scientia New

Exploring Homemade Rockets

2013-07-13T11:33:00.001-07:00

Key concepts

Chemical reactions

Physics

Gravity

Rockets

Thrust

Pressurization

Introduction

Have you ever marveled at how fireworks, toy rockets or real spacecraft can launch into the air? It can be an amazing thing to witness. It is thrilling to see something lift off against Earth's gravity. The strong push required to launch a spacecraft comes from a chemical reaction in its rockets. This means that every time you see a spacecraft launch, you're watching chemistry at work. In this activity you'll get to blast an object into the air using two simple household ingredients: baking soda and vinegar. Investigate how to mix these chemicals to get the best lift off, and then this Independence Day you could give your family a homemade, gravity-defying show!

Background

How does a spacecraft lift off and get into space? The simple answer is that it has rocket engines that propel it. The rockets depend on combustion to provide the thrust the spacecraft needs to overcome the force of gravity and climb into orbit. Combustion is a fast, exothermic chemical reaction between a fuel (for example, jet fuel) and an oxidizer (such as oxygen) in which the fuel burns and heat is produced. Usually the fuel is an organic compound (containing hydrogen and carbon, and sometimes metal and/or other components). During the chemical reaction, new compounds are made. These are referred to as the exhaust. The rockets push the hot exhaust out from the bottom at high pressure and thus the spacecraft is thrust upward.

In this activity instead of using rocket fuel you will use baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) and vinegar (acetic acid) to make a different kind of chemical reaction that can launch a small-scale rocket made from a film canister. The reaction produces water and carbon dioxide (which will appear as bubbles). You'll take advantage of the pressure the carbon dioxide gas makes in the capped film canister to launch your rocket.

Materials

• Plastic film canister with a lid and tight seal. Fuji or Kodak canisters should work.

• Baking soda

• Measuring spoons

• Wax paper or bowl

• Spoon

• Water

• Vinegar

• An open outdoor area at least two meters from buildings. It is ideal to have a hard, flat surface such as a paved patio or driveway.

• Safety goggles

• Rag or paper towel

• Optional: Construction paper, transparent tape, stickers and scissors

• Optional: A helper to watch, a helper to take a video or a video camera with a tripod

Preparation

• If you like, you may decorate your film canister rocket. You could wrap a piece of construction paper around the canister and cut the paper so it just covers the rocket's sides (but does not go above or below the sides). After evenly wrapping the paper on the canister, secure it with some tape. You can add additional flat decorations, like stickers or drawings. Make sure it is still easy to put the lid on.

• Remember, when you launch your film canister rocket be sure to wear eye protection and exercise caution!

Procedure

• Place one teaspoon (tsp.) of baking soda onto the wax paper or bowl. Add one eighth tsp. of water to the baking soda and mix it in well. If you're using wax paper, you can carefully use the wax paper to fold the damp baking soda onto itself to help mix in the water.

• Turn the film canister lid upside down and pack the inside of the depression with the damp baking soda. (Do not put baking soda near the rim where the canister snaps onto the lid.) Pack it tightly. Turn the lid right side up again for a moment. Does the damp baking soda stay in place? If it stays, move on to preparing the vinegar. If it falls out, add a little bit more water to the baking soda and mix it in, but try to add as little water as needed. The baking soda will not need to stay packed into the lid long.

• Add one tsp. of vinegar to the canister at a time, filling it almost to the top. You need to add as much vinegar to the canister as possible—just enough to keep the vinegar and the baking soda from coming into contact when you later snap the lid onto the canister. Depending on the canister, this may be about five tsp. of vinegar. How much vinegar did you use?

• Go outside to an open area at least six feet from buildings. If you want to videotape the reactions, set the video camera so that it has in its viewfinder the spot where you will launch your canister rocket and the equivalent of at least the first story of a building and then start the video. (Alternatively, you may have a helper watch the reactions to help you figure out how high the canisters go.)

• Put on your safety goggles. Stoop down near the ground on a flat, hard spot and quickly snap the lid onto the canister to seal it. Immediately turn the canister over so the lid is on the ground, and quickly move away. Wait for the chemical reaction to occur. How long does it take to happen? When the lid pops off, the rocket should launch. How high does the canister go?

• Tip: If the rocket did not launch, the lid might not have been sealed tightly enough. (If this happens you may simply see many foamy bubbles coming out of the canister.) The rocket may not have launched right for some other apparent reason (such as not sealing the lid fast enough). If it didn't launch right, try preparing and launching the canister rocket again. You may need a little practice to get used to launching the rocket.

• After the launch, carefully rinse the lid and canister with water and then dry them. If your canister is covered by construction paper, make sure it doesn't get too wet.

• Prepare the damp baking soda and vinegar as before but this time use a little more than half the original amount of vinegar. For example, if you used five tsp. of vinegar, this time use three tsp. (Still use one tsp. of baking soda.)

• Again, go outdoors, put your safety goggles on and launch your newly prepared canister rocket. Does it take longer, shorter or about the same amount of time as the first rocket did to launch? Does it go a higher, shorter or about the same distance?

• Lastly, rinse the lid and canister with water, dry them and prepare them as before but this time use one tsp. of vinegar (or around one fifth of the original amount that you used). Put your safety goggles on, go outside and launch the canister rocket. How long does it take to launch compared with the other two launches? How high does the canister go compared with the previous two times?

• If you're unsure of any of your results, you can try repeating them (using the same amount of baking soda and vinegar).

• What amount of vinegar led to the highest launch height? Why do you think this is?

• Extra: You can try varying the amount of vinegar even more and see how this affects the rocket's launch, such as using one, two, then three tsps., etcetera, of vinegar. (You could also repeat the same conditions you tested to see how consistent your results are.) How does changing the amount of vinegar in the canister change how it launches?

• Extra: You could also try changing the amount of baking soda (keeping the same amount of vinegar) and see how this affects the canister's launch. For example, you could try comparing one, three-fourths, one-half and one-quarter tsp. of baking soda. (Adjust and use just enough water for the baking soda to stick to the depression in the lid.) How does changing the amount of baking soda in the lid affect the canister's launch?

• Extra: Add a cone and fins to your rocket (such as out of construction paper) and launch it again using the best conditions you found. How does adding these components affect the canister's launch?

bservations and results

Did the launch using the smallest amount of vinegar result in the highest launch height? Did it also take the most time to launch?

When baking soda and vinegar are mixed together, the reaction produces water and carbon dioxide gas. In the capped film canister, the carbon dioxide gas builds up until the pressure of all of the contained gas causes the canister to pop open. The pressurized carbon dioxide then quickly escapes the canister through the open bottom. This is how the chemical reaction provides the thrust the canister needs to launch. You may have noticed that when the least amount of vinegar was used, it took a little longer to launch than when more vinegar was used. Because there was less vinegar in the canister, there was more space for carbon dioxide gas to fill. It takes longer for more carbon dioxide to be made from the reaction and thereby more is needed to fill this larger space and build up enough pressure to pop the lid open like it did before. Overall, when the least amount of vinegar is used, more carbon dioxide can fill the canister and a higher launch height should be seen (possibly around 15 feet, compared with around six feet when the canister was nearly full of vinegar).

Cleanup

If you launched your rocket on a concrete surface, spray the surface down with some water after you have completed your launches.

More to explore

Rocket Thrust, from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

Combustion, from NASA

Baking Soda and Vinegar Reaction and Demonstrations, from apple-cider-vinegar-benefits.com

Rocketology: Baking Soda + Vinegar = Liftoff!, from Science Buddies

This activity brought to you in partnership with Science Buddies (

How to explain Conduction,Convection and Radiation

2011-09-24T21:05:00.000-07:00

Heat flows.Introduction

Liquid Crystal thermometers

Liquid crystal thermometers portray temperatures as colors and can be used to follow temperature changes caused by heat flow. They can be used to observe that heat flows by conduction, convection, and radiation.
Material

Liquid crystal thermometer
stopwatch
ruler
flat pieces of metal, about an inch wide and at least four inches long
adhesive to attach liquid crystal material to the metal pieces
lightbulb
hot and cold water in open top containers
a thermometer

Four explorations follow:

Click here for more details

How To Build a Matchbox Pinhole Camera ?

2011-09-24T08:00:00.000-07:00

The Box

Remove the inner part of the matchbox, the match tray. Mark out a 24mm square exactly in the centre of the match tray. Alternatively, if you want standard format rectangular photos (some photo labs will find these easier to print) mark out a 36mm x 24mm rectangle. Carefully cut out the frame shape with a sharp knife, keeping the edges as neat as possible, or if you prefer, make it messy, it's up to you! Any rough edges and card fibres will appear around the edges of each photo.

To reduce internal reflections in the camera, colour in the inside of the tray with a black felt tipped pen.

Hypothesis & Overview

2011-09-17T01:24:00.000-07:00

This experiment was performed to ascertain the concentration of lead content in the tap water of new houses (less than 10 years old) as compared to houses which are more than 50 years old. These older houses should still be using lead pipe plumbing.

Hypothesis

Older houses use lead pipe plumbing and therefore a higher level of lead content will be detected in the piped water, as compared to newer homes which use PVC pipes
.

Overview

Lead piping

Lead pipes were used in plumbing until the early 20th century. Houses that are older than 50 years of age might still be using lead pipe plumbing. Many new houses use PVC pipes for plumbing, although copper and galvanized piping is equally popular.
Lead pipes cause the level of lead in tap water to increase substantially. Excessive lead content in drinking water can cause hypertension and kidney problems in adults. It also delays mental and physical growth in children. Regulations in the US require the level of lead in drinking water to be less than 15 parts per billion (ppb).

Scientific Terms

Lead, PVC, polyvinyl chloride , ppb (part per billion)

Materials&Procedure

Materials

The materials required for the experiment:

10 small bottles to collect water samples.
Select 5 new houses (less than 10 years old). Each house must be in a different residential area.
Select 5 old houses (more than 50 years old). Each house must be in a different residential area.
Select a laboratory to test for lead in the samples.

Procedure

For this experiment, the independent variable is the age of the houses. The dependent variable is the lead content in the water. This is determined by sending the sample for testing in the lab. The constants (control variables) are the amount of water taken as samples, and the laboratory used for testing.
Visit the new houses (less than 10 years) and collect the water samples. Houses in different residential areas are selected because they will have a different piping path leading from the water source to the house. Before taking any samples, ask the owner of the house if the plumbing is made of PVC. If he/she is unable to tell you, survey the plumbing in the house to determine if lead, copper or PVC pipes are used. If required, enlist the help of a plumber. If the plumbing is not PVC, find another old house to obtain a sample. Let the tap water run for 30 seconds before taking the water sample. The bottle is immediately labeled and stored safely.
Repeat step 2 at 4 more houses.
Visit the older houses (more than 50 years old) next. Houses in different residential areas are selected for the same reason above. Before taking any samples, ask the owner of the house if the plumbing has been changed recently. If he/she is unable to tell you, survey the plumbing in the house to determine if lead or PVC pipes are used. If required, enlist the help of a plumber. If the plumbing is not lead, find another old house to obtain a sample.
If the plumbing is made of lead, let the water run for 30 seconds before taking a sample of water. Label the bottle and put it aside.
Repeat steps 4 to 5 at 4 more houses.
When all 10 samples are collected, send the 10 bottles to an independent laboratory to test for the level of lead content.

Observation

The results show that many houses which are more that 50 years of age have lead pipes and where they do, a higher dosage of lead is found in the water. Many houses which are less than 10 years old have PVC pipes (although many have copper or galvanized pipes) and where they do, they have very low levels of lead.

New house with PVC plumbing ( <10 years)	Lead content/ppb	Old house with lead plumbing (>50 years)	Lead content/ppb
New House 1	7ppb	Old house 1	25ppb
New House 2	12ppb	Old house 2	32ppb
New House 3	9ppb	Old house 3	30ppb
New House 4	10ppb	Old house 4	32ppb
New House 5	9ppb	Old house 5	28ppb

Conclusion

The hypothesis that the older houses which use lead plumbing have a higher level of lead content in their tap water as compared to newer houses that use PVC pipes, is proven to be true.

The level of lead in our drinking water is now regulated in almost all countries. Water utility companies have to abide by strict regulations to control the level of contaminants such as lead, in our drinking water. Water is distributed to our homes through a network of pipes and most of the pipes in this network are regularly replaced over time. However the internal plumbing in older houses are not replaced and this may be a source of serious health risks to the occupants.
Lead poisoning causes many health problems and can especially affect children and unborn babies. Lead is not only found in water, but also in paint, contaminated soil, crockery and even some toys. Therefore, be wary of the products you buy and ensure that they are lead-free.

Also consider

The experiment can also be performed using testing kits such as Prolab, to reduce the cost.
Try to modify this experiment to check the level of copper in tap water.

References

Common types of piping - http://www.onlinetips.org/pipe-choose
What you need to know about lead in the tap water -http://www.mwra.com/04water/html/qual6leadinfo.htm

What is Stomata?

2011-09-17T00:46:00.001-07:00

Question: What side of a plant leaf takes in gases?

Hypothesis: Ten (10) students say the top of the leaf takes in gases because when rain and watering cans water plants it comes from above and hits the top of the plant leaves first. Ten (10) say the bottom of the leaf takes in gases because after observing the leaves from each plant the bottom of the leaves were more veiny and the skin of the bottom leaves seemed thinner. The top of the plant leaf had a thicker, waxy covering and it looked like water would be hard to get through it.

Materials: Two varieties of plants
Vaseline
A Camera

Procedure: Coat the top of four leaves from each plant with a heavy layer of Vaseline.
Coat the underside of four leaves from each plant with a heavy layer of Vaseline.
Observe the leaves daily for one week.
Is there any difference in the two sets of leaves?

Results: Three of the four leaves that had Vaseline on the underside, died. Only one leaf with vaseline on the top died. Therefore, we believe that plant leaves take in gases from the bottom, not the top, of each leaf.

Why: Openings on the underside of plant leaves called stomata allow gases to move into and out of the leaves. The vaseline plugged the openings and the leaf was not able to receive the necessary carbon dioxide gas or eliminate excess oxygen gas.

MAKING A HOME-MADE MICROSCOPE

2011-07-16T10:18:00.001-07:00

Plans adapted from "Under the Microscope" by Curry, Grayson and Hosey

Purpose:

A good microscope is a wonderful way to introduce a child to the wonders of the natural world. But good microscopes tend to be expensive, costing many hundreds of dollars. By eliminating the fancy focusing equipment and housing, and spending most of your money for good lenses, a homemade microscope of good quality can be made for under $100.00.

Microscope construction:

Materials List:

part A - pine - 5" x 2 1/2" x 3/4"

part B - plywood - 5" x 5" x 1/2"

part C - pine - 4 1/2" x 1 1/2" x 3/4"

part D - pine - 5" x 2 1/2" x 3/4"

part E - 3/4" PVC pipe 6 5/16" long (purchased at plumbing supply stores)

6 wood screws: #6 x 1 1/4"

10X eyepiece

4X (or 10X) objective lens

Instructions:

To make the microscope body: 1. Cut out parts according to parts list. 2. Drill a 1 1/16" hole in part A to hold PVC barrel of microscope. 3. Drill 6 screw holes in part A and part D as shown on diagram.

(These holes should be slightly larger than the diameter of the screws.) 4. Screw the microscope body together.

To make the microscope barrel:
1. Cut the PVC pipe to 160 mm. Microscope lenses are designed to work at this distance apart.
2. Ream out one end of the microscope barrel with a 15/16" drill. If this is done carefully with a drill press, the eyepiece will fit snugly into the microscope barrel.
3. Place the objective lens in the other end of the microscope barrel. Depending on the PVC pipe, the objective lens might fit very loosely, in which case the lens must be taped in place. Or it might not fit at all, in which case, the PVC pipe will have to be reamed out so the eyepiece fits. Then tape the eyepiece in place.
4. Place the microscope barrel in the hole you cut in part A. It should fit snuggly enough so that the microscope barrel can be raised and lowered by twisting and pushing it up or down. If the hole is too large, place a small piece of paper between the wood and the microscope barrel.

Overview of the Scientific Method

2011-07-13T08:52:00.000-07:00

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search forcause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way.
Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your experiment.

Steps of the Scientific Method
Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number.
Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.
Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen."You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question.
Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident.
Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false.Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way.
Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting.

Even though we show the scientific method as a series of steps, keep in mind that new information or thinking might cause a scientist to back up and repeat steps at any point during the process. A process like the scientific method that involves such backing up and repeating is called an iterative process.
Throughout the process of doing your science fair project, you should keep a journal containing all of your important ideas and information. This journal is called a laboratory notebook.

The floristic composition

2011-07-11T07:04:00.000-07:00

The floristic composition is an admixture of both evergreen and deciduous species in the top storey. The prominent evergreen species are Artocarpus heterophyllus, Bischofia javanica, Calophyllum elatum, Euvodia lunuankenda, Hopea ponga, Mangifera indica, Mesua ferrea and Myristica dactyloides. The deciduous floral elements include Acrocarpus fraxinifolius, Bombax ceiba, Chukrasia tabularis, Dalbergia latifolia, Grewia tiliaefolia, Lagerstroemia microcarpa, Pterospermum sp., Terminalia bellirica and Toona ciliata. The species occurring in the lower layer are the same as seen in the evergreen forests.
Southern Hill top Tropical Evergreen Forest
It is an inferior variety of the typical evergreen forest, reaching to a maximum height of only 10 m.
Distribution: This type of forest abounds in the Andamans and Western Ghats. They are usually seen on the slopes and tops of hills.
Locality factors: High winds, less favourable soil and climatic conditions restrict the formation of a climax. Rainfall is usually high, over 4500 mm and humidity is high even during periods of scanty rainfall.
Floristics: Top canopy trees & Second storey trees - Artocarpus heterophyllus, Canarium strictum, Cedrela toona, Cullenia exarillata, Dysoxylum malabaricum, Elaeocarpus seratus, Eugenia species, Holigarna beddomei, Mesua ferrea.
Bamboos :– Ochlandra travancorica
Shrubs: Pandanus spp, Strobilanthes spp
Climbers: – Calamus spp
West coast tropical evergreen Forest
These are dense evergreen forests with lofty trees of 45 m or more height. A large number of species occur mixed together. This makes the canopy extremely dense. Ferns, mosses, aroids and orchids are seen in plenty. The undergrowth consists of cane, creeping bamboo, and palms. With the increase in elevation and rainfall, the height of the forest diminishes, though it remains dense and evergreen, changing into the stunted wet sub-tropical forest.
Distribution: Enjoys a wide distribution over the Western Ghats
Locality Factors : It is seen in an altitudinal range of about 250-1200 m.The rainfall varies from 1500-5000mm.
Floristics: These forests are characteristic in having a high proportion of Mesua ferrea, Palaquium ellipticum, Cullenia exarillata and Calophyllum elatum. The absence of Hopea parviflora and Dipterocarpus indicus needs mention.
Top canopy trees: Artocarpus hirsutus, Bischofia javarnica, Canarium strictum, Calophyllum elatum, and Dysoxylum malabaricum
Second storey trees: Actinodaphne hookeri, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Euphoria longana, Myristica beddomei, Vateria indica.
Shrubs: Leea indica, Pandanus spp, Strobilanthes spp, Rubiaceae
No grass in undistributed forest.
Climbers :– Climbers on the whole are not woody
Wet evergreen and semi-evergreen climax forests
In Kerala, wet evergreen forests are mostly confined to the windward side of the WG, where the rainfall is above 2000mm. By taking into account the distribution pattern of certain charactristic species, which reflect the climatic variations, the forests are further subdivided into eight main floristic types and three facies. All these types are classified according to low (0-800m), medium (800-1450m) and high (1400-1800m). The medium elevation forests in some places may appear at lower elevation (650 m ) due to local variations in the moisture and exposure.
Deciduous Forest
Based on the moisture regime, moist deciduous forests are divided into primary/climax or secondary moist deciduous forests. The primary moist deciduous forests generally occupy the rainfall zone of 1500 to 1800 mm, as a transition between wet evergreen and dry deciduous forests. The secondary moist deciduous forests occur within the potential area of wet evergreen formations, where the rainfall is more than 2000 mm. Although the floristic composition is almost similar in both the types, the relative dominance of certain species varies.
Secondary Dry Deciduous Forests
These are inferior climax forests predominated by poorly shaped, small sized trees. Sandal is also seen in such forests.
Distribution: They are seen distributed in dry deciduous forests and intruding into the drier parts of moist deciduous forests.
Locality Factors: The soil surface is hard and impervious due to exposure and trampling effected by heavy grazing, fuel and timber collection.
Floristic: Top canopy trees – Bombax ceiba, Grewia tiliaefolia, Schleichera oleosa, Tectona grandis
Second storey – Feronia limonia, Santalum album Shrubs – Dodonaea viscosa, Lantana camara

Southern Dry Deciduous Forests
The sub group differs from the dry teak forest species-wise, though typical plants like Boswellia are conspicuous. Heavy grazing invigorates growth of thorny species. Bamboo is mostly absent and of poor quality, if present. Climbers are rarely seen.
Distribution: It occurs throughout peninsular India, especially in drier localities.
Locality factors: The rainfall varies from 875 mm –1125mm on dry sites and soils. The shallow soiled, well-drained hillsides and the undulating grounds have identical forests, making it difficult to establish the relation of site and climate to the forest in situ.
Floristic: Diospyros tomentosa, Chloroxylon swietenia, Hardwickia binata, Boswellia serrata
Primary moist deciduous forests (Lagerstroemia microcarpa – Tectona grandis – Dillenia pentagyna type – LTD)
Primary deciduous forests are found in isolated patches between the Anamalai and Wayanad plateaus. Denser part of this type is the form of woodland and savanna woodland. Dillenia pentagyna and Tabernaemontana heyneana are characteristic species of this type. Lagerstroemia microcarpa and Tectona grandis, together with other species such as Anogeissus latifolia, Dalbergia paniculata, Pterocarpus marsupium, Terminalia paniculata, Hymenodictyon excelsum, Haldina cordifolia are common.
Secondary moist deciduous forests:
In kerala secondary forests cover larger areas than the primary type, mostly in the form of dense forests and woodland to savanna woodland. Especially on the steep slopes, they are found as tree savanna. Floristically, there are similar to primary moist deciduous however, some deciduous species like Dillenia pentagyna, Tabernaemontana heyneana, Strychnos nux-vomica, and Xylia xylocarpa, are relatively more common than in the primary forests. Tectona grandis, which is extensively planted, has also been found mixed with other species in dense formations. In the dense forests often there is dominance of evergreen species like Ixora brachiata, Olea dioica, Persea macrantha, Dimocarpus longan, Flacourtia montana etc.
Dry Deciduous forests
With in the given rainfall regime, dry deciduous forests in Kerala State are rare. They are confined to northern slope of Anamalai in Chinnar Wild life Sanctuary, eastern part of Mannarkad Division, and South Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary where the rainfall is less than 1200 mm. The physiognomic structure of these dry deciduous forests is highly variable, due to impoverishment of soil, especially on steep slopes, and also due to anthropogenic pressures including fire and grazing. Three types of dry deciduous forests have been recognized.
Albizia amara –Acacia spp. Gyrocarpus asiaticus type (AAG)
This type is found only in Chinnar Wild life Sanctuary, up to 650 m. On the lower slopes, Acacia chundra and A.leucophloea are characteristic species, particularly in the scrub woodland and thickets. Albizia amara, Erythroxylum monogynum, Dichrostachys cinerea and Chloroxylon swietenia, and Hardwickia binata are the other common species of this type.
On the slopes, especially on skeletal soils, tree savannas are the prominent formations. In such habitat Gyrocarpus asiaticus, with metallic-coloured bark, is the characteristic species, along with other slope-loving species, like Cochlospermum religiosum, Givotia rottleriformis, Sterculia urens and Commiphora caudate.
Anogeissus latifolia – Pterocarpus marsupium – Terminalia spp. type (APT)
This type is found above 600 m in Mannarkad Division (northern part) and Chinnar WLS. As it is generally found on slopes, physiognomy varies from savanna woodland to tree savanna. Apart from the species mentioned in this type Dalbergia paniculata, D.latifolia, Emblica officinalis, Kydia calycina and Grewia tiliifolia are also common.
Anogeissus latifolia – Tectona grandis – Terminalia spp.type (ATT)
This type is found only in the South Wayanad WLS. It is generally represented by dense forest and woodland to savanna woodland. Compared to adjacent primary moist deciduous forests, here the species like Dillenia pentagyna, Alstonia scholaris, Callicarpa tomentosa disappear and the species mentioned in the type become dominant. Other common species include Diospyros melanoxylon, Madhuca latifolia, Emblica officinalis, Lagerstroemia parviflora Careya arborea etc. In some poorly drained low-lying areas Shorea roxburghii become conspicuous.
Grass lands
In Kerala grasslands are generally found above 1500 m. The grasslands, which are also called as ‘shrub-savanna’ are characterised by herbaceous and shrubby species mixed with grasses.
The grasslands below 1800 m that are adjacecnt to medium or high elevation evergreen forests, are often found with sparse trees, represented by Wendlandia thrysoidea, Glochidion spp. Terminalia chebula, Emblica officinalis, Careya arborea, Briedelia crenulata; in some places a dwarf palm. Phoenix is found in patches. At this elevation range, grasses are tall, and reach the height up to 1.5 m. They are commonly represented by Androprogon lividus, Arundinella purpurea, Agrostis peninsularis, Chrysopogon zeylanicus, Eulalia phaeothrix, Sehima nervosum, Heteropogon contortus, Eulalia sp, Themeda sp, Ischaemum indicum, and Tripogon bromoides. In cattle grazed and frequently burnt areas, unpalatable Cymbopogon flexuous and Pteridium, a fern are frequent.
The grasses in this zone are mixed with other herbs like Crotalaria, Desmodium, Hypericum, Knoxia, Leucas, Lobelia, Osbeckia etc. Phlebophyllum kunthianum, a monocarpic shrub species, often dominates the grass land landscape.
At above 1800 m, especially in the Anamalai region (Eravikulam and Munnar) grasslands are more specialised. During the colder months, the minimum temperature often goes below zero degree centigrade. In this zone grass layer is less than 1m and is represented by Andropogon foulkesii, Anthistiria ciliata, Arundinella spp., Arundinaria villosa, Bothriochloa pertusa, Chrysopogon orientalis, Cymbopogon spp.,Eragrostis nigra, Eulalia spp., Heteropogon contortus , Isachne spp., Themeda spp., Tripogon bromoides and Zenkeria elegans.
Among Shrubby elements Berberis tinctoria, Gaultheria frangrantissima, Hypericum mysorense, Lobelia excelsa, Oldenlandia stylosa, Osbeckia wightianum, Pteridium aquiilnum, Rubus fairholmianus, Phlebophyllum kunthianus are particularly frequent. Rhododendron arboreum var. nilagiricum in the form of small tree is also sporadically seen in grasslands.
The common herbaceous elements among grasses include Anaphalis spp., Campanula fulgens, Cassia spp., Crotalaria notonii, Cyanotis spp.,Indigofera pedicellata, Justicia simplex,Knoxia mollis, Leucas suffruticosa, Lilium neilgherrense, Oldenlandia articularis Polygala sibirica, Striga asiatica, Viola patrinii,and Wahlenbergia gracilis. In the swampy pockets Commelina spp., Centella asiatica, Drosera peltata, Fimbristylis uliginosa etc are common. .
Mangroves
Mangroves are wetland ecosystems formed by the assemblage of specialized plants and animals adapted to semi saline swamps along coasts. Mangrove forests of Kerala are highly localized, but the species diversity of these mangroves and its associates are comparatively rich. It is confined to the upper reaches of estuaries, lagoons, backwaters and creeks. In Kerala mangroves are distributed in all the districts except Idukki, Pathanamthitta, Palakkad and Wayanad. Maximum extent is reported from Kannur district. The total extent of mangrove forests in the state is estimated to be less than 50km2 (Mohanan 1997) . Mangroves play an important role in the economy of coastal people through various ways. Mangroves provide excellent habitat for migratory birds, serve as breeding ground for many species of fishes and prawns helps in controlling pollution, rutting of husks etc.
The important mangrove plants are
Acanthus cillicifolius, Acrostichum aurem, Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia officinalis, A, rina, Azima tetracantha, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, B. cylindrica, B sexangula, Excoecaria agallocha, E indica, Kandelia candel, Rhizophora apiculate, R mucronata, Sonneratia caseolaris, Calophyllum etc. Some of these species that disappeared from the Kerala coast are Azima tetracantha an Ceriops tagal, Heritiera littoralis and Flagellaria indica have discourteous distribution. Calamus rotang and Syzygium travancoricum are some of the rare and endangered species found in the mangroves.
The major threats to the mangrove forests are land reclamation for urbanization, intensive aquaculture felling of mangrove trees for fuel and fodder, unsustainable land use, ambiguity in ownership etc.
Detailed Information

Cullenia exarillata- Mesua ferrea- Palaqium ellipticum – Gluta travancorica type (CMPG)
This type is confined to south of the Ariankavu Pass, between 8º20’N and 8º 50’ N. It is mainly defined by the altitudinal preference of Cullenia exarillata. This speceies is commonly found between 700 and 1400 m and seldom descends to 550 m in some moist valleys. Its latitudinal distribution goes up to 11º 55’N (Wayanad plateau.) Mesua ferrea and Palaqium ellipticum are widely distributed in both the low and medium elevation forests, however they tend to become more dominant at medium elevation. Gluta travancorica, a common canopy species is endemic to the south of the Ariankavu pass. The association of this species with the other three species (CMP) makes them a distinct medium elevation type.
There are certain species, which are either exclusive to the CPMG type or rarely found in the other medium elevation type north of Ariankavu pass. They are represented by Calophyllum austroindicum, Garcinia rubro-echinata, Garcinia imbertii,Garcinia travancorica, Diospyros barberi, Atuna travancorica, Nageia wallichiana at canopy and subcanopy level; Memecylon subramanii, Popowia beddomeana, Memecylon gracile, Octotropis travancorica, Diotacanthus grandis, Goniothalamus rhynchantherus and Vernonia travancorica at undergrowth level.
Nageia wallichiana ( Podocarpus) a sole indigenous Gymnosperm tree species in South India. In the WG it is found in the Agasthyamalai region (Periyar plateau) and in Anamalai region. In the Agasthyamalai region it is more common towards the eastern side as a canopy tree it forms with CMPG type, at above 1000 m. In the other two regions, they are rare in the CMP type of forests.
The species, which are also characteristic in this facies include Elaeocarpus venustus, Eugenia floccosa, Aglaia bourdilloni, Actinodaphne campanulata and Syzygium microphyllum. Bentinckia codapanna, an endemic palm is often found along the margins of the facies near the cliffs.
Cullenia exarillata –Mesua ferrea – Palaquium ellipticum type (CMP)
This type occupies the WG of Kerala between the Ariankavu Pass and the Brahmagiri Ghat in Wayanad. The lower limit of the type on the western side of the Ghats locally varies from 550 to 750 m. The bioclimatic range of this type is generally similar to CMPG type except in the length of the dry season, which varies from 2 to 4 months. In the Elaimalai region, the entire CMP type has been converted into cardamom plantations. In these plantations, cardamom has been grown as undergrowth, while keeping the original canopy intact. In the dense forests, apart from the type species,other common canopy tree or emergent species are Diospyros sylvatica, Drypetes elata, Cinnamomum keralense, Syzygium gardneri, Dimocarpus longan, Aglaia lawii, Litsea oleoides and all these are widely distributed. In the second and third ensembles that are also broadly distributed include Agrostistachys meeboldii, Symphilia mallotiformis, Tricalysia apiocarpa, Myristica dactyloides. Homalium travancoricum and Diospyros paniculata. However, some species like Drypetes venusta, Semecarpus travancorica, Diospyros nilagirica, Litsea bourdillonii, Litsea keralana, Bhesa indica, Aglaia tomentosa , are found up to the Palghat Gap. Beyond the Gap, these species either disappear or become rare. In the fourth ensemble Ardisia pauciflora,Goniothalamus wightiana, Tabernaemontana gamblei, Psychotria anamalayana, Lasianthus jackianus are common.
Dipterocarpus indicus – Dipterocarpus bourdillonii - Strombosia ceylanica type (DDS)
This type covers a wide area in the WG between Ariankavu Pass and northern border of the Palaghat Gap (9ºn and11ºN). Its general bioclimatic conditions are similar to that of the DKS type, except for the mean temperature of the coldest month, which is higher than 20ºC
Like in the previous type, Dipterocarpus indicus and Strombosia ceylanica are also characteristic species in this area. However, Kingiodendron pinnatum, which is dominant in the earlier types, has been replaced by gigantic Dipterocarpus bourdillonii. The distribution of both the Dipterocarpus are patchy due to over exploitation in the past. Dipterocarpus bourdillonii, which generally occurs at lower limits(<450 m), is the most affected species. Currently it is encountered only along streams and in some inaccessible areas. Bulk of the DDS type is in the form of distributed forests. These forests were logged for several decades for hardwoods and softwoods. Due to this repeated logging several climax species like Vateria indica, Palaquium ellipticum, Calophyllum polyanthum, Otonephelium stipulaceum, Chrysophyllum roxburghii, Dipterocarpus indicus, Semecarpus auriculata, Poeciloneuron indicum, have become less frequent. However, species with wider ecological aptitude viz. Polyalthia fragrans, Pterygota alata, Artocarpus gomezianus, Antiaris toxicaria and Bombax ceiba have become common and taken over the canopy. DDS type is also dotted with swamps especially in Ranni (between Plapally and Erumeli) and Kannur Divisions. Some of these swamps are dominated by Humboldtia vahliana with looping stilt roots along with Myristicaceae members viz. Knema attenuata, Myristica dactyloides and Gymnacranthera canarica Dry Teak Forest This sub-type occurs in areas having a rainfall of 900 mm-1300mm. It is characterized by shallow, porous or clayey soils and heavy grazing combined with frequent fires. Floristics: Top canopy trees – Tectona grandis, Anogeissus latifolia, Pterocarpus marsupium, Boswellia serrata,Terminalia tomentosa, T. paniculata, T bellirica Second storey trees: – Chloroxylon swietenia, Diospyros montana, Hardwickia binata, Cassia fistula, Wrightia tinctoria 1.3 High elevation type The high elevation forests are generally confined to altitude between 1400 and 1800 m, where the mean temperature of the coldest month varies 14-16ºC and length of the dry period ranges from 2 to 3 months. Rainfall in the area varies between 3000 to 5000 mm. Structurally, the forests are stunted, with two ensembles, and canopy seldom exceeds 15 m. Two floristic types have been identified in these high elevation forests. Bhesa indica – Gomphandra coriacea – Litea spp. type (BGL) In the Western Ghats of Kerala , this type is found between the Ariyankavu Pass and Palghat gap, between 1400 and 1800 m. At this elevation range, several species of the lower elevations disappear or become very rare viz Cullenia exarillata, Palaquim ellipticum, Diospyros spp and Agrostistachys meeboldii. The family Annonaceae which is dominant at lower strata in both low and medium elevations, disappears completely at high elevation. However, some species that are less important at lower elevations become significant at higher elevation range. Gomphandra coriacea, vicariant of Gomphandra tetrandra of low elevation forest, become conspicuous at lower strata. Lauraceae, which tends to become common with the increase of elevation, manifest its highest diversity. Several other species like Schefflera capitata, Mastixia arborea, Archidendron clyparia, Hydnocarpus alpina, Cocculus laurifolius, Acronychia pedunculata, Isonandra spp. Meliosma spp., Symplocos spp are also common in this type. Schefflera spp. Meliosma arnottiana - Gordonia obtuse type (SMG) This type found in north of the Palaghat gap (between 1400 and 1800 m) as a transition between CMP of medium elevation and LSM of montane type. Compare to its counter part (BGL) type in the south of the Palaghat gap, SMG type requires 3 to 6 months dry period. Even though the species mentioned in this type is found through out the medium elevation and above, they reach their optimum presence in the above mentioned region. Among Araliaceae Schefflera capitata, S. micrantha, S.racemosa. S.wallichiana are common. Lauraceae (Litsea, Cinnamomum, Alseodaphne, Neolitsea) and Myrtaceae (Eugenia, Syzygium, Rhodomyrtus) become conscpious from this type and towards montane type. Lateritic Semi Evergreen Forest Distribution: These are forests, which come up in the latteric soils and characterized by the presence of Xylia xylocarpa. Floristics: Top Canopy trees – Xylia xylocarpa, Pterocarpus marsupium, Anogeissus latifolia, Grewia tiliifolia, Secondary storey trees – Briedelia retusa, Strychnos nuxvomica, Calycopteris floribunda Shrubs – Adhatoda vasica Littoral forest This type of forest occurs along the coast having a fair width of sandy beach. The most important species is the tall evergreen, light-foliaged casuarina. In the absence of casuarina, smaller evergreen and deciduous trees form the dominant canopy. Locality Factors: The habitat exhibits pecularities, which needs mention. The sea sand has adequate lime content, but little nitrogen and mineral nutrients. Though the beach sand is coarse and porous, a high water table of brackish water is always maintained due to the proximity to the water body. The high insolation levels and sand-laden winds render the area suitable only to xerophytic plants. The mean annual temperature ranges from 26-29 degree Celsius. The rainfall received is around 5000 mm. Floristics: Species composition varies in different regions Low elevation types The low elevation types are typically ‘Dipterocarp’ Forests. Structurally, they are all dense forests with four structural ensembles (sense Oldeman, 1974) and an emergent layer. Canopy height often reaches 35-45 m. Floristically, low elevation forests are grouped into three main types Dipterocarpus indicus: – Kingiodendron pinnatum – Strombosia ceylanica type (DKS) This type is confined to south of the Ariankavu Pass (8º 20’N to 9º 00’N), where the length of the dry season varies from 2 to 3 months. Like in the other two low elevation evergreen forest types, Dipterocarpus indicus is a characteristic canopy species. Kingiodendron pinnatum, yet another important canopy tree in the type, shows a peculiar distribution pattern. It is very rare in the low elevation wet evergreen type between the Ariyankavu Pass and the Palaghat Gap, however, becomes prominent again north of the Palaghat Gap. Strombosia ceylanica has a wide distribution throughout the WG, but is more common among the canopy trees of low elevation types, south of the Palaghat Gap. The denser part of the DKS type is represented by two facies, which are found above 8 º 40’N. Below, that, the DKS type is mostly in the form of fragments or in a degraded condition. Some of the big fragements are close to climax forests with the presence of Vateria indica, Kingiodendron pinnatum, Hopea parviflora, Mesua ferrea, and Strombosia ceylanica. Dipterocarpus indicus are rare in these fragments. The two facies that have been identified under DKS type, one is characterized by the local abundance of otherwise two geographically rare species (Hopea racophloea and Humboldtia decurrens ),and the other corresponds to a particular ecosystem adapted to water logged areas. (i) Hopea racophloea – Humboldtia decurrens facies This facies is confined to humid valleys between Kallar and Shendurni Rivers , west of Agastya malai. Although, the distribution of Hopea racophloea and Humboldtia decurrens goes beyond the Ariankavu Pass, their presence in DKS type is more conscipious than in any other regions. Hopea racophloea with exfoliating bark is a canopy tree. Its regeneration is always gregarious. Humboldtia decurrens, a caulifliorus tree with large winged pinnate leaves, is prominent in the third structural ensemble of the forest. Other common canopy trees are Vateria Indica, Artocarpus gomezianus, Otonephelium stipulaceum, Holigarna nigra, Cynometra sp. and ficus beddomei. Poeciloneuron indicum has been found in patches. semecarpus auriculata and semecarpus travancorica are common towards the lower limit of the type. Among the species of lower ensembles Diospyros paniculata, Fahrenheitia zeylanica, Diospyros humilis, Hydnocarpus macrocarpa, Knema attenuata, Cynometra bedlomei are important. Medium elevation types Medium elevation forests are structurally very similar to low elevation ones especially at the lower limits, they are tall (canopy 35-45 m) with four structural ensembles. Towards the upper limit, the forests are stunted with two or three ensembles (canopy < 18 m ). They differ floristically from low elevation types due to disappearance of species like Dipterocarpus spp., Kingiodendron pinnatum etc. At this elevation range, the relative abundance of certain species like Strombosia ceylanica, Vateria indica, Diospyros bourdillonii etc. have also become less. Two main types and one facies have been recognized at medium elevation Moist Teak Bearing Forest Here, the teak found is usually of second and third quality. The overwood mostly comprises of deciduous species. Floristics: Top canopy trees - Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia, Bombax ceiba, Lannea coromandelica, Albizia lebbeck Second storey trees – Xylia xylocarpa, Wrightia tinctoria, Mallotus philippensis II a – Bambusa bambos, Dendrocalamus strictus Shrubs – Helicteres isora, Desmodium spp Montane evergreen forests (Laitsea spp, - Microtropis spp – LSM): Montane evergreen forests (sholas) are confined to high altitude plateaus, in the regions of Anamalai (Eravikulam and Munnar) ,Vavul malai (North Nilambur) and upper reaches of New Amarambalam RF (South Nilambur) , adjoining the Nilgiri plateau. These plateaus generally come under high rainfall (>5000mm) zone and the temperature (mean temperature of the coldest month) is less than 13.5ºC. Here the evergreen forests are found amidst the grasslands in valleys, depressions and on convex mounts. The tree layer in shoals comprises of short boled evergreen species with canopy height up to 15 m and bark covered with lichens, orchids and moss.
Lauraceae and Myrtaceae families characterize these forests. Litsea spp. of the former family and Syzygium spp. of the latter are dominant, along with Microtropis spp (Celastraceae). Other common species in the shola include Symplocos pendula, Elaeocarpus recurvatus, Michelia nilagirica Actinodaphne bourdillonii, generally dominated by subtropical elements like Berberis tinctoria, Daphniphyllum neilgherrense, Photonia notoniana, Rapanea spp., Rhododendron nilagiricum, Rhodomyrtus tomentosa, Symplocos spp., Turpinia cochinchinensis.
Myristica Swamp Forest
They are fairly dense evergreen forests reaching a height of 15-30 m , with clean slender boles. The undergrowth includes mainly aroids and scitaminae.
Distribution: Restricted to valleys in the tropical evergreen forest of Travancore
Locality Factors: It occurs as fringe forest on slow moving streams. The soil is sandy alluvium with high humus content.
The soil layer remains inundated from June to January’
Floristics: Top canopy trees & second storey trees- Myristica magnifica , Myristica malabarica, Lagerstroemia
speciosa, Laphopetalum wightianum, Carallia brachiata
Shrubs – Pandanus sp
IV a – Cyperaceae, Scitaminae
Climbers – Calamus sp
Nilgiri Sub-tropical Hill forests
These forests resemble the tropical rain forest except for the stunted growth of trees. They are less luxuriant and the trees have shapeless boles, often festooned with epiphytes. Strobilanthes usually forms dense undergrowth.
Distribution: They are seen in the Nilgiris, Anamalai, and Palani Hills of Tamilnadu and Kerala.
Locality Factors: This sub group occurs at altitudes between 1000m and 1700m on the South Indian hills. The mean annual temperature ranges from 17-22 degree Celsius. The rainfall recorded is high and varies from 1500-6600mm. The number of rainy days amounts to a Maximum of 132.
Floristics: Top Canopy trees and second or secondary storey trees – Calophyllum elatum, Actinodaphne hookeri, Canthium dicoccum, Ficus arnottiana, Persia macrantha
Shrubs – Strobilanthes sp
Climbers – Calamus sp
South Indian Sub Tropical Hill Savannah
An open savannah forest with tall, coarse grass reaching a height of 2-3 m. Scattered trees of deciduous nature are also seen.
Distribution: Found in the Nilgiri and Palani Hills of Tamil nadu and Kerala
Locality factors: The rainfall varies from 1500 mm upwards and is evenly distributed.
Floristics: Top canopy trees- Dalbergia latifolia, Anogeissus latifolia.
Second storey trees – Olea dioica
Shurbs- Phoenix humilis
IV b – Heavy grass
Southern Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest
Top Canopy trees and Second storey trees – Terminalia paniculata, Terminalia tomentosa, Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica, Dillenia pentagyna, Sterculia villosa, Albizia odoratissima, Cassia fistula, Gmelina arborea, Saccharum spontaneum (Grass species)
Southern Montane Wet Grasslands
They are seen over large areas on the rolling downlands. The highest parts of the forest and the forest in the depressions are subject to annual frost. Fires are frequent and grazing is heavy.
Floristics: Cymbopogon flexnosus. Eragrostis nigra, Themeda cymbaria
Southern Montane Wet Temperate Forest
They are luxuriant evergreen forests with closed canopy. The trees attain considerable girth, but are short boled and branchy. The leaves exhibit a varying range of colours, which is a distinct feature of this forests. The wet nature of the forest results in abundance of moss, ferns and other epiphytes. The canopy differentiation is not discernible.
Distribution & Locality factors: It occurs in Tamilnadu and Kerala on the Nilgiris, Anamalia, Palani and Thirunelveli hills from about 1500 m upwards. It is also found in patches of Shola of the sheltered plains. The mean annual temperature ranges from 14-17 degree Celsius. The mean annual rainfall varies from 1300-6000 mm. The soil is reddish or yellowish clay, topped by varying depths of soil rich in humus.
Floristics: Ternstroemia gymnanthera Syzygium,S.arnottianum,S.tamilnadensus, calophyllifolium, E. arnottiana, E. Montana, Rhododendron nilagiricum, Elaeocarpus spp.
Southern Secondary Moist Mixed Deciduous Forest
Floristics: Top canopy trees – Terminalia paniculata, Mangifera indica, Dalbergia latifolia, Lagerstroemial anceolata, Alstonia scholaris, Xylia xylocarpa.
Second storey trees – Olea dioica, Careya arborea, Phyllanthus emblica, Callicarpa tomentose Phylanthus emblica, a Bamboo absent
Shurbs - Clerodendrum Viscosum, Helicteres isora, Glycosmis pentaphylla
Climbers – Calycopteris floribunda, Acacia chesia
Tropical riparian fringing forest (riparian forest)
The forest type is characterized by a few evergreen and semi-evergreen species restricted on the sides of streams forming a narrow fringe. In the Sanctuary the forest type is restricted mostly along the sides of the Pambar and Chinnar rivers.
The dominant species are Terminalia arjuna, Hopea parviflora, Bischofia javanica, Mangifera indica, Drypetes roxburghii, Vitex leucoxylon, Pongamia pinnata, Garcinia gummi-gutta, Mallotus stenanthus, Calophyllum calaba, Entada rheedei, Lepisanthes tetraphylla, Syzygium cumini, Schefflera racemosa, Homonoia riparia, Vitex altissima, Salix tetrasperma, Gnetum ula etc
Very Moist Teak Forest
In this type, teak forms only 10 percent of the overwood. Most of these forests are sub climaxes in semi evergreen forest and are of secondary orgin.
Floristics: Top Canopy trees – Lagerstroemia lanceolata, Grewia tiliifolia
Second Storey trees – Dillenia pentagyna, Kydia calycina
Bamboos – Bambussa bambos
Shrubs – Clerodendrum viscosum, Glycosmis pentaphylla, Lantana camara
Climbers – Spathalobus roxburghii, Acacia pennata.
West coast Semi-Evergreen forest
Being intermediate between the tropical evergreen and moist deciduous forest, these are difficult to define except describing in comparative terms. They usually include patches of both these types mixed into a mosaic. It forms a closed high forest, the dominant trees sometimes will grow very large. Buttressed stems continue to frequent both in evergreen and moist deciduous forests. The general canopy is less dense than in true evergreen and the evergreen undergrowth rather copious; climbers tending to very heavy. Bamboo is usually found well distributed in the evergreen forest. Epiphytes are abundant, including many ferns and orchids.
Locality factors: Rainfall varies from 2000-2500 mm on the plains
Floristics: Top canopy trees – Terminalia tomentosa, Dalbergia latifolia,Haldina cordifolia, Xylia xylocarpa, Artocarpus hirsutus, Hopea parviflora, Mesua lerrea,
Second storey trees- Hydnocarpus pentandra, Bischofia javanica, Mallotus philippensis, Kydia calycina
Bamboos- Ochlandra sp, Bambusa bambos