a later stage.

ORAL Stage This occurs from birth to about 1 year, and the libido is focussed on the mouth. The individual may be frustrated by having to wait on another person, being dependent on another person. Being fixated at this stage may mean an excessive use of oral stimulation, such as cigarettes, drinking or eating.

ANAL Stage This period occurs about age 2 and 3 yrs. Here individuals have their first encounter with rules and regulations, as they have to learn to be toilet trained. This encounter with rules and regulations will dictate the later behavior with rules and regulations. The libido is focussed anally, and frustration may arise from having to learn a somewhat complex cognitive and motor response. Being fixated at this stage can result in stinginess, stubborness, or orderliness, as well as messiness. Essentially, behavior related to retention and expulsion may be related to experiences at this stage.

PHALLIC Stage This period starts about age 4-5 years. Some critical episodes for development occur during this stage, but these episodes occur differently for boys and girls.

Oedipus conflict - the boy begins to have sexual desires for his mother, and sees his father as a rival for her affections. The boy begins to fear that his father is suspicious of his longing for his mother, and that the father will punish him for his desires. That punishment, the boy fears, will be castratation, which brings us to the second critical episode for this stage.

Castration anxiety. The fear of castration make the boy anxious. This anxiety begun with the fear of punishment from the father leads to the boy thinking that the father hates him eventually becomes unbearable and the boy renounces his sexual feelings for his mother and chooses instead to identify with his father, and hopes to someday have a relationship with a woman (though not his mother) just like dear old dad has with his mother.

The story for girls is slightly different. The oral and anal stages are the same for both girls and boys, so the focus of affection and attention is on the mother for both. But this focus changes, for girls, from the mother to the father, when the girls realize that they don’t have penises, so they develop penis envy. This realization coupled with the knowledge that her mother doesn’t have a penis leads to her thinking her mother unworthy, and becoming attracted to her father, as he does have a penis.

Just as with boys, girls begin to suspect the same sex parent knows about their attraction to the opposite sex parent, and they hate them for it. These feelings go round and round for awhile until the point when the girls renounce their feelings for their fathers and identify with their mothers.

LATENCY Stage This period occurs after the oedipus conflict has been resolved and the feelings that were aroused during that time have subsided. This lasts from about the age of 7 until puberty, and this is a period of rest where there are no developmental events

GENITAL Stage Begins at puberty involves the development of the genitals, and libido begins to be used in its sexual role. However, those feelings for the opposite sex are a source of anxiety, because they are reminders of the feelings for the parents and the trauma that resulted from all that.

Evaluation of Freud’s psychosexual development theory

Four points.

difficult to test, but the evidence that has been gathered is not favourable
the crucial events (e.g., how the libido is used) are unobservable, and there are no good means to measure them
there is an awfully long time between the occurence of the causal stimulus and its presumed effect; relationships between early events and later traits tend to be weak and inconsistent
this theory of development was conceived without studying children; rather, it was developed from patients’ recollections, dreams and free associations

Freud’s theory focusses on sex and aggression. During the time period Freud lived in, sex and sexual ideas did not make for socially acceptable topics for dinner conversations, or most any other sort of conversations. Thus, those ideas were unspoken, because they were socially unacceptable.

Recently, James Pennebaker has done some studies in which people tell negative secrets to the experimenter - in confidence and with confidentiality, in a set similar to a Catholic confessional - and Pennebaker takes various measures of their well being. He finds that a few months later, people who tell the negative secrets have higher levels of well being than people who did not reveal any negative secrets. One measure is the number of trips to the university medical office to be treated for illness.

Let me suggest that Pennebaker’s results - that confessing negative secrets leads to higher well being - relates to Freud’s work by illustrating that people who release some socially unacceptable thought/belief/action feel better as a result. This suggests that Freud may have been correct about “psychic energy” being tied up in negative things, although the exact content of those thing may not be sex and aggression. Thus, Freud may have correctly identified an important aspect of well being - the notion that unspoken thoughts can influence our behavior - but the identifying the content of the thoughts as exclusively sexual and aggressive may be incorrect.

Freud’s structure for the personality

The structure of personality involves three parts: the id, the ego, and the super-ego.

The id contains the drives that people have. These are the drives for pleasure. If humans have instincts, this is where they are. The id wants its wishes immediately and directly fulfilled. The id is governed by the pleasure principle, which suggests that all processes operate to achieve the maximum amount of pleasure. Also, the id is almost completely unconscious.

The superego contains all of the moral lessons the person has learned in their life. This is the internalized voice of authority. Freud suggested that usually the moral lessons a person has in their superego were learned from their parents, although as the person gets older the lessons may be learned from others as well. Our conscience is in the superego. This is also where we have a notion of what our ideal person is. The superego is also partially unconscious.

The ego is the mediator between the id and the superego. The ego tries to reconcile the wishes of the id, and the moral attitudes of the superego. That reconciliation may entail that the ego postpone the immediate gratification demanded by the id for later, and greater, gratification. The ego is in touch with reality, and may do reality testing, which is thinking about what the best course of action is to attain goals of the id and superego. The ego is governed by the reality principle, which suggests that the person gets as much satisfaction from the world as possible. Finally, the ego is the conscious mind.

Ego Defense Mechanisms

Freud suggested there were habits of thought that people use to protect their minds from anxiety. Some of the important defense mechanisms are:

Repression: keeps anxiety arousing thoughts out of consciousness. Repression may be voluntary or involuntary. There is clinical evidence for repression in cases of multiple personality disorder, where one persona does not have access to another persona. Some suggestions have been made that multiple personalities develop because a person experiences bad events and deals with those events by creating another persona that has not suffered them.
Also, post-traumatic disorders, such a shell-shock, suggest that person have experiences that they have not completely thought out, and would prefer not to completely think out. So, those experiences are repressed, or pushed out of the person’s consciousness.

>Identification: occurs when the person symbolically represents themself with (in) another person. The person then models their behavior on that other person’s behavior.

Projection: a person attributes their own threatening or worrisome traits/impulses to another person, so as to ignore or overlook those traits/impulses in themself.

Rationalization Attribute to oneself a noble motive for an action rather than the real motive that is not so noble. I gave money to the charity because I am a generous person, rather than thinking I gave money to the charity, because they will list my name as one of the doners, and I will get a tax deduction for my contribution.

http://www.a2zpsychology.com/great_psychologists/freud_psychosexual_thoery.htm

Many psychologists are researchers, and many others are practicing clinicians. But there is literally no limit to how the study of psychology can be utilized in the workforce. For instance, three of the ten “hot” jobs for 2007 utilize a degree in psychology:

• School Psychologist. This hot job in psychology has risen to the top thanks to the combined facts of the latest federal education legislation, a retiring workforce, and an increased focus on children’s mental heath. School psychologists are desperately needed across the country, making this a top psychology career. In fact, colleges with programs to train school psychologists cannot keep up with the demand. A typical program consists of two years of graduate courses and a one-year internship. Students from these programs, however, have no problem getting jobs and usually find their work extremely rewarding. Many school psychologists feel that they have an opportunity to tackle society’s problems early on, making them feel deep satisfaction in their work.

• Genetics Counselor. The psychologists that have this hot job in psychology help families understand genetic disorders and to provide information and support to those families. They may also serve as patient advocates by referring individuals or families to local services that can be of assistance. Genetic research is a powerful tool for treating medical conditions, but it is still a new tool. Many people whose families are affected by genetics disorders don’t understand how it will affect their lives. Even genetic researchers and doctors don’t fully understand how genes cause all genetic disorders. Genetic counselors work with doctors and families to help families get the information they need to understand the disorder. While genetics counselors often require a Masters degree in genetics, a Bachelors degree in the psychology field is preferred. Demand is high for this position, making it a top psychology career.

• Animal-Assisted Therapist. This hot job in psychology is a type of therapy that involves using pets to help treat patients. Animal-assisted therapy (AAT) is designed to improve the physical, social, emotional, and/or cognitive functioning of the patient, as well as provide education and motivation. AAT is provided on both an individual or group basis. Many kinds of animals are used in therapy, including dogs, cats, birds, dolphins, rabbits, lizards, and other small animals (although AAT with horses is known as equine-assisted therapy or therapeutic horseback riding). AAT has been found to be especially helpful with children suffering with autism spectrum disorders, and demand is very high, making this a top psychology career.

But there are many other fascinating careers available to anyone in the psychology field. There are a variety of different jobs available to therapists—being a clinical psychologist, a cognitive psychologist, or working as counselors. Here are just a few of the more unusual psychology careers available according to the American Psychological Association:

• Engineering psychologists conduct research on how people work best with machines. For example, how can a computer be designed to prevent fatigue and eye strain? What arrangement of an assembly line makes production most efficient? What is a reasonable workload? While still in the psychology field, most engineering psychologists work in industry.

• Evolutionary psychologists study how evolutionary principles such as mutation, adaptation, and selective fitness influence human thought, feeling, and behavior. Because of their focus on genetically shaped behaviors that influence an organism’s chances of survival, evolutionary psychologists study mating, aggression, helping behavior, and communication. Evolutionary psychologists are becoming increasingly interested in aging, especially in researching and problems of evolution. In the current political climate, this might be a hot job in psychology for a variety of reasons.

• Forensic psychologists apply psychological principles to legal issues. Their expertise is often essential in court. They can, for example, help a judge decide which parent should have custody of a child or evaluate a defendant’s mental competence to stand trial. Forensic psychologists also conduct research on jury behavior or eyewitness testimony. Some forensic psychologists are trained in both psychology and the law. Demand is particularly high for this psychology field.

• Sports psychologists help athletes refine their focus on competition and winning. They help athletes become more motivated and learn to deal with the anxiety and fear of failure that can often come with sports. This psychology field is becoming more and more popular as sports become more competitive and attracts younger children.

Job and Salary Outlook

According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, the average annual earnings of clinical, counseling, and school psychologists is $54,950. The earnings of psychologists working in other areas are:

•Offices of other health practitioners $64,460
•Elementary and secondary schools $58,360
•Outpatient care centers $46,850
•Individual and family services $42,640
•Industrial-organization psychologists $71,400

The need for those with a psychology degree is expected to grow faster than average over the next decade, thanks to the continued growth of the psychology field. Luckily, because the field is so diverse, almost anyone can find something fascinating to do with their psychology degree!

Psychology Careers: A Wide Open Field

http://www.psychologymajors.com/psychology-the-study-of-the-human-mind

If you suffer from social phobia, you tend to think that other people are very competent in public and that you are not. Small mistakes you make may seem to you much more exaggerated than they really are. Blushing itself may seem painfully embarrassing, and you feel as though all eyes are focused on you. You may be afraid of being with people other than those closest to you. Or your fear may be more specific, such as feeling anxious about giving a speech, talking to a boss or other authority figure, or dating. The most common social phobia is a fear of public speaking. Sometimes social phobia involves a general fear of social situations such as parties. More rarely it may involve a fear of using a public restroom, eating out, talking on the phone, or writing in the presence of other people, such as when signing a check.

Although this disorder is often thought of as shyness, the two are not the same. Shy people can be very uneasy around others, but they don’t experience the extreme anxiety in anticipating a social situation, and they don’t necessarily avoid circumstances that make them feel self-conscious. In contrast, people with social phobia aren’t necessarily shy at all. They can be completely at ease with people most of the time, but particular situations, such as walking down an aisle in public or making a speech, can give them intense anxiety. Social phobia disrupts normal life, interfering with career or social relationships. For example, a worker can turn down a job promotion because he can’t give public presentations. The dread of a social event can begin weeks in advance, and symptoms can be quite debilitating.

People with social phobia are aware that their feelings are irrational. Still, they experience a great deal of dread before facing the feared situation, and they may go out of their way to avoid it. Even if they manage to confront what they fear, they usually feel very anxious beforehand and are intensely uncomfortable throughout. Afterwards, the unpleasant feelings may linger, as they worry about how they may have been judged or what others may have thought or observed about them.

Specific Symptoms of this Disorder:
A marked and persistent fear of one or more social or performance situations in which the person is exposed to unfamiliar people or to possible scrutiny by others. The individual fears that he or she will act in a way (or show anxiety symptoms) that will be humiliating or embarrassing.
Note: In children, there must be evidence of the capacity for age-appropriate social relationships with familiar people and the anxiety must occur in peer settings, not just in interactions with adults.

Exposure to the feared social situation almost invariably provokes anxiety, which may take the form of a situationally bound or situationally predisposed Panic Attack.
Note: In children, the anxiety may be expressed by crying, tantrums, freezing, or shrinking from social situations with unfamiliar people.

The person recognizes that the fear is excessive or unreasonable.
Note: In children, this feature may be absent.

The feared social or performance situations are avoided or else are endured with intense anxiety or distress.

The avoidance, anxious anticipation, or distress in the feared social or performance situation(s) interferes significantly with the person’s normal routine, occupational (academic) functioning, or social activities or relationships, or there is marked distress about having the phobia.

In individuals under age 18 years, the duration is at least 6 months.

The fear or avoidance is not due to the direct physiological effects of a substance (e.g., a drug of abuse, a medication) or a general medical condition and is not better accounted for by another mental disorder.

If a general medical condition or another mental disorder is present, the fear in the first criteria is unrelated to it, e.g., the fear is not of Stuttering, trembling in Parkinson’s disease, or exhibiting abnormal eating behavior in Anorexia Nervosa or Bulimia Nervosa.

The purpose of hypnotherapy, self hypnosis, and other-induced hypnosis is to relax the mind and body in such a way that the conscious and subconscious minds can interact. Hypnotherapy is the only form of therapy in which the therapist attempts to connect with the patient’s subconscious mind. Traditional “talk” therapy occurs between a therapist and an alert patient.

Hypnotherapy is used to treat a wide variety of disorders- not all psychological. Common uses are to break habits such as smoking or nail-biting, for weight loss, to enhance the memory, and to conquer phobias or traumatic memories. Hypnotherapy self hypnosis has also been used in patients for pain management. The theories of hypnotherapy are used in acupuncture, visualization techniques, and bio-feedback.

Utilizing Hypnotherapy Self Hypnosis . In hypnotherapy, self hypnosis, and having the patient learn to perform self hypnosis, is all-important. This is how the patient will maintain new behaviors and thought processes when outside of the therapist’s office. Hypnotherapists may utilize the traditional hypnosis induction method which patients can use at home. Patients should practice 10-30 minutes a day at home, lying down in a quiet room with as few distractions as possible.

A white noise machine is helpful to block out outdoor sounds. When a patient becomes well-trained at hypnotherapy self hypnosis, he/she will be able to induce hypnosis almost anywhere and surrounded by any noise level. Physical relaxation must be achieved before mental relaxation. The Jacobson Progressive Relaxation Procedure is a good way to start. In this method, individuals tense and release all the muscles, beginning at the feet and ending at the head. Doing deep breathing simultaneously will increase relaxation. Individuals should then countdown from 20 to 0 or 100 to 0.

This will induce a hypnotic state in which the patient is open to suggestibility. At this time, individuals can begin positive self-talk or imagery exercises in which “I” statements are made. For example, “I am smoking less and my health is getting better every day.” Or individuals can picture images of themselves being successful at quitting smoking. When positive imagery and self-talk is complete, individuals can simply open their eyes and resume normal activities. Hypnotherapy self hypnosis helps people accomplish goals and realize their potential while banishing bad behaviors and giving positive feedback to good behaviors.

Article Source: http://www.statssheet.com/articles/article66117.html

To treat this disorder individual counseling as well as therapeutic approaches combining drug therapy are in progress. But for this type of disorder as family plays a significant role so family therapy and controlled family intervention is indeed considered inportant. Antidepressants like Prozac which help in boosting the levels of serotonin may be useful in some cases.
http://www.blurtit.com/q213916.html