“Long live George Washington, President of the United States!” – Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston

 
It was on the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City where George Washington was sworn in as the first President of the United States of America. Crowds of people gathered en masse to witness what could perhaps be considered the most significant and pivotal moment in American political history. The inauguration was a celebration of hope, prosperity, optimism and achievement, a unique event intentionally performed without the pomp and regality usually associated with the coronations of European royalty. Upon arrival at the Federal Hall, Washington was introduced to House and Senate by the already instated Vice President John Adams. Shortly after, Adams declared that it was now time for the inauguration, and so Washington moved to the second floor balcony where he would be greeted by Chancellor of New York Robert Livingston and a large audience thoroughly captivated and full of good cheer. Livingston administered the ceremony, holding the Bible retrieved from St. John’s Lodge, of which Washington was a member. The stage was set for washington to take the first ever oath of office, reciting those famous and powerful 35 words.

“I [George Washington] do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States.”

Although it is not a legal requirement, it has been reported that Washington ad-libbed the phrase “So help me God” after reciting his oath, however this has never been fully corroborated. “Long live George Washington, President of the United States!” shouted Livingston, and the occasion was marked with a 13 gun salute. After the ceremony and now officially President of the United States, Washington delivered the first inaugural address. Lasting only 1419 words, Washington was soft spoken and calm as he described the great experiment that he had been entrusted with. He was now the President, about to embark on a journey that no man or woman had ever experienced before, however, it wasn’t only his Presidency but his life before it that earned him the moniker ‘The Father of the Nation’.

George Washington was born into mild prosperity in Virginia 1732 and although he never received more than an elementary school education he was a gifted child full of confidence and ambition. At the age of 16 Washington took a job as a surveyor in which he became very comfortable and familiar with the American wilderness. This would help him later in life during his military career. Washington then joined the army, rising through the ranks at a remarkable speed due to his natural leadership, unwavering self-confidence and imposing physical stature. Despite being a natural born leader, Washington’s military career wasn’t without its difficulties. Failed expeditions and a steep learning curve frustrated Washington. He was hailed as a hero as word spread of his leadership and bravery against the French, but the Royal government in England did not see it this way. The British were routed by a better prepared French army on American soil, for which the colonials were blamed. This left Washington enraged at the lack of appreciation and respect, fuelling his resentful opinion of British rule. Washington resigned from the army to return to farming in Virginia, to a plantation he inherited.

In 1759 he married a wealthy widow Martha Custis and would spend the next 10 years of his life managing his plantation. By 1770 Washington entered the Virginia House of Burgesses where he became known as one of the first prominent Americans to openly support resistance to the English Government’s new policies of taxation and regulation of the colonial economy. Now a prominent dissident, Washington was elected by the Virginia legislature to both the First and the Second Continental Congress, held in 1774 and 1775. He soon went on to become Commander of all Colonial forces in America’s war for independence. However, Washington experienced limited success against the British, it wasn’t until the French agreed to form an alliance with the Americans in May 1778 that the tide began to turn for America’s quest for independence. This marked the turning point in the Revolution. On October 18th 1781, the British army surrendered at Yorktown and thus ending hostilities with the Colonials. This was a monumental victory for America and for George Washington.

Following the Victory, Washington ignored calls for him to be declared King and returned to his plantation were he planned on retiring. This was obviously not meant to be as America was not functioning well and desperately needed his leadership to steer the nation through its next chapter. He became a key figure at the Constitutional Convention in 1787 and his stature and popularity gave credibility to his calls to form a new government. He was elected President of the Constitutional Convention and used his influence to persuade the states to ratify the Constitution. At this point, Washington was desperate to retire, but his country needed him now more than ever and Washington conceded to this call of arms and decided to run for the Presidency of the United States.

The President was to be chosen by the Electoral College, as specified by the Constitution. The method for selecting electors was decided by each state legislature—by public vote in some states and by legislative selection in others. Each state had as many electors as senators and representatives. The election was held in only in ten of the states because Rhode Island and North Carolina had yet to ratify the Constitution and quarreling in New York led to a failure in choosing electors in time. Each elector was given two votes to cast for President. Washington received the support of every one of the electors, casting at least one of the two ballots for him. John Adams, who received thirty-four votes, was the runner-up and was thus named Vice-President. This was a resounding victory for the now President-elect.

Washington’s Presidency was immediately faced with huge challenges, not only did he have to bring together the individual states to create a government and therefore establish a new nation, but he was acutely aware that he was now a President setting precedences. Rather than being referred to as ‘Your Highness’ or ‘Your Excellency’ Washington opted for ‘Mr. President’, adopting a more business-like mentality in his approach to the Presidency. He also established the moniker ‘Commander-in-chief’ for the Presidency as this was a military rank he once held. Washington’s military mindset also influenced the way he conducted business, creating a cabinet that he would work closely with over an array of issues, much like the war cabinets he worked with during his time in the army. He established precedents that would last for generations and did more to flesh out the skeleton of the presidential office than anyone could have expected. It was Washington’s work in the early days of his Presidency that set America on a path that has endured longer than any other republic. His diplomacy steadied the ship, he showed executive restraint in order for the democracy to prosper and he remained bipartisan when war broke out between Britain and France in 1793.

At the end of his first term, Washington again wanted to retire but was unable to walk away from the Presidency, he was still best person for the job and still had the support of the electorate. Successfully running for a second term, Washington pledged that this would be his final term. Unfazed by the allure of power, Washington was more focused on getting the job done and ensuring the government would succeed without him. Washington insisted against the emergence of political parties, he hated partisanship and political parties, however, he tolerated dissent, attacks on his reputation and name, and a divisive press, all in the interest of freedom. Eventually leaving office to finally retire in 1797, Washington establish the precedent of a two term limit, which would last until 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt won a third term. Washington also oversaw the first peaceful transition of power between Presidents, a tradition that endures to this day.

Washington enjoyed just over two years of retirement at Mount Vernon before he died of a throat infection in December 1799. He died with the same dignity that he lived his life, never complaining about the pain. It is his dignity that defines him and his Presidency, he brought greatness and respect, something that dominates the Oval Office even to this day. He was the man that could have been King but instead refused the crown and chose to save the republic in the name of freedom and democracy.

His legacy is America’s legacy, one of resilience, ambition and bravery.

Sources:

https://www.whitehouse.gov/about-the-white-house/presidents/george-washington/

https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-first-presidential-inauguration

https://www.biography.com/people/george-washington-9524786

At a time when Europe was expanding west and a new worlds were being forged, one man envisaged that Scotland would become a world power; Sir William Alexander of Stirling. With the vision of Alexander and the authority of King James, Nova Scotia was born. Scotland’s influence on what is now a Canadian maritime province is disjointed yet enduring. From 1629–1632, Nova Scotia briefly became a Scottish colony, but the story of how this happened goes back even further. It is a story of vision, ambition and colonialism that ultimately ends in failure. However Scotland’s presence in Nova Scotia began a chain of events that had astoundingly far reaching implications.

The idea was first conceived by Alexander, a powerful Scottish noble who won great favour with King James by tutoring his son Prince Henry of Scotland. James, who was born in Edinburgh Castle became King of Scotland after his mother Mary Queen of Scots abdicated the throne. He was only an infant at the time and didn’t take true control until 1581, but he soon proved himself to be a shrewd ruler who effectively controlled the various religious and political factions in Scotland. While King James ruled Scotland, England set forth on its first expedition to North America. Sir Walter Raleigh led the English to the New World in an attempt to colonise North America, he named the area Virginia in honour of his Virgin Queen, Elizabeth I.

In 1586, James and Elizabeth I became allies under the Treaty of Berwick. James was now the heir to the English throne, and he feverishly waited with anxious interest for the news of the death of the ill Queen. After the death of Queen Elizabeth in 1603, James became king of England and Ireland in addition to Scotland. He travelled down to England to claim his throne, he was joined by a number of his Scottish aides, including Sir Alexander of Stirling.

Despite being under the same rule of King James, Scotland and England were separate in all matters of colonisation. England continued to venture into North America in the early 1600s, this time is was the turn of Captain John Smith to establish a British settlement in the Chesapeake area of North America. Forts were quickly constructed and the settlement was named Jamestown after their King.

At this time the New World was Expanding, there was a New France, a New Spain, a New Holland and even a New England, why shouldn’t there be a New Scotland? This was the question Alexander asked himself, and soon asked his King. In 1614, Alexander was appointed to the difficult and onerous office of Master of Requests, this position allowed him to form close relationships with some of the most influential and power people in the country. King James grew increasingly confident in Alexander’s abilities and leadership, and would often consult with him on matters of both home and abroad. It was when discussing the removal of the French from Port Royal within the New England territory that the idea of founding a new Scottish settlement was first brought to the King’ attention. Both James and Alexander saw colonisation as a means to increase national prosperity and enterprise. King James viewed Alexander’s application with favour and The royal warrant was signed by the King at Windsor on the 10th of September, 1621. Eleven day later on the 21st of September, the King gave Alexander the charter and it would be registered on the 29th of that month.

King James named the settlement ‘New Scotland’ or ‘Nova Scotia’ as it was called in the Latin charter. Unfortunately for King James, he never lived to see Scotland colonise Nova Scotia as he died on March 27th, 1625. Between 1622 and 1628, Alexander launched four attempts to send colonists to Nova Scotia; each failing for various reasons. Finally, a successful occupation of Nova Scotia was achieved in 1629, eight years after the Royal Charter was signed and four years after the King’s death.

The first Scottish settlers arrived in Nova Scotia in 1622 at Port Royal but were ill prepared for the harsh weather conditions, thick forests and lacked the required skills required to build and maintain a successful colony. In order to attract rich Scots to Nova Scotia, land was made available for purchase, allowing the purchaser to wear the coat of arms of Nova Scotia, be addressed as Sir and place Bt. after their names, signifying a Baronet. In 1629 Alexander, brought 70 settlers to Port Royal and there they built Fort Charles. He wanted to right the wrong of the previous unsuccessful attempts at colonisation and aimed to bolster the colony with settlers that had the practical skills to build and maintain a colony. However, the settlers were met with constant resistance and aggression from the French, who wanted to take Nova Scotia back under their control. The French colonial troops prevented any supplies coming across from Scotland and overland attacks forced many settlers to return home or flee south to New England. Within three years Scotland lost Nova Scotia to the French and all Scottish settlers were forced to return home.

In order to restore some of its colonial pride, Scotland once again set forth across the Atlantic ocean seeking to establish themselves in the new world yet again. However, Scotland’s second attempt at colonisation at the Isthmus of Panama on the Gulf of Darién in 1695 ended disastrously. It was a poorly conceived and ill advised scheme that left Scotland in financial ruin. Scotland now couldn’t survive on its own. Just seven years after the failure at Darien, it was forced to concede to the Act of Union, joining with England as the junior partner in the United Kingdom of Great Britain. England paid off the enormous debt Scotland has amassed. Due its financial instability, Scotland established an institution that eventually became the Royal Bank of Scotland.

After more than a century of a tug of war between the French and the English in claiming Nova Scotia from each other, the English finally won. Scots began to emigrate back to Nova Scotia, and they settled in all parts of the province. Scottish settlers soon made up the majority of the population, coming mainly from the lowlands, Dumfries and border area of Scotland. After the Battle of Culloden, many Highlanders emigrated to Nova Scotia, some were Catholics fleeing persecution, others were Jacobites who felt betrayed by Scotland for joining the union. This trend of Scottish immigration would continue into the 18th and 19th centuries during the Highland Clearances. The first Highlanders to come to Nova Scotia arrived on the Ship Hector at Pictou in 1773. Pictou would become known as the Birthplace of New Scotland. Scotland was beginning to make a permanent impression on Nova Scotia and Gaelic quickly became the third most common European language spoken in Canada, after English and French.

Nova Scotia would eventually become apart of the Kingdom of Canada, however the Scottish footprints remain all over Nova Scotia and it is clear to see. It’s in the people; the largest ethnic group in Nova Scotia is Scottish (31.9%) with a large portion of people identifying as Scottish Canadians, and are in some way related to Scottish immigrants. It’s in the places: Inverness, Argyle, Caledonia, Iona, New Glasgow, Clydesdale, Antigonish, the list goes on. The official Nova Scotian flag was designed as a combination of the Scottish Saltire and the Royal Arms of Scotland. The folklore and music of Nova Scotia is characteristically Scottish with a strong celtic influence. The largest university in Nova Scotia, Dalhousie University in Halifax was founded by Scottish aristocrat George Ramsay, and is the only Gaelic college in Canada. St. Francis Xavier University in Antigonish was also founded by a Scot, the Catholic Bishop Colin Francis MacKinnon.

Despite only colonising Nova Scotia for three years, Scotland has been able to maintain its influence. Traditions have endured, its heritage has survived, and regardless of being under the rule of the French, the English and the Canadians, it’s the Scottishness that the province and its people identify the most with. While the colonies of the New World became sovereign in their own right and cultures began to blend and evolve, Nova Scotia remains a jewel in the crown of European expansion into the Americas. Perhaps the the vision of Sir William Alexander has come to fruition, at least symbolically. The idea of Nova Scotia was motivated by ambition and patriotism, a stronger Scotland and a New Scotland. Thanks to Alexander and his vision, in many ways this came true. The name Nova Scotia ultimately fulfilled its promise and became a New Scotland in a New World, and still is to this day.

Sources:

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/civil_war_revolution/scotland_darien_01.shtml

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/james_i_vi.shtml

https://gutenberg.ca/ebooks/frasera-novascotiaroyalcharter/frasera-novascotiaroyalcharter-00-h-dir/frasera-novascotiaroyalcharter-00-h.html

It was on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington where Martin Luther King went from activist to icon, becoming the figurehead of the civil rights movement of the 1960s. Speaking for only 17 minutes he was able to change the course of American history, socially, economically and politically. King would speak at the march for jobs and freedom, promoting and end to racism and an equality of civil and economic rights. 250,000 gathered to demonstrate at the rally initially organised to show support for President Kennedy’s proposed civil rights legislation. However, it is King’s speech that will be forever revered and remembered from this day, as the defining moment in both the civil rights movement and King’s life.

About the speech

The speech itself, arguably the most important in modern American history, is as carefully crafted as it is impactful. At the start of the speech King alludes to Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address ‘Five score years ago, a great American, in whose symbolic shadow we stand, signed the Emancipation Proclamation.’. This immediately gives us historical context linking America’s founding and the Civil War with the fight for civil rights. By doing this, King draw parallels to the past struggles of America which helps people to identify with the civil rights struggle with greater ease. This opening gambit also highlighted the rhythm and cadence in which King spoke. The use of alliteration here, five words beginning with the letter S, creates a musicality and a poetry in the speech. This technique made it easy listening and memorable all at the same. King would use alliteration time and time again, but it was far from the only technical aspect of his speech. He would also use repetition, not only to effectively emphasise but to provide a structure to his speech. The six phrases repeated more than any other in the speech outline the larger ideas that King is communicating: ‘One hundred years later’, ‘We refuse to believe’, ‘Now is the time’, ‘We cannot be satisfied’, ‘I have a dream’ and ‘Let freedom ring’. These phrase take us on a journey of the past, present and future of civil rights. There is also a striking refusal to surrender set out by King, not settling for the treatment of the past or the struggle of the present, but fighting for a brighter vision of the future. Part of King’s genius is his ability to seamlessly create an equally relevant and recognisable structure drizzled with subtle nuance. In addition to these techniques, King’s speech offers relative political references, metaphors and Shakespearian poetry ‘This sweltering summer of the Negro’s legitimate discontent’. By doing this, King undoubtedly strengthens his speech, not one word is wasted, every syllable, every vocal inflection is intentional. King doesn’t stop at the Gettysburg Address or Shakespeare, evoking biblical references to further connected with his audience ‘we will not be satisfied until justice rolls down like waters and righteousness like a mighty stream’. This type of referencing was very important, not only to African-Americans at that time, but to the rest of the nation. The speech resonated on so many levels to so many people across the country, black and white. This was the first time a black southern Baptist preacher was broadcast nationally and for many this was the first time hearing the civil rights struggle from the black perspective. King took advantage of his opportunity to speak to the nation, however, unlike previous speakers he did not speak of demands or specific bills. He painted a picture of a torturous past and a difficult present, but it is when he began to speak of the future that his tone changed. The emotion in his voice was matched by the emotion in his message. The simple and easy to understand sentiments of ‘I have a dream’ is key when communicating to diverse nation of the U.S. King now keeps his speech simple, emotional and relatable ‘I have a dream that my four little children will one day live in a nation where they will not be judged by the colour of their skin but by the content of their character’.

King is easily able to communicate his hope and ambition, his message is simple, his delivery is clear, yet his speech is complex and layered. The iconic line ‘I have a dream’ is no accident either. King is deliberately trying to draw a parallel between his dream and the American dream, a dream which had failed African-Americans. For many African Americans the American dream was a myth, or an exclusive club for white people. King’s vision was defiant, it was bold and ultimately it was about equality and inclusion. In this carefully constructed, multi-layered speech, King contrasts his poetic and profound with simple and informal, conceptualising and elevating them both. This is why the speech resonates and will last the test of time.

King’s Influence

Martin Luther King challenged his nation to live up to the democratic principles of the founding fathers, and his dignified cry for equality was heard. Not only from ‘sea to shining sea’ but around the world. King spoke to his fellow countrymen and in doing so set off a worldwide movement for racial emancipation. His speech played an important role in the passing of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the 1965 Voting Rights Act. He opened the eyes of generations and communities previously silenced or kept in the dark. His speech would also influence even more diverse generations after his untimely death. King kept himself apolitical and did not aligning with a political party in the U.S, but rather choose to ‘look objectively at both parties and be the conscience of both—not the servant or master of either.’. Despite this, a number of politicians have been influenced and inspired by the great work and powerful ideals of King. Both the Democrats and Republicans hold King in high regard. He rose above party politics, avoided petty political point scoring and was able to keep the civil rights issue about people rather political parties. King’s ideals are still as present today as they were when he made that speech. Civil rights have come along way since 1963, in 2008 the U.S elected their first Black President, Barack Obama, a seminal moment in the nation’s history. However, race relations are still a divisive issue and the words of Martin Luther King may be as important now as when he first uttered them. The current turbulent times in the U.S are by no means its first in it’s history and it will be with the same vigour and optimism exhibited by King himself in which the nation can recover. As King said, as relevant now as ever, ‘(this is) not an end, but a beginning’.

On this day 70 years ago at the stroke of midnight India finally gained its independence from British rule. This proved to be a milestone, not only for India and the British Empire, but also in the creation the nation of Pakistan. When midnight struck, the blowing of a conch shell at the assembly hall in New Delhi signaled that India was now a free member of the British Commonwealth of nations. This turning point in Indian history was met by a mixed reaction of optimism, relief, caution and fear from the Indian people. For many this was vindication and liberation from centuries of struggle in the fight for independence. For many others, however, independence meant a fractured society, both culturally and religiously. It also meant a potentially poorer society without the stability and infrastructure that the empire provided. Much like any fight for independence, it was not straightforward, not easy and not unanimously supported. This was a momentous event that was centuries in the making.

‘Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge…At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom.’ – Jawaharlal Nehru

400 years ago India was divided into many different territories, each ruled by its own Emperor or King. Akbar the Great, the third Mughal Emperor conquered much of India and began to export fabrics and other luxury goods such as spices and sugar around the world. These goods became very popular in Europe, eventually leading to trading ports being introduced along the Indian coastline for merchants. With demand ever-increasing in Europe, the British started to set up their own trading posts in India. Over the next hundred years trade between the British and India grew at an exponential rate. British merchants and the government were making a lot of money, and they wanted more. They demanded free trade access to the whole country, but the local Indian rulers refused. The British then went to war, forcing them to surrender. Gradually, The British claimed control of India, moving inland and northward, until no independent Indian ruler was left. By 1877, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India and the British began to move in. They took powerful roles within the government and the army, controlling the economy and infrastructure. British business also arrived, setting up factors and further increasing trade. Indian dissention under British rule began to grow as poverty rose, with many Indians were not seeing the return for their labour. Several devastating famines leading to the death of millions of Indians intensified the atmosphere to complete resentment and discontent. Protests and Uprisings became commonplace.

On April 13, 1919, a crowd of nonviolent protesters gathered at Jallianwala Bagh in Amritsar. The British Indian army arrived and opened fire without warning, killing between 400 – 1,000 Indians. This would be known as the Amritsar massacre, and it horrified and engaged an indifferent generation of Indians to uprise against British rule. One Indian took it upon himself to lead the rebellion against British rule. That man was Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. However, this was to be a rebellion of a different kind. Gandhi, born in Porbandar in 1869, trained as an attorney in London, England before moving to Natal, South Africa. Working as a lawyer in Natal, Gandhi not only witnessed racial discrimination and prejudice but experienced it first hand. He was thrown off a train for being Indian, even though he had a first class ticket. This would be a seminal moment for Gandhi, whose career and life was now turning towards civil rights and social justice. After spending more than 20 years in South Africa, opposing segregation with non violent resistance, Gandhi returned to India. He returned as one of the country’s leading political figures, and also became a leading figure in the fight for independence. In 1930 he organised a three-week, 200 mile march from his home to the coastal village of Dandi. This was in protest to the British tax on Indian salt, making it far too expensive for the majority of the population to purchase. The march began with 78 protestors which soon turned into thousands. They assembled on the beach where Gandhi began to gather the salt naturally produced from the seawater. Thousands followed suit. British troops arrived and arrested hundreds of protesters, including Gandhi himself. But this type of protest continued for days all over India, stretching the British army resources and jails to near breaking point. Something had to be done and the salt tax was changed. This was the critical first juncture towards Indian independence, it was the first time British government heard the voice of the Indian people. It was also the first concession made towards the demand of Indian people. Gandhi’s salt march was perhaps the most symbolic protest for Indian independence and raised Gandhi’s status to that of cult hero. Not only was he adored in India, but when he arrived in London to discuss independence with the British government, he was greeted with incredible fanfare. Crowds of people swarmed to see him, especially  poorer East Londoners who revered him for his stance on equality and human rights campaigning. Gandhi was given the name Mahatma, meaning ‘great-souled’ and is considered the father of the India. However, Gandhi wasn’t the only figure fighting for independence.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah, an Indian statesman and liberal nationalist, thought for independence like Gandhi, however he had a differing vision to his fellow countryman. India is and was a multi-faith country, Jinnah was Muslim, he campaigned for greater rights and representation for Muslims through the All India Muslim League throughout his life. Gandhi was a Hindu and his vision for and independent Indian was that of a multi-faith nation living together in peace and harmony. Jinnah, however, did not believe this to be possible. He proposed a that a separate nation be created on the Indian subcontinent, where the majority of Indian Muslims lived. This idea would lead to the creation of Pakistan. By 1940, a strong nationalistic fervour had engulfed India. The Freedom Movement championed by Gandhi and the push for an independent Muslim nation of Pakistan by Jinnah invigorated a nation. The pressure within India on the British government was palpable. A decision would soon be made to outline the terms of a transfer of power from Britain back to India. The British government was ready grant India her independence and also approve of the formation of Pakistan. The non violent protests, the acts of civil disobedience, the pressure and campaigning worked. The Freedom Movement inspired a nation and was a crucial factor in the fight for independence, but it was not the sole factor. An issue much closer to home for Britain played a fundamental role in changing their stance on Indian independence. World War Two.

The financial toll of WWII on Britain was clear, rationing was commonplace and the economy had been shattered. It was no longer logistically possible for Britain to maintain control of an empire the size of India, with its diverse demographic and increasingly disobedient society. The repercussions of having taken part in WWII hastened Britain’s decision to grant independence for India. WWII had accelerated what was already an inevitability into a reality. On August 15, 1947 India won its independence and was partitioned into two dominions, the newly created Muslim-majority nation of Pakistan and the Hindu-majority India.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah would go on to be Pakistan’s first governor-general and president. Jinnah was hero of a people and had altered the destiny of Muslims in the Indian subcontinent. Respected and idolised, the people of Pakistan sought to defend the nation that Jinnah had worked so hard to establish. Violent religious riots would break out between the Hindus and the Muslims. The newly created border between India and Pakistan saw brutal riots in which more than half a million people were killed. 10 million non-Muslim Indians migrated from Pakistan back into India. Gandhi did not celebrate Indian independence but instead continued to campaign for peace and tolerance. He remained a cult hero, but the vision he had for India pre-independence became a divisive subject, given the incredible levels of violence between Muslims and Hindus. On 30 January 1948, Gandhi was shot and killed by a Hindu extremist Nathuram Godse, furious at Gandhi’s tolerance towards Muslims. The tolerance that Gandhi displayed throughout his entire life was his ultimate undoing.

The tolerance, compassion and nonviolent civil disobedience that Gandhi advocated would go on to be his greatest legacy, inspiring the civil rights movement of the 1960s in the U.S and the fight to end apartheid in South Africa. Both India and Pakistan remain voluntary member states of the Commonwealth of nations to this day. The legacy of India’s independence is marred with violence and poverty, but perhaps the everlasting legacy is not independence itself, but the peaceful means by which it was achieved.

Sources:

http://www.bl.uk/reshelp/findhelpregion/asia/india/indianindependence/

http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/the-amritsar-massacre

http://www.history.com/topics/salt-march

July 7 1960, Vice President Richard M. Nixon is nominated for president at the Republican National Convention in Chicago.

Richard Nixon was nominated by a landslide majority of 1,321 votes compared that of to 10 for his closest rival in the race, Barry M. Goldwater. Having served two terms as Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Vice President, Nixon was seen as the obvious choice of candidate given his experience. He would go on to choose Henry C. Lodge as his running mate, selecting him over his future Vice President and successor to the Presidency Gerald R. Ford. Nixon and Lodge ran against the Democratic ticket of John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson. The two Presidential candidates, Nixon and J.F.K, battled in the first televised presidential debates. Despite holding his own against Kennedy in the first debate and considered the winner by many, Nixon did not come off well. He appeared  awkward, lacking the media friendly skills most politicians possess today. He was unshaven and sweaty, which he put down to having a cold. The photogenic Kennedy on the other hand came across as calm, relaxed, well polished and prepared. Nixon would go on to lose Kennedy by only 112,827 votes, which was the closest election results since 1884. The next few years saw many defining points in U.S history: the Cuban Missile Crisis, the J.F.K assassination, The War in Vietnam and the Civil Rights act 1964. Had Nixon not caught a cold and had he shaved the morning of the debate, the history of the United States would have been very different indeed.

Nixon would then spend the majority of the 1960’s on the political fringes, and even attempted to completely remove himself from the public eye telling the media “You won’t have Nixon to kick around anymore because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference” in 1962. However, a rebranded ‘New Nixon’ returned to the forefront of mainstream politics in 1968, launching a fresh bid for the Presidency of the United States. He was nominated on the first ballot at the Republican National Convention, beating opponents such as future Vice President Nelson Rockefeller and future President Ronald Reagan. Nixon would also change tactics when choosing his running mate. He decided against rehashing the 1960 campaign with Henry C. Lodge, opting for Maryland Governor Spiro T. Agnew instead. After a successful campaign, based on strong leadership, a ‘Southern Strategy’ of appealing to southern, white, working class voters as well as the promise of ending the War in Vietnam, Richard Nixon won the 1968 Presidential election.

What followed was a Presidency marred with broken promises, protests, deceit, controversy and a national scandal that rocked the United States. Nixon would go on the offensive in Indochina, not only escalating the bombing campaign in Vietnam, but extending it to Laos and Cambodia. This was met by anger on the home front with a nation losing patience with the Vietnam War. However, the failures in Vietnam would not be the undoing of Nixon as he would go on to landslide election success in 1972, winning a second term. Nixon’s downfall would come shortly after. On June 17, 1972, a break in at the Watergate office of the Democratic National Committee headquarters exposed a series of cover ups from the Nixon administration over its involvement in the burglary. As the scandal unravelled it revealed corruption, abuse of power and ‘dirty tricks’ at the highest level and throughout the Nixon administration. Trust and confidence in both Nixon as President and in the office of Presidency itself began to erode. Backed into a corner during a press conference, Nixon uttered the now infamous line ‘I am not a Crook.’ while defending his name and character against the allegations of corruption. Vice President Agnew became engulfed in his own corruption and bribery scandal, with charges predating his time in the Nixon administration. Forced to resign to avoid prosecution, Agnew was gone leaving Nixon without a Vice President. Nixon had hoped that the Agnew scandal would distract the attention of the nation from the Watergate scandal, however it only added fuel to the fire, heightening suspicion and further eroding trust in the government. Gerald R. Ford would be sworn in to replace Agnew as the Vice President on December 6, 1973 during what would go down as the biggest national scandal in the nation’s history to date.

Nixon was trying to put Watergate behind him but the momentum was against him. The House Judiciary began investigating the case for impeachment. Nixon was on his knees. Watergate, the Spiro scandal and the investigation was impeding and undermining his presidency. At what would be his final State of the Union address, Nixon asked for a quick resolution to the impeachment proceedings against him, so that the government could restore its legitimacy and run efficiently once again. As the investigation continued, evidence was gathered, however, it was clear that the transcripts of the tapes of Nixon’s conversations had been heavily edited. This further heightened suspicion of a coverup and it became obvious that there had been a clear obstruction of justice. The investigation was not only exposing Nixon’s involvement in Watergate, but also called into question his personal finances and tax returns. The falsified records of the bombing of Cambodia was also under investigation, increasing the pressure on the President. Nixon’s Presidency was now in a very precarious position, becoming almost untenable.

On July 7, 1974, exactly 14 year after Nixon was nominated as the Republican candidate for President, the House Judiciary Committee voted 27-11 to recommend the first article of impeachment against him.

Impeachment was recommended on the charge that he had actively engaged in a course of conduct designed to obstruct justice in the Watergate case. The Committee would go on to recommended impeachment for three out of five charges. This included abuse of power and contempt of congress. Nixon was now a political pariah with very little support left, even from within his own party. His Secretary of state Henry Kissinger described him as ‘a man awake in his own nightmare.’

On August 8, 1974, Richard Nixon announced to the world that he would resign the Presidency effective at noon the following day. In his resignation speech he bemoaned the lack of a base of political support in congress necessary for him to do his job effectively. He only alluded to his own wrongdoings which he suggested were made with the best of intentions and national interest in mind. His successor President Ford would go on give him a full, free and absolute pardon against any indictment, in the spirit of  letting the nation heal.

These two pivotal days highlight a contrasting trajectory in the life and career of Richard Nixon. A figure who offered much promise to the Republican party, gaining unprecedented electoral success, and was considered the Republican’s answer to Franklin D. Roosevelt. He soon became a figure synonymous with corruption and controversy, taking a nation’s mistrust of its government to new heights. Maintaining his innocence until his death, he still remains a controversial figure to this day and perhaps serves as a cautionary warning to any future political leader. As Lord Acton once said ‘Power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely’.

Sources

https://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/on-this-day/july-27/

http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h1791.html

Zinn, Howard. A People’s History of America. New York, New York, USA. HarperCollins Publishers, 1995.