eufisica

Physics of Superheroes

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 29 Jun 2026 14:00:00 +0000

In the past, I posted about the Physics of Spiderman 3, Superman.

Today, I present in this blog a paper about Physics and Superheroes.

The Standard Model

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Sun, 28 Jun 2026 15:57:22 +0000

Standard Model - Source: Wikipedia

The Standard Model of particle physics is the theoretical framework that describes the fundamental building blocks of the universe and the forces through which they interact. It is one of the most successful and rigorously tested theories in modern physics.

Here is a breakdown of how the universe is put together according to the Standard Model.

1. The Building Blocks: Matter Particles (Fermions)

All tangible matter in the universe is made up of particles called fermions, which have half-integer spin (e.g., $1/2$ ). These are divided into two main categories, each split into three "generations" of increasing mass.

Quarks

Quarks are heavy particles that experience the strong nuclear force. They combine to form composite particles called hadrons (like protons and neutrons).

Generation 1: Up ( $u$ ), Down ( $d$ ) — These make up ordinary stable matter.
Generation 2: Charm ( $c$ ), Strange ( $s$ )
Generation 3: Top ( $t$ ), Bottom ( $b$ )

Leptons

Leptons do not feel the strong nuclear force.

Generation 1: Electron ( $e^-$ ), Electron Neutrino ( $\nu_e$ )
Generation 2: Muon ( $\mu$ ), Muon Neutrino ( $\nu_\mu$ )
Generation 3: Tau ( $\tau$ ), Tau Neutrino ( $\nu_\tau$ )

Note: For every matter particle, there is a corresponding antimatter particle with the same mass but opposite electric charge (e.g., the positron is the antielectron).

2. The Messengers: Force Carriers (Gauge Bosons)

Particles interact by exchanging force-carrier particles called gauge bosons, which have integer spin (e.g., $1$ ). The Standard Model accounts for three of the four fundamental forces of nature:

Force	Description	Gauge Boson (Carrier)	Mass / Range
Electromagnetism	Governs atomic structure, light, and chemical reactions.	Photon ( $\gamma$ )	Massless / Infinite
Strong Nuclear Force	Binds quarks inside protons/neutrons and holds atomic nuclei together.	Gluon ( $g$ )	Massless / Short-range
Weak Nuclear Force	Responsible for radioactive decay (like beta decay) and initiating solar fusion.	$W^+$ / $W^-$ and $Z^0$ Bosons	Very heavy / Ultra short-range

3. The Mass Giver: The Higgs Boson

The Higgs Boson ( $H$ ) is a scalar boson (spin $0$ ) associated with the Higgs field, which permeates the entire universe.

Mechanism: As fundamental particles move through this field, they interact with it. The strength of this interaction determines the particle's inertial mass.
Particles like the top quark interact strongly and are very heavy; photons do not interact with it at all and remain massless.
Its discovery at CERN's Large Hadron Collider (LHC) in 2012 was the final piece confirming the Standard Model's framework.

What the Standard Model Left Out

While incredibly robust, the Standard Model is known to be an incomplete theory of nature because it fails to explain a few massive cosmological puzzles:

Gravity: It does not include general relativity. The hypothetical carrier of gravity, the graviton, has not been incorporated mathematically into the quantum framework.
Dark Matter & Dark Energy: The model only accounts for about 5% of the energy-mass composition of the observable universe. The remaining 95% is completely unaccounted for.
Neutrino Mass: In the original mathematical formulation of the Standard Model, neutrinos are massless. However, oscillation experiments have proved they possess tiny, non-zero masses.
Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry: It doesn't fully explain why the universe today is overwhelmingly made of matter, even though the Big Bang should have produced equal amounts of matter and antimatter.

Physics and Cristiano Ronaldo

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Fri, 26 Jun 2026 18:54:56 +0000

Jupiter Notebook File (PT)

Eggnaut challenge

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Fri, 26 Jun 2026 11:39:27 +0000

Eggnaut protection created with Gemini

One of the students’ favorite challenges is the Eggnaut experiment. In this activity, they use the physics learned in secondary school along with engineering, management, economics, and other skills to create a cost-effective solution to protect the egg.

You can check the "Jupiter" book in python here: Simulations/eggnaut.ipynb at main · eufisica/Simulations

Jupiter code about the Hellium Chewing Gum

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 25 May 2026 15:07:30 +0000

This post (from 2010!) explained the Physics behind a fake video.

There wasn't AI to try to explain the phenomenom. But we have it today. So I took all the Physics and put it in a Jupiter file available here: Simulations/helium gum exp.ipynb at main · eufisica/Simulations

By the way, the new website is ready and available here: EUFISICA.

The Scale of the Universe

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 06 Apr 2026 16:11:00 +0000

Scales in the Universe - Created with Gemini AI

The scale of the universe is so vast that our everyday units of measurement completely break down. To comprehend it, physicists and astronomers look at the universe across orders of magnitude, moving from the microscopic quantum realm up to the edge of everything we can see.

1. The Microscopic Limit: Quantum Scale

Before looking outward, understanding the absolute smallest limits of space helps frame the true extremes of scale.

The Planck Length ( $1.6 \times 10^{-35}\text{ m}$ ): The theoretical smallest possible distance in physics. Below this scale, the traditional concept of space and time ceases to exist.
Subatomic Particles ( $10^{-18}\text{ m}$ to $10^{-15}\text{ m}$ ): Quarks and electrons have no measurable size, but a proton or neutron spans about $1\text{ femtometer } (10^{-15}\text{ m})$ .
The Atom ( $10^{-10}\text{ m}$ ): An atom is roughly $0.1\text{ nanometers}$ across. If an atom were magnified to the size of a massive sports stadium, its nucleus would only be the size of a marble in the center.

2. The Human and Planetary Scale

Moving up to lengths we can physically perceive, objects grow exponentially as we exit Earth's atmosphere.

Humans ( $10^0\text{ m}$ ): Positioned roughly in the middle of the cosmic scale between the Planck length and the observable universe.
Earth ( $1.27 \times 10^7\text{ m}$ ): With a diameter of roughly $12,742\text{ km}$ .
The Sun ( $1.39 \times 10^9\text{ m}$ ): Approximately $109$ times the diameter of Earth. You could fit about $1.3\text{ million}$ Earths inside it.

3. The Cosmic Scale: Light-Years and Parsecs

Once we leave the Solar System, the meter becomes too small to be practical. Instead, we measure distances by how far light travels in a year (one light-year, or $\approx 9.46 \times 10^{15}\text{ m}$ ).

Solar System & Neighborhood: The distance from Earth to the Sun is $1\text{ Astronomical Unit (AU)}$ . The nearest star system to us, Alpha Centauri, is about $4.37\text{ light-years}$ away.
The Milky Way ( $10^{21}\text{ m}$ ): Our home galaxy is a spiral disk roughly 100,000 light-years across, containing hundreds of billions of stars.
The Local Group & Superclusters ( $10^{23}\text{ m}$ ): The Milky Way belongs to a small cluster called the Local Group (spanning $10\text{ million light-years}$ ), which itself is a tiny branch of the massive Laniakea Supercluster, home to over $100,000$ galaxies.

4. The Observable Universe

The observable universe is a spherical region centered on Earth, encompassing everything we can theoretically detect because its light has had time to reach us since the Big Bang.

The Diameter: While the universe is about $13.8\text{ billion years}$ old, the expansion of space means the edge of the observable universe has stretched farther away. Its current diameter is estimated to be roughly 93 billion light-years ( $8.8 \times 10^{26}\text{ m}$ ).
The Content: It contains up to $2\text{ trillion}$ galaxies and an estimated $10^{24}$ stars—more stars than there are grains of sand on all of Earth's beaches.
Beyond the Observable: Because cosmic inflation expanded space faster than the speed of light during the earliest moments of the Big Bang, the entire universe is likely far larger than what we can observe—and it may well be infinite.

Would you like to explore a specific realm of this scale further, such as the math behind cosmological expansion, or how we measure these immense distances using standard candles?

How Big is The Universe?

This video provides an excellent visual journey zooming out from Earth to the edges of the observable universe to help contextualize these massive cosmic distances.

Take a look in this website: http://scaleofuniverse.com/

Build your thermo scale

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Sun, 12 Dec 2021 18:31:00 +0000

Do you want to know more about thermometers?

Well check this website, choose your scale and see how it's the formula (see the image below).

Update (12-12-2021): You need to download the file (right click with your mouse and select "save link as...") and you can run in your computer (you need Adobe Flash Player installed in your computer).

Thermometers

Developed during the 16th and 17th centuries, a thermometer (from the Greek θερμός (thermos) meaning "warm" and meter, "to measure") is a device that measures temperature or temperature gradient using a variety of different principles. A thermometer has two important elements: the temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb on a mercury thermometer) in which some physical change occurs with temperature, plus some means of converting this physical change into a numerical value (e.g. the scale on a mercury thermometer).

Read more in Wikipedia.

Farenheit Scale

Fahrenheit is the temperature scale proposed in 1724 by, and named after, the German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736). Within this scale, the freezing of water into ice is defined at 32 degrees, while the boiling point of water is defined to be 212 degrees. The temperature scale was replaced by the Celsius scale in most countries during the mid to late 20th century, but it remains the official scale of the United States, Cayman Islands and Belize.

Read more in Wikipedia.

Celsius Scale

Celsius is a scale and unit of measurement for temperature. It is named after the Swedish astronomer Anders Celsius (1701–1744), who developed a similar temperature scale two years before his death. The degree Celsius (°C) can refer to a specific temperature on the Celsius scale as well as a unit to indicate a temperature interval, a difference between two temperatures or an uncertainty. The unit was known until 1948 as "centigrade" from the Latin "centum" translated as 100 and "gradus" translated as "steps".

Credit: uoregon.edu

From 1744 until 1954, 0 °C was defined as the freezing point of water and 100 °C was defined as the boiling point of water, both at a pressure of one standard atmosphere with mercury being the working material. Although these defining correlations are commonly taught in schools today, by international agreement the unit "degree Celsius" and the Celsius scale are currently defined by two different temperatures: absolute zero, and the triple point of VSMOW (specially-purified water). This definition also precisely relates the Celsius scale to the Kelvin scale, which defines the SI base unit of thermodynamic temperature with symbol K. Absolute zero, the lowest temperature possible at which matter reaches minimum entropy, is defined as being precisely 0 K and −273.15 °C. The temperature of the triple point of water is defined as precisely 273.16 K and 0.01 °C.

This definition fixes the magnitude of both the degree Celsius and the kelvin as precisely 1 part in 273.16 (approximately 0.00366) of the difference between absolute zero and the triple point of water. Thus, it sets the magnitude of one degree Celsius and that of one kelvin as exactly the same. Additionally, it establishes the difference between the two scales' null points as being precisely 273.15 degrees Celsius (−273.15 °C = 0 K and 0 °C = 273.15 K).

Read more in Wikipedia.

Rankine Scale

Rankine is a thermodynamic (absolute) temperature scale named after the Glasgow University engineer and physicist William John Macquorn Rankine, who proposed it in 1859. (The Kelvin scale was first proposed in 1848.)

The symbol for degrees Rankine is R^[1] (or Ra if necessary to distinguish it from the Rømer and Réaumur scales). Zero on both the Kelvin and Rankine scales is absolute zero, but the Rankine degree is defined as equal to one degreeFahrenheit, rather than the one degree Celsius used by the Kelvin scale. A temperature of −459.67 °F is exactly equal to 0 R.

Some engineering fields in the U.S. measure thermodynamic temperature using the Rankine scale.^[2] However, throughout the entire scientific world thermodynamic temperature is measured in Kelvin.^[2] The US National Institute of Standards and Technology does not recommend using degrees Rankine in NIST publications.

Read more in Wikipedia.

Another temperature scales:

The Delisle Scale, the Newton Scale, the Réaumur Scale, the Rømer Scale.

And here is the conversion formulae:

FisAstEE project

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Sun, 12 Dec 2021 18:17:00 +0000

FisAstEE is a Portuguese Science Outreach project related to Physics and Astronomy activities with the target group the parents of children in primary schools.

The project can be found in Facebook, and in the Website.

#fisastee

Rare trio of particles observed for first time at CERN's ATLAS Experiment

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Wed, 11 Aug 2021 16:29:00 +0000

The ATLAS Experiment observed a rare trio of particles.

Check the video:

the sounds on Mars

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 22 Feb 2021 20:13:00 +0000

Check the link to hear some sounds collected by the rover Perseverance.

https://twitter.com/NASA/status/1363937570363740164?s=19

Rover Perseverance and Jezero's Crater

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Sat, 20 Feb 2021 17:31:00 +0000

Perseverance first photography of landed site. Credit: NASA/JPL

The Mars' rover, Perseverance, landed and it started to photograph the landscape of Jezero's crater site.

You can check an interactive map of the site here: https://www.esa.int/Science_Exploration/Space_Science/Mars_Express/An_interactive_map_to_explore_Jezero_crater

Or check this video made by ESA/DLR/FU Berlin:

Rover Perseverance

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Thu, 04 Feb 2021 13:01:00 +0000

Mission Patch. Credits: NASA

The Rover Perseverance will be landing on Mars in February 18.

In the mean while, you can check information in this flyer or download the PDF

Credits: NASA

understanding colors

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 01 Feb 2021 13:11:00 +0000

In this video Neil deGrasse Tyson explains the Physics behind colors.

You can check this lesson, and create a copy from here (if you like it).

Here is another lesson as well (about light pollution):

ODS Summer School - Project Scenario by José Gonçalves de eufisica

Another educational scenario

World Data of COVID-19 (updated)

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Wed, 27 May 2020 17:02:00 +0000

Here are the World Data of the decease COVID-19, provoked by SARS-COV-2 virus (presented in the image above).

The graph on the left presents the ratio of deaths by country. You need to multiply by 100 to obtain the percentage of deaths.
The global percentage (by now) is 6.22%.

You can filter the information directly in the data.

And this is the graph with the percentage of death people by country:

3rd place is for United Kingdom

Experiments @Home

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 28 Apr 2020 15:32:00 +0000

In this times of corona virus, we need to stay at home.

But, that doesn't mean we can't do some experiments.

Here it is a video to perform some experiments at home:

Let's play @home

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 20 Apr 2020 19:09:00 +0000

During this days we can play with our children to try to build something like this:

Or you can create an easy one by using cardboard (image source: https://www.hellowonderful.co/post/15-impressive-ways-to-make-a-marble-run/)

Or like this one (image source: https://www.edenproject.com/learn/for-everyone/how-to-make-a-recycled-marble-run)

Let's be creative!

Higgs Discovery Explained - Ep. 1/3 | CERN

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 14 Apr 2020 16:13:00 +0000

A new era of internet?

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 31 Mar 2020 12:43:00 +0000

A nanophotonic cavity created by the Faraon lab. Credit: Faraon lab/Caltech

Well, not yet. But this is a start to connect quantum computers through a quantum network. Development of experiments to connect two quantum bits is the next step. Let's see what reserves in the future.

"Engineers at Caltech have shown that atoms in optical cavities—tiny boxes for light—could be foundational to the creation of a quantum internet. Their work was published on March 30 by the journal Nature. (...) Currently, the team's focus is on creating the building blocks of a quantum network. Next, they hope to scale up their experiments and actually connect two quantum bits, Faraon says."

In phys.org

A new simplified ventilator for COVID-19 patients

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Mon, 30 Mar 2020 22:07:00 +0000

Cartlidge ventilator (Courtesy: C Galbiati et al)

Until now, Italy was the country that was most affected by this SARS-COV-2 virus. But science are trying to fight back. A new simplified ventilator was made to treat patients with respiratory difficulty:

"The 26-strong group of physicists from Europe and North America has designed a new, stripped-down mechanical ventilator that it hopes can be mass-produced quickly and cheaply using off-the-shelf components" in Physics World

Physics can help in every situation. Always.

Preprint on arXiv: https://arxiv.org/abs/2003.10405

understanding data

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Sun, 29 Mar 2020 14:39:00 +0000

World data of SARS-COV-2: http://eufisica.blogspot.com/2020/03/world-data-of-covid-19.html

Here it is a good video from Minute Physics to understand the data related to COVID-19:

World data of COVID-19

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Thu, 26 Mar 2020 16:45:00 +0000

Follow this to obtain the World data about SARS-COV-2 infections, recovers and deaths.

The data is updated everyday.

Physics and COVID-19

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 24 Mar 2020 11:07:00 +0000

Global situation in 2020/03/24 Source: https://gisanddata.maps.arcgis.com/apps/opsdashboard/index.html#/bda7594740fd40299423467b48e9ecf6

Like meteorologists tracking a hurricane, physicists are racing to predict the impact of COVID-19 outbreaks in order to advise policy makers.

"Vespignani points to several approaches developed in physics that are relevant for describing disease spread. One example is the mathematical model that describes diffusion-controlled reactions, in which chemicals spread in a liquid and react upon contact. Another powerful tool is network theory, which represents individuals or clusters of individuals as interconnected nodes, much like train stations on a transit map. The theory can forecast the rate at which an infection spreads through a population based on patterns of human interaction, such as the way people cluster at specific times during the daily commute."

Source: https://physics.aps.org/articles/v13/43

months ahead with SARS-COV-2

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 24 Mar 2020 10:54:00 +0000

This virus could travel to the north (Russia, Canada, ...) in the summer and come back to lower latitudes in the winter.

"The coronavirus pandemic could last over 18 months, according to a 100-page federal government response plan recently shared with The New York Times.
The next year and a half could include "multiple waves of illness," according to the document. "The spread and severity of COVID-19 will be difficult to forecast and characterize." "

Source: https://www.livescience.com/coronavirus-pandemic-could-last-18-months.html

Optical Illusions

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Tue, 26 Nov 2019 13:28:00 +0000

Here are some optical illusions:

Inquiry lessons in Go-Lab portal

noreply@blogger.com (José Gonçalves) — Wed, 16 Oct 2019 09:28:00 +0000

There is an interesting portal supported by European funds about inquiry lessons through the use of online labs, simulations and data.
The teachers can search for a lab, an app, or an ILS (Inquiry Learning Scenario), and they can make a copy. After that they will be redirected to a portal where they can edit the lesson, create a new one or just they can copy the link to submit to their students.
To know more go to: golabz.eu