Science, Health, Safety and Environment Info

Enzim

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 10 Nov 2010 07:07:00 +0000

In 1926 James Sumner of Coernell University managed to isolate the enzyme urease from bean extract and then crystalin. In crystalline urease Sumner found a protein. Then John Northrop in 1930 crystalin trypsin and pepsin, John also found that the second enzyme is a protein.

Therefore, the enzyme is a protein that has a specific three-dimensional structure capable of reaction catalyst - a biological reaction. With the enzyme reaction rate will increase but the activation energy is lower than usual reaction. Catalytic activity is influenced by the structure or conformation of the protein. If the protein conformation changes are extreme enzymes such as changing the pH of the concrete, heating and cutting polipeptidanya chain, the catalytic activity will decrease or disappear altogether.
In the cell there are hundreds of different enzymes - different, meaning that the enzyme is only as catalysts for specific reactions. Enzymes can catalysts one group of substrates, those that can catalysts one substrate only, but there also are stereospesifik.Some enzymes only consist of polypeptide chains and contain no other chemical components. Examples of pancreatic ribonuclease enzymes which only consist of polypeptide chains only. But there is also an enzyme that requires additional chemical components are not proteins for catalytic activity. The chemical components are not proteins called cofactors.
Cofactor may be a molecule in the form of inorganic ions - or metal ions may also be an organic molecule. Kofactor form of organic molecules is called a coenzyme. In general coenzyme is derived from water-soluble vitamins such as vitamin B and C.Overall enzyme called holoenzim, part of the enzyme protein called apoenzim and non-protein part called a cofactor. In the process of heating the protein will be damaged (denatured), but the non-protein remains stable.
Apoenzim is a polypeptide chain that has a tertiary structure or kuartenar with the order and composition of certain amino acid residues. Cluster - group or atom of the polypeptide chain enzymes directly involved in catalytic processes, both breaking and bond formation is called the active side. While part of enzymes that play a role in substrate binding referred to as the active center of enzyme.
Enzyme nomenclature is generally given the suffix-ase to the substrate or the types of reactions that cataliyts, such as the protease is an enzyme that catalysts protein hydrolysis reaction. But there is also an enzyme that is named does not explain the substrate or the types of reactions that catalysts, such as the enzyme pepsin, trypsin, and papain.

Committee enzyme biochemistry and biomolecular association international (International Union Biochemistry and Biomolecular Biology / IUBMB) grouping enzyme based reaction, namely:
1. Oxidoreductase is the enzyme that catalysts oxidation reduction reaction.
2. Transferase is a group of enzymes that

catalysts
group transfer reactions.
3. Hidrolase are a group of enzymes that

catalysts
hydrolysis reaction.
4. Liase are a group of enzymes that

catalysts e
limination of non-oxidation reactions and non hydrolysis of a group of the substrate to form a double bond.
5. Isomerase is an enzyme that catalysts group conversion reaction in molecular structure to form an isomer.
6. Ligase is an enzyme group catalysts ligsi reaction the incorporation of two substrates.
The conversion of reactants into products of enzymatic reactions can be grouped into two steps: first - the first enzyme bound to the substrate to form an enzyme substrate complex are unstable. Then the enzyme-substrate complex is converted further into a product in a second step. In the second step is an interaction between the specific enzyme that is specific amino acids remaining from the enzyme with substrate.

Mechanism of action of each - each enzyme is very specific in accordance with the constituent amino acid residues of the active side of the enzyme in question. In general, these mechanisms can be grouped into four steps as follows:
1. interactions between amino acid residues of enzyme active site, forming clusters that are nucleophiles,
2. formation of a covalent intermediate between substrate with a specific enzyme,
3. acid-base reaction occurs (a shift of electrons) in the enzyme-substrate complex molecules,
4. formation along with the release of the product and return the original enzyme.

To explain the molecular mechanism of enzymatic reactions, there are two general hypotheses that are often used, namely the hypothesis lock and key and induced-fit hypothesis.

a. Lock and key hypothesis
Assumptions used in this hypothesis are:
1. enzyme structure is rigid,
2. during the reaction, no change of enzyme conformation,
3. reactions can take place whenever there is match between the shape of space substrate with the enzyme active center.

According to this hypothesis for an enzymatic reaction can take place then the substrate must have a room that according to the enzyme active center, which is described as the key to the lock.When the appropriate form of space there will be a bond to form a transition complex (enzyme-substrate). Compounds of transition is unstable and will decompose by itself produce the product.

b. Induced-fit hypothesis
The reaction between the substrate with the enzyme take place due to the induction of the substrate molecule. Assumptions used in this hypothesis are:
1. enzyme active center structure is not complementary to the substrate,
2. substrate structure is not rigid,
3. enzyme structure is not rigid.
According to this hypothesis first - first an interaction between the substrate with the enzyme surface in such a manner, resulting in changes in conformation (structure) in the enzyme active center.After the change of conformation at the active center of the enzyme substrate can be bound to the enzyme to form enzyme-substrate complex. In the next step of enzyme-substrate complex decomposes to produce the product and the enzyme is released again as the original enzyme.
Work enzyme can be influenced by several factors, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, temperature, pH and influence of inhibitors.
a. Enzyme concentration
The speed of a reaction using an enzyme depends on the concentration of enzyme. At a certain substrate concentration, reaction speed increases with increasing concentration of enzyme.
b. Substrate concentration
Experiments showed that with a fixed enzyme concentration, then increase the concentration of substrate will increase the reaction rate. But at a certain concentration limit, there will be no increase in substrate concentration, although the reaction rate is enlarged.

c. Temperature

Therefore, the chemical reaction that can be influenced by temperature, the reaction using an enzyme catalyst can also be affected by temperature. At low temperature chemical reactions take place slowly, whereas at higher temperatures the reaction is faster. However, because the enzyme is a protein, then the temperature rise will cause denaturation process. And if there is the process of denaturation of the enzyme active part will be disrupted. Thus the effective concentration of enzyme is reduced and the reaction velocity will decrease.
d. Effect of pH
Environmental pH changes would affect the effectiveness of the enzyme active part in forming the enzyme substrate complex. In particular pH or pH optimum of an enzyme will work well and cause the highest reaction rate. Therefore, each - each enzyme has different optimum pH.
e. Effect of Inhibitors
Merger substrate with the active enzyme may experience obstacles. Molecules or ions which may inhibit the incorporation reaction is called inhibitors. Barriers that can be done by the inhibitor is not reversible barriers or obstacles reversible. Barriers are not reversible in general caused by the process of destruction or modification of a functional group or more is contained in the enzyme molecule. While the barriers can be either reversible competitive or not competitive barriers.
Barriers to compete because there is a molecule similar to the substrate, which can also form complexes, the enzyme inhibitor complex (EI). Obstacles are not competing are not influenced by the amount of substrate and inhibitor concentrations that do it.
In the multi-enzyme system is usually the first enzyme in the sequence is the enzyme controlling or commonly referred to as regulatory enzymes. There are two kinds of regulatory enzymes that control is not covalent (allosteric enzymes) Allosteric enzyme in addition to having the catalytic substrate binding to the regulator also has a functioning governing metabolite binding substance.

Program keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja / OHS Program

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 10 Nov 2010 04:30:00 +0000

Program keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja merupakan usaha untuk menciptakan lingkungan kerja yang aman, sehat dan sejahtera, bebas dari kecelakaan, kebakaran, peledakan, pencemaran lingkungan akibat kerja. Kecelakaan kerja dapat menimbulkan kerugian baik bagi tenaga kerja, pengusaha, pemerintah dan masyarakat, oleh sebab itu diperlukan langkah atau sistem manajemen K3 diantaranya melalui identifikasi bahaya dan rekomendasi tindakan pengendalian efektif sehingga dapat mencegah, mengurangi terjadinya kecelakaan kerja secara maksimal.

Penerapan program K3 tidak boleh dianggap sebagai upaya pencegahan kecelakaan kerja dan penyakit akibat kerja yang menghabiskan banyak biaya perusahaan, melainkan harus dianggap sebagai bentuk investasi jangka panjang yang memberi keuntungan yang berlimpah pada masa yang akan datang.

Pencegahan kecelakaan pada umumnya dilakukan dengan mengurangi unsafe conditions secara rekayasa dan unsafe acts dengan dasar motivasi untuk memenuhi kewajiban mengikuti peraturan atau perundangan yang berlaku. Kegiatan pencegahan dapat diklasifikasikan sebagai berikut (Soemirat, 1997) :

1. Retrospektif yaitu kegiatan pencegahan setelah terjadi kecelakaan. Kegiatan ini berupa investigasi, analisis, evaluasi dan pengendalian kecelakaan berdasarkan pengalaman dan biasanya hanya diterapkan pada kecelakaan yang parah. Hal ini bukan kebijakan yang baik dikarenakan :

· Kecelakaan tidak selalu berakhir dengan jejas

· Kecelakaan parah hanya terjadi satu kali dari 600 jejas

· Frequency dan severity sama pentingnya dalam evaluasi safety.

2. Prospektif yaitu kegiatan pencegahan sebelum kecelakaan terjadi seperti melakukan inspeksi bahaya secara rutin, analisis, pengendalian, diklat dan supervisi. Kegiatan pencegahan ini cukup efektif menurunkan angka kecelakaan, tetapi masih banyak sektor industri yang mempunyai angka kecelakaan cukup tinggi terutama sektor pertambangan dan konstruksi.

Tindakan kontrol atau pengendalian kecelakaan bertujuan untuk mencegah, mengeliminasi atau mengurangi faktor bahaya yang ada di lingkungan kerja sehingga dapat memperkecil kemungkinan dan angka kecelakaan kerja. Jenis tindakan pengendalian yang dipilih oleh manajemen perusahaan hendaknya memperhatikan hal-hal di bawah ini :

1. Tindakan pengendalian cukup mengontrol paparan yang dapat mengakibatkan risko

2. Tidak menciptakan bahaya lain

3. Membuat pekerja melakukan pekerjaannya tanpa perasaan stress atau tidak nyaman.

Dalam manajemen bahaya (hazard management) dikenal lima prinsip pengendalian bahaya yang bisa digunakan secara bertingkat atau bersama-sama untuk mengurangi atau menghilangkan tingkat bahaya, yaitu (Ridley, 2008) :

1. Eliminasi yaitu menghilangkan suatu bahan atau tahapan proses berbahaya

2. Substitution (engineering control) yaitu penggantian bahan, alat, proses yang dianggap berbahaya dengan bahan, alat, proses yang mempunyai fungsi dan prinsip kerja yang sama, namun faktor bahayanya lebih kecil

3. Rekayasa engineering seperti pemasangan alat pelindung atau isolasi bahaya mesin (mechine guarding) pemasangan general dan local ventilation, pemasangan alat sensor otomatis

4. Pengendalian administratif terdiri dari sosialisasi pelatihan, pembuatan SOP (Standar Operasional Prosedur), sasaran, program manajemen, pemantauan, pengukuran, penggantian shift kerja dan lain-lain

5. Pengadaan Alat Pelindung Diri (APD) dan infrastruktur K3 seperti helmet, safety Shoes, ear plug/muff, safety goggles, railing dan lain-lain.

Penentuan jenis tindakan pengendalian disesuaikan dengan tipe bahaya pekerjaan dan pertimbangan atau estimasi biaya pengendalian yang dapat diterima oleh manajer (Fine, 1971). Pada umumnya, ada tiga tahap penting dimana prinsip atau tindakan pengendalian di atas sebaiknya diimplementasikan, yaitu :

a. Pada saat pekerjaan dan fasilitas kerja sedang dirancang

b. Pada saat prosedur operasional sedang dibuat

c. Pada saat perlengkapan atau peralatan kerja dibeli.

Menurut hirarki upaya pengendalian, alat pelindung diri merupakan hirarki terakhir dalam melindungi keselamatan dan kesehatan tenaga kerja dari potensi kemungkinan bahaya. Alat pelindung diri dipilih setelah pengendalian teknik dan administratif tidak mungkin lagi diterapkan. Jenis alat pelindung diri yang digunakan harus sesuai dengan potensi bahaya yang dihadapi serta sesuai dengan bagian tubuh yang perlu dilindungi. Sebagaimana tercantum dalam undang-undang No 1 tahun 1970 tentang keselamatan kerja, pasal 12 mengatur mengenai hak dan kewajiban tenaga kerja untuk memakai alat pelindung diri. Selain itu pasal 14 menyebutkan bahwa pengusaha wajib menyediakan secara cuma-cuma sesuai alat pelindung diri yang diwajibkan pada tenaga kerja yang berada di bawah pimpinannya dan menyediakan bagi setiap orang lain yang memasuki tempat kerja tersebut, disertai dengan petunjuk yang diperlukan.

Ref,

Fine, William T. (1971). Mathematical Evaluation for Controlling Hazards. Central Queensland University. Australia. December/Volume 3/Number4

Ridley, John. (2008). Kesehatan dan Keselamatan Kerja. Ikhtisar, Edisi ketiga. Jakarta : Erlangga

Soemirat, Juli. (2007). Diktat Kuliah Sistem Manajemen Kesehatan dan Keselamatan Kerja. Bandung: Lab. Higiene Industri dan Toksikologi. Departemen Teknik Lingkungan ITB

Kesehatan dan keselamatan kerja (Occupational Health and Safety)

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 10 Nov 2010 03:45:00 +0000

Kesehatan dan keselamatan kerja secara keilmuan merupakan ilmu pengetahuan dan penerapannya dalam usaha mencegah kemungkinan terjadinya kecelakaan dan penyakit akibat kerja. Keselamatan dan Kesehatan Kerja (K3) merupakan instrumen yang memproteksi pekerja, perusahaan, lingkungan hidup, dan masyarakat sekitar dari bahaya akibat kecelakaan kerja. Berdasarkan Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum RI No 09/PER/M/2008, K3 merupakan pemberian perlindungan kepada setiap orang yang berada di tempat kerja, yang berhubungan dengan pemindahan bahan baku, penggunaan peralatan kerja konstruksi, proses produksi dan lingkungan sekitar tempat kerja.

Perlindungan terhadap keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja merupakan hak asasi yang wajib dipenuhi oleh perusahaan. Performa keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja yang buruk dari suatu perusahaan dapat menimbulkan kerugian bagi perusahaan itu sendiri. Hal ini berhubungan dengan hilangnya hari kerja yang menimbulkan kompensasi secara ekonomi karena turunnya produktivitas perusahaan dan dikeluarkannya biaya total kecelakaan, termasuk didalamnya biaya perawatan, pengobatan, biaya pelatihan bagi tenaga kerja pengganti, dan sebagainya. Rendahnya kepedulian keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja juga dapat memperburuk citra perusahaan dikalangan masyarakat dan pasaran hasil produksi. Oleh karena itu, upaya pemeliharaan dan penerapan keselamatan dan kesehatan kerja memegang peranan penting berkaitan dengan kepentingan produksi dan produktivitas perusahaan.

Perkembangan K3 dimulai sejak adanya revolusi industri yang ditandai dengan penggunaan mesin-mesin produksi dan bahan-bahan berbahaya yang membahayakan keselamatan dan kesehatan pekerja dalam lingkungan kerja. Hal ini dapat menyebabkan kecelakaan kerja yang berakibat cacat fisik dan kematian bagi pekerja, juga kerugian material yang besar bagi perusahaan. Perkembangan tersebut mendorong pemerintah Indonesia mengeluarkan regulasi dalam bidang ketenagakerjaan, termasuk pengaturan masalah K3 (UU No. 1 tahun 1970) dan peraturan Menteri Tenaga Kerja No.PER.05/MEN/1996 tentang Sistem Manajemen Keselamatan dan Kesehatan Kerja (SMK3). Kepedulian perusahaan untuk menerapkan program K3 melalui SMK3 mulai berkembang seiring dengan kebutuhan konsumen dan isu persaingan global yang tidak hanya sebatas kualitas barang dan jasa tetapi juga kepedulian yang tinggi terhadap keselamatan dan kesehatan pekerja, masyarakat dan lingkungan. Selain itu banyak perusahaan yang peduli terhadap K3 telah menerapkan sertifikasi OSHAS 18000 sebagai sistem standar K3.

Adapun tiga aspek utama hukum K3 (Konradus, 2003) yaitu keselamatan, kesehatan kerja, dan kerja. Aspek pertama keselamatan kerja merupakan sarana atau alat untuk mencegah terjadinya kecelakaan kerja yang tidak diduga yang disebabkan oleh kelalaian kerja dan lingkungan kerja yang tidak aman. Aspek kedua adalah kesehatan kerja diharapkan menjadi instrumen yang mampu menciptakan dan memelihara derajat kesehatan kerja setinggi-tingginya. Aspek ketiga adalah kerja berkaitan dengan manajemen perusahaan seperti masalah pengaturan jam kerja, shift, tipe pekerja, pengaturan jam lembur, pelatihan dan lain-lain. Sehingga dengan menerapkan tiga aspek hukum K3, perusahaan dapat mencegah, mengurangi, bahkan menghilangkan risiko kecelakaan kerja (zero accident). Penurunan angka kecelakaan kerja akan berpengaruh langsung, tidak saja terhadap produktivitas perusahaan tetapi juga produktivitas ekonomi bangsa berupa peningkatan kesejahteraan. Adapun realitas penerapan K3 di konstruksi Indonesia selama ini adalah (Zaini, 2009) :

1. Banyak terjadi kecelakaan kerja bidang jasa konstruksi

2. Kurangnya kesadaran pemangku kepentingan jasa konstruksi akan pentingnya penerapan K3

3. Belum semua kontraktor menerapkan Sistem Manajemen Keselamatan dan Kesehatan Kerja (SMK3), beberapa hanya perusahaan konstruksi berskala besar yang mau menerapkannya karena lemahnya komitmen, penegakan peraturan hukum dan sanksi K3

4. Penerapan SMK3 belum dijadikan sebagai bagian dari budaya perusahaan

5. Pemenuhan penerapan K3 sebatas untuk memenuhi persyaratan tender yang bukan merupakan kebutuhan

6. Belum secara tegas persyaratan K3 masuk dalam dokumen tender termasuk mengenai penetapan alokasi biaya K3

7. Masih kurangnya tenaga ahli K3 konstruksi yang seharusnya ada di setiap kegiatan konstruksi.
Reference :

Konradus, Danggur. (2003). Hukum Keselamatan dan Kesehatan Kerja. Sinar Harapan. Edisi 27 Agustus 2007.

Zaini, Anas. (2009). Membangun Budaya K3 Konstruksi : Antara Idealisme dan Kenyataan. Diskusi Publik Dalam Rangka Tahun K3 Konstruksi 12 Februari 2009. Jakarta : Asosiasi Ahli K3 Indonesia (A2K4-I)

Download

Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum RI No 09/PER/M/2008

UU No. 1 tahun 1970

peraturan Menteri Tenaga Kerja No.PER.05/MEN/1996

Fit To Work

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 03 Nov 2010 05:26:00 +0000

FIT TO WORK OR EXAMINATION OF HEALTH WORKERS

Workers' Medical Examination is essentially a medical examination for healthy people. In the education of doctors in general are taught how to examine a sick person. Very little knowledge being taught about healthy people. At most given when learning about Public Health. When a young doctor asked to check the Health Workers, of course, most findings are normal.

Many doctors are less confident in the findings on physical examination. This is caused by the insistence of laboratory examinations that dominated world of medicine. In the case of high blood pressure can only be diagnosed by measuring blood pressure, not a laboratory examination. Even this measurement is not done properly and correctly. Many doctors or paramedics rounding it to number tens of measurements. Not a pair to the figures as they should. As a result, many epidemiological studies will have errors. Groups of workers with blood pressure tends to rise can not be identified.

Examination of color blindness is often carried out carelessly. Even the paramedical examination is submitted to the youngest. Classification only two total and partial that does not contain anything of meaning in Occupational Health. If you mentioned the red color blind, then it implies that people can not see the color red, a color that signifies danger. Across the way a color blind examination was carried out very carefully, because a lot is known that chemicals such as xylene, toluene proved to affect color vision. This shows that the impact of chemicals can be detected without laboratory examination.

Health Checks are a lot done right now concerns only the physical examination alone.Rarely a mental examination. The stress of work has actually been a lot happening.Increasingly uncertain job, rarely become permanent workers, a lot of work contracts.This adds to the stress from work.

Employers will be very disappointed if the cost of very expensive medical examinations are not managed well and correctly. Medical Examination Providers only offer a package in accordance with the price, not the goal of health exam itself. More woe again if only just to meet regulations. Worker health checks carried out because no one knows since when nobody paid workers will get sick after working for some time. Because it needs to be done regularly. Early detection should be done, therefore the examination must be sharp and precise.

Ujung Kulon National Park

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Sun, 18 Jul 2010 09:59:00 +0000

Ujung Kulon Rhinos

Sixty million years ago estimated there are 30 types of rhinos that live on earth. But this time only five remaining rhino species living in the world, three species in Asia and two species in Africa. Of the three types of rhinoceros that lived in Asia, two species have lived in Indonesia. Both types of rhino, which are endangered Java rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest 1822) and the Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Fischer, 1814) is known as "key species" in biodiversity conservation. Protection for both types of rhinos will greatly assist efforts to protect other wildlife, and various types of habitats from mountain regions pamah up in Java, Sumatra and Kalimantan. Javan Rhino in Indonesia in particular, is the only population that still exists and is expected to maintain the continuity of life - a kind of "flag ship" (a symbol of pride) Ujung Kulon National Park.

The Indonesian government in an effort to enhance conservation of biodiversity, among others, have participated in the signing of the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Flora and Fauna (CITES). Likewise with the Indonesian Rhino Conservation Strategy, has been developed by the Directorate General of Forest Protection and Nature Conservation (PHPA), Ministry of Forestry Republic of Indonesia. This strategy is based on Action Plan (Action Plan) of the Asian Rhino Specialist Group (Asian Rhino Specialist Group / AsRSG) of the IUCN - World Conservation Agency. This strategy gives the basic framework for priority to be achieved in rhino conservation measures, including proposals for further research on policy and funding mechanisms to strengthen this strategy.

Now a variety of rhinoceros conservation work in Indonesia is running the protection of Sumatra and Java rhinos in their natural habitat in Sumatra and Java by using anti-poaching units, known as Rhino Rhino Protection Units (RPU) and Rhino Monitoring and Protection Units (RMPU) by Program Indonesian Rhino Conservation (IPPA), Sumatran rhino breeding using in-situ, known as Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary in Way Kambas National Park by the Sumatran Rhino Sanctuary Foundation (YSRS), and Ecology Research Competition between Java and bull rhino in Ujung Kulon National Park by Yayasan Mitra Rhino (YMR) and WWF Indonesia.

General Condition of Indonesia Rhinoceros

Yore Java rhinoceros species occupies a fairly wide distribution, including Bengal to Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra and Java. Mystery Javanese rhino numbers have been very serious attention from a variety of wildlife experts, which had an increase in population of 25 birds in 1967 to 50 birds in 1993. Currently Javan rhinos live only in the Ujung Kulon National Park, Banten, Indonesia with a population of relatively stable between 50-60 tail and tail less than 15 living in Cat Tien National Park, Vietnam.

Sumatran rhinos have a better fate, although the threat of extinction for the species of Sumatran rhinos are also increasing. The population in the world ranges 400-700 tail, with a loss of population each year reaching 10%. But within the last 10 years increasing the population numbers decrease until it reaches 50%. In Sumatra, the population was estimated to be about 200-300 tail, the spread in TN Mountain Leuseur, TN Kerinci Seblat, TN Bukit Barisan Selatan and Way Kambas National TN. In Kalimantan, there are never reported in Khayan Mentarang TN, and CA Ulu Sembakung, but its status is still not clearly known. Except in Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia (about 100 individuals), little is known about its status in Myanmar where the child lives lasiotis type, while the child types sumatrensis represented in Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and Sumatra.

The rate of decline in rhino populations in Southeast Asia in general due to a combination of the number dwindled due to habitat encroachment and illegal logging and over-exploitation, especially of hunting poaching for rhino horn trade. During the past 20 years, more than 40,000 rats (approximately 85%) of the world's rhinos were slaughtered by poachers who want culanya. Was due to a belief that the rhino horns and other body parts effectively as fever and aprodisiak ingredients. Although these beliefs can not be proved scientifically, but has catapulted the price of rhinoceros horn up to 20.000 U.S. dollars per kilogram in the Asian black market. At this time, rhino poaching pressure is still high in Indonesia, therefore we need to include anti-poaching activities in Rhino Conservation Program in Indonesia. Rhino poaching is subject to pressure both the use of firearms and snares are made of alternating (steel wire) or other form of trap that might kill rhinos and other mammals.

Sumatran rhino die Rhino hit the affected leg snares of steel wire meshes (alternating) At the same time the frequency and quality of forest destruction by increasing the public browser. Transitional political conditions of the New Order period toward the Reformation may be adversely impacted due to lack of understanding of the meaning of reform or abuse the public may interpret that as a group of reform society into forests to be used as residential and theft of forest products on a large scale and carried out with freely. Such conditions are not exacerbated by Indonesia's economic recovery so that the spur communities to use forests to meet their basic needs.

STRATEGY CONVERSION rhino INDONESIA

World conservation strategy based on protection of the life support systems, germplasm preservation and utilization based on the principles of conservation of natural resources. In line with increasing world awareness of nature conservation formed the World Conservation Strategy, and Indonesia have entered into a new conservation strategy.

Conservation and preservation of nature has long been done in Indonesia. Law No. 4 / 1982 on Basic Provisions of Environmental Management, and Law No. 5 / 1990 on Conservation of Biological Resources and Ecosystem has a strong underlying commitment to the conservation management of natural resources including biodiversity. As a real contribution in the development of environmentally sound, assessments and national conservation strategy has become a reference terbentunya Indonesian Rhinoceros Conservation Strategy. This is realized through the Indonesian Rhino Conservation Workshop in Bogor in 1991, between the PHPA - IUCN and WWF, which produced Indonesian Rhinoceros Conservation Strategy document as a reference in execution Indonesian rhino conservation.

Rhino Conservation Strategy target is to create favorable conditions for long-term life of the population of Javan rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) and the Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in Indonesia's natural.
With the Target Strategies are expected both Konseravi Rhino rhino species that have been entered into the Red Data Book - IUCN (International Union For Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) since 1978 with the category of endangered species / critical (Endangered) did not become extinct (extinct), even the population will reach a viable number of the original.

Rhino HISTORY
Rhino appears at the tertiary period (± 65 million years ago) and consists of five periods:
Paleocene period (± 60-50 million years ago)
Eocene period (± 50-45 million years ago)
Oligocene period (± 35-25 million years ago)
Miocene period (± 25-10 million years ago)
Pleocene period (± 10 million years ago)

1. Sumatran Rhino (Sumatran rhino) horned two or Dicerorhinus sumatrensis Fischer, 1814
2. Javan rhino (Javan rhino) or one-horned Rhinoceros sondaicus Desmarest, 1822
3. Indian Rhinoceros (Indian rhino) or one-horned Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus, 1758

Like the dinosaurs that became extinct 70 million years ago, rhinoceros at sixty million years ago there were 30 species that live on the earth also suffered extinction. At this time only five types of rhino living in the world including three types of rhinos live in Asia, namely:
And two types of rhinos live in Africa, namely:
1. African Black-horned rhinoceros horns (Black Rhino) or Diceros bicormis
2. Two-horned African White Rhinoceros (White Rhino) or Cerathoterium simum

References :
id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badak_jawa
http://www.dephut.go.id/INFORMASI/TN%20INDO-ENGLISH/tn_ujungkulon.htm

The 7 Habits

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Sun, 18 Jul 2010 04:30:00 +0000

The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People are 7 Habits Of People With Highly Effective People.

Effective: Doing the right thing (do right thing)
Efficient: Doing the right (do thing right)
Habit: Behavior (behavior) is often (repeatedly) done
Character ethic (Basic Principles)The existence of the basic principles of positive and one can only experience true success and lasting happiness when they learn to integrate these principles into their basic character. Examples of such basic principles: Integrity, Humility, Loyalty (loyal), Justice, Courage, Modesty, Courtesy, etc.

Personality ethic (Attitude and Behavior)Success is a function of personality, public image, attitudes and behaviors, skills and techniques, that lubricate the processes of human interaction. Personality ethic take two roads:
1. The technique of human relations and society
2. Positive mental attitude

Paradigm / Paradigm (view mode)Is a mental representation. Is a model, pattern, or a collection of ideas that explain one aspect. Paradigm can be likened to a map of the city or region so that it is clear that the map is not the territory itself. We see the world not as the world's existence, but as we are - or - as we are conditioned to see it. Never complete and never the same.

Emotional Bank Account (Emotional Bank Account) Emotional Bank Account reflects the level of trust in a relationship. As the financial account in a bank, we enter a deposit to or withdrawal from this account. Acts such as trying to understand first, to be generous, keep their promises, and being faithful.

"Habit 1":Be Proactive (Be Proactive)Being proactive is more than just taking the initiative. Being proactive means responsible for our own behavior (in the past, in the present, and future), and make choices based on the principles and values rather than on mood or circumstance. Proactive people are agents of change and choose not to become victims, not to be reactive, to not blame others. They do this by developing and using the four unique human gifts - self awareness, conscience, imagination, and free will - and by using the approach from the inside out to create change. They were determined to be the creative driving force in their own lives, which is the most fundamental decisions to be taken every person.

"Habit 2":Referring to the End (Begin With The End in Mind) Everything is created twice - first mentally, physically second. Individuals, families, teams and organizations, shaping the future of each by first creating the vision and objectives of each project mentally. They are not living life day after day without clear goals in their minds. Mentally they identify the principles, values, relationships, and goals are most important to their own and make a commitment to myself to do it. A mission statement is the highest form of mental creation, which can be prepared by an individual, family, or organization. This mission statement is a major decision, because the underlying other decisions. Creating a common culture of the mission, vision, and values, is the essence of leadership.

"Habit 3":First Things First President (Put First Thing First) Put the creation of a second major is physical. Putting the primary means to organize and carry out, what has been created mentally (your goals, your vision, values you, and your priorities). Secondary things not prioritized. The main things are not dikebelakangkan. Individuals and organizations focus their attention on what is most important, whether urgent or not. The point is to ensure diutamakannya main thing.

"Habit 4":Thinking Win / Win (Think Win Win) Thinking win / win is the way they think that trying to achieve mutual benefits, and is based on mutual respect in all interactions. Thinking win / win is based on abundance - "cake" is forever enough, opportunity, wealth and resources are plentiful - rather than on scarcity and competition. Think win-win means not thinking selfishly (win / lose) or think like a martyr (lose / win). In working life and family, its members think interdependent - with the term "we" instead of "I". Thinking manang / win conflict resolution and help encourage each individual to find solutions that are both profitable. Think win / win means a variety of information, power, recognition, and rewards.

"Habit 5":Trying to Understand first, then be Understood (To Understand To Be understood) If we listen carefully, to understand others, rather than to respond, we begin a true communication and relationship-building. If other people feel understood, they feel affirmed and valued, would open up, so the opportunity to speak openly and be understood to occur more naturally and easily. Trying to understand this requires generosity; trying to understand demands courage. Effectiveness lies in the balance between them.

"Habit 6":Manifest Synergy (Synergy)Synergy is about producing a third alternative - not my way, not your way, but a third way that is better than the way each of us. Synergy is the fruit of mutual respect - the attitude to understand and even take advantage of existing differences in solving problems, taking advantage of opportunities. The teams and families who are synergistically harness the power of each individual so that the whole is greater than the sum total of its parts. relationships and teams like this waive mutual harm (1 1 = 1 / 2). They are not satisfied with the compromise (1 1 = 1 1 / 2), or simply cooperation (1 1 = 2). Rather, they are pursuing a creative collaboration (1 1 = 3 or more).

"7 Habits":Sharpen the Saw (Sharpening The Saw) Sharpen the saw is about renewing itself continually in four basic areas of life: physical, social / emotional, mental and spiritual. These habits that increase our capacity to implement other effective habits. For an organization, Habit 7 promote vision, renewal, continuous improvement, fatigue or vigilance against moral decline, and position the organization in the way of new growth. For a family, seven habits to improve effectiveness through personal activities and family regularly, such as forming the traditions that stimulate the spirit of family renewal. [Stephen R. Covey]

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Sun, 18 Jul 2010 04:30:00 +0000

ALTERNATIVE ENERGY

Biodiesel is a renewable alternative energy sources biodegradable, and has some advantages in terms of the environment than diesel. Therefore, Indonesia needs to start developing the biodiesel given the abundant availability of raw materials and crude oil production from Indonesia declined. Biodiesel can be used directly as fuel in diesel engines without any engine modifications or in the form of blending with diesel fuel at various concentrations of 5 percent to 50 percent 20 percent biodiesel blending in diesel fuel produces no real physical change. This product is known as the American B-20 diesel that has been used to fuel buses.
In Europe, biodiesel has been sold in general, France and Austria with the concentration of mixing. In Germany there are currently more than a thousand fueling station Fat oil a renewable fuel, because it comes from plants. In our country there are so many oil-producing plants in fat. No fewer than 50 species of plants can be processed into natural fuel sources (BBA) is a popular example of palm, coconut, jatropha (Jatropha curcas) and distance (Ricinus communis), wild living, and kapok or cotton. Oil fat (fatty oils derived from plants to focus research efforts and development of various institutions, among others, based on the fact 105 years ago, the World's Fair in 1900 in Paris. At that time, Rudolf Diesel, never demonstrated the machine invention can be operated using peanut oil fuel.

Metill ester biodiesel (BEM), commonly known as biodiesel. Biodiesel is an alternative fuel is environmentally friendly and non-toxic, biodiesel can use vegetable oil or used cooking oil. Chemically biodiesel included in the group monoalkil ester or methyl ester with 12-20 carbon chain lengths. This is what distinguishes it with petroleum diesel (diesel) is composed mainly of carbon. Biodiesel is vegetable oil methyl esters (FAME), which was formed through the removal of glycerol from the triglyceride molecule respectively. Each of glycerol released from the oil, and the remaining molecules are used as diesel engines (biodiesel). Biodiesel molecules are simple hydrocarbon chains, containing no sulfur, ring molecules, aromatic compounds with fossil fuels. Biodiesel is a renewable material (which neutralises carbon fuel). That is the CO2 produced by burning fuel during reabsorbed by plants. Compared with petroleum fuel, biodiesel can reduce CO2 emissions 90% in the life cycle. Biodiesel Benefits Below are described several advantages to using biodiesel fuels, among others, the following:
1. No need to modify vehicle engines and can improve engine performance.
2. lower emissions, emissions reduction (48% carbon monoxide, 67%-ozone-forming hydrocarbons, hazardous diesel particles by 47%, 100% SO2, 80% polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, carbon cycle).
3. not add any greenhouse effect, the energy generated is similar, there are effects of lubrication, easier storage 4. Renewable (could reduce imports of diesel oil), biodegradation (blending biodiesel with petroleum diesel can increase the biodegradation of petroleum diesel up to 500 percent) and non-toxic.

Biodiesel developments in Indonesia
swelling volume of imports of diesel fuel has been promoting efforts to develop domestic fuels materials which are expected to substitute the diesel oil. The problem of dependence on crude oil imports and government subsidies can be reduced by partial substitution of fuels with bio fuels. Substitution of fuel with the BBH can be immediately implemented. Biodiesel, a type of bio fuels, can be made easily from all the plants that contain oil. To develop biodiesel in Indonesia, needed the wisdom of the government so biodiesel can be accepted by society. One policy that has been widely adopted is the policy of inclusion, namely biodiesel blend into solar.Tujuan of this thesis is to determine the composition of biodiesel in diesel-maximizing optimal level of public satisfaction with a closed economy for countries using the concept of utility functions. This will save the use of fossil energy in the production of diesel fuel so as to maintain security of energy supply for the future. Biodiesel fuel has been developed since 1992, but new trials in 2001, that is as fuel in buses owned Agency for the Assessment and Application of Technology, who traveled from Jakarta to Bogor. The research was developed, it turns out biodiesel can replace diesel as a whole. Research carried out in cooperation between the Directorate General of Plantation Production Development and the Directorate General of Processing and Marketing of Agricultural Products, Department of Agriculture, along with the Head of Oil Research Center and Institute of Technology Bandung LRPI, finally dared test the ability of biodiesel as an alternative to diesel in the distance thousands of kilometers. By examining tried out two cars that use diesel fuel, called B10 biodiesel blend (10 parts 90 parts biodiesel and diesel fuel) by assuming the final count of Rp 1989 per liter, very cheap for environmentally friendly fuels. Actually, LRPI also been tested using 100 percent biodiesel in diesel-engined cars, the results are satisfactory. But if counted again, apparently to make one liter of biodiesel from palm oil production costs at Rp 6000, means far more expensive than diesel fuel prices. Here's where government assistance is needed if it wants to develop biodiesel by subsidizing the price of palm oil supply.

Biodiesel Process
Biodiesel or methyl ester made by methanolisis oil or fat, using the trans-esterification reaction or esterification, the acid or base catalyst. From 1 kg of raw materials could produce at least one liter of biodiesel. Transesterification is a process that uses alcohol (such as metahol) with NaOH catalyst which acts to break up molecules of renewable oil (which can be renewed) into methyl esters with glycerol as by-products. First, oil is pumped into a 1000 liter reactor. Then the mixture of lye and methanol 1-2% 10-15% is added. Expenditures can be modified depending on the quality of oil. After pumping the alkali-methanol mixture in the plant that began with the screening of the mixture. After a few minutes walk of reaction, the glycerol produced in these reactors, oil, biodiesel (fatty acid-methyl ester / Fatty-Acid-Methyl-Ester = FAME). Glycerol is produced for an hour. Glycerol is then issued at the end of the process. At the end of the reaction, approximately 5% plant oil is not reacted. If we want to make the remainder of this reaction to biodiesel, it must be added back-methanol lye mixture. After mixing the biodiesel, then rinsed with 50 liters of water with glycerol residues followed by excess methanol, lye soap, candles and then spending the next acid, is required to separate the biodiesel from the water and glycerol. Water and methanol that can not be separated is discarded after passing through a vacuum distillation distribution. In the end, pure biodiesel product obtained in the reactors. The following are principles / stages of the formation of biodiesel
- Separation of water from waste oil
- Heating with electric or kerosene.
- Mixing methoxide
- The reaction of methyl ester
- Separation of glycerol
- Drain pump methyl ester
- Purification of methyl esters
- Provided methanol
- Glycerol purification

Advantages of this stage :
1. The speed is assured, can use several types of reactors
2. Fast process
3. Easy to operate-not too complex
4. Cheap to production by providing a few pumps, valves and tanks.
Obstacles from this technique/ biodiesel process are most highlighted on the cost of vegetable oil production, supply of raw materials (plants), and methanol.

GLOBAL WARMING

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Tue, 20 Apr 2010 05:28:00 +0000

GLOBAL WARMING
Illegal Logging
Illegal logging or illegal logging is the activity of harvesting, transportation and sale of timber that is unlawful or do not have permission from local authorities. Although the numbers must be difficult to obtain because the activity itself is not illegal, several reliable sources indicate that more than half of all logging activities in the world occur in the following areas: the Amazon River basin, Central Africa, Southeast Asia, Russia and some countries- Balkan countries

The fact of illegal logging
• A joint study between the United Kingdom with Indonesia in 1998 indicated that approximately 40% of all logging is illegal, with values reaching 365 million U.S. dollars more recent study comparing the illegal logging by domestic consumption plus export indicates that 88% of all logging activities are is illegal logging. Malaysia is a country where the transit of illegal timber products from Indonesia.
• In Brazil, 80% of logging in the Amazon violate government regulations. Corruption then becomes the center of all activities on illegal logging. Wood products in Brazil is often termed a "green gold" because the price is even (mahogany wood worth 1600 U.S. dollars per meter kubiknya). Illegal mahogany opens the way for illegal logging for other species and for the wider exploitation in the Amazon.
Global Warming
Global warming is the increasing incidence of the average temperature of the atmosphere, ocean and the Earth's land. Global average temperature at Earth's surface has increased by 0.74 ° C ± 0:18 (1:33 ± 0:32 ° F) during the last hundred years. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that "most of the increase in global average temperatures since the mid-20th century, most likely caused by increased concentrations of greenhouse gases caused by human activity through the greenhouse effect.
Natural phenomena such as variations in the sun along with a volcano can cause some warming effect from pre-industrial period until the year 1950 and slightly cooling effect from 1950 until now.
These basic conclusions have been advanced by at least 30 scientific and academic bodies, including all the national science academies of the G8 nations. However, there are still some scientists who disagree with some of the IPCC conclusions are presented. Climate models project that was used as reference by the IPCC shows global surface temperature will rise 1.1 to 6.4 ° C (2.0 to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100. The existence of several different results caused by the use of differing scenarios of emissions of greenhouse gases in the future as well due to the models with differing climate sensitivity. Although most research focuses on the period up to 2100, warming and sea level rise is expected to continue for more than a thousand years if greenhouse gas emission levels have been stable. [1] This reflects the large heat capacity of the oceans.
Increasing global temperature is expected to lead to other changes such as sea level rise, increased intensity of extreme weather events, and changes in the number and pattern of precipitation. Consequences of global warming are another character of agricultural output, loss of glaciers and the extinction of various animal species.
Some of the things that scientists are still doubtful about the amount of warming predicted to occur in the future, and how warming and the changes that occur will vary from one region to another. Until now there is still political and public debate in the world about what, if any, action should be taken to reduce or reverse further warming or to adapt to the consequences of existing. Most governments of the world's countries have signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol, which leads to a reduction in emissions of greenhouse gases.

Causes of global warming
Greenhouse effect

All sources of energy contained in the Earth comes from the sun. Most of the energy in the form of short-wave radiation, including visible light. When this energy on the surface of the Earth, it turns from light into heat that warms the Earth. Earth's surface, will absorb some of the heat and reflecting back the rest. Some of this heat as long wavelength infrared radiation into outer space. But some of the heat remains trapped in the earth's atmosphere due to deposition amount of greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane which trap the waves of this radiation. These gases absorb and reflect back the radiation waves emitted by the Earth and consequently the heat is stored in the Earth's surface. This happens repeatedly and result in annual average temperature of the earth continues to rise.
These gases function as glass in a greenhouse. With the increasing concentration of these gases in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped underneath.
Actually, the greenhouse effect is very much needed by all living things on earth, because without it, this planet will become very cold (up to -180 C) [5] so the ice will cover the entire surface of the Earth. However, due to the amount of these gases have been an excess in the atmosphere, global warming consequences.

Measuring global warming
In early 1896, scientists assumed that the burning of fossil fuels will change the composition of the atmosphere and can increase the global average temperature. This hypothesis was confirmed in 1957 when researchers working on global research program of the International Geophysical Year, took samples of the atmosphere from the top of Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii.
Measurements showed an increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration. After that, the composition of the atmosphere continues to be measured carefully. The data collected indicate that indeed an increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The scientists also have long suspected that the global climate getting warmer, but they are unable to provide appropriate evidence. Temperatures continue to vary from time to time and from one location to another location. Need many years of climate observations to obtain data that showed a tendency (trend) is clear. Note in the late 1980s showed a little of this warming trend, but statistics are few and can not be trusted. Weather station at first, located near urban areas so that the temperature measurement will be influenced by the heat emitted by buildings and vehicles, and also the heat stored by the building and road materials. Since 1957, data obtained from a reliable weather station (located far from urban areas), and from satellites. These data provide a more accurate measurement, especially at 70 percent of the planet's surface covered with oceans. These data more accurately indicated that the surface of the Earth's warming actually occurred. If seen in the late 20th century, noted that the ten warmest years over the last hundred years occurred after 1980, and the three hottest years occurred after 1990, with 1998 being the hottest.
In a report issued in 2001, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that global air temperature has risen 0.6 degrees Celsius (1 degree Fahrenheit) since 1861. The panel agreed that the warming is mainly caused by human activities that add greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. The IPCC predicts an increase in the average global temperature will rise 1.1 to 6.4 ° C (2.0 to 11.5 ° F) between 1990 and 2100.
The IPCC panel also warned that although the concentration of gases in the atmosphere has not increased since the year 2100, the climate continued to warm up during a certain period due to emissions that have been released previously. Carbon dioxide remains in the atmosphere for a hundred years or more before nature can absorb it again. If greenhouse gas emissions continue to increase, experts predict, karbondioksioda concentrations in the atmosphere can be increased up to threefold in the early 22 th century when compared to the period before the industrial era. As a result, there will be dramatic climate changes. Although the actual events of this climate change has occurred several times throughout the history of Earth, humans will face this problem with the risk of a very large population.

Impact of global warming
The scientists used computer models of temperature, precipitation patterns, and circulation of the atmosphere to study global warming. Based on this model, scientists have made several forecasts about the impact of global warming on weather, higher sea levels, coastal, agricultural, wildlife and human health.

Weather
Scientists estimate that over global warming, northern regions of the Northern hemisphere (Northern Hemisphere) will heat up more than other regions in the Earth. Consequently, the icebergs will melt and the mainland will be reduced. Will be less ice floating in the waters of the North. Areas that previously experienced light snow, probably will not experience it again. In the mountains in subtropical areas, snow-covered part will be less and will melt faster. Planting season will be longer in some areas. Temperatures in the winter and at night would tend to increase.
Warmer regions will become more humid as more water evaporates from the ocean. Scientists do not yet quite sure whether the moisture is actually going to increase or reduce the warming even further. This is because water vapor is a greenhouse gas, so that its presence will increase the insulation effect on the atmosphere. However, more moisture will also form more clouds that reflect sunlight back into space, where this will decrease the heating process (see the water cycle). High humidity will increase rainfall, on average, about 1 percent for each degree Fahrenheit warming. (Rainfall in the entire world has increased by 1 percent in the last hundred years). Storms will become more frequent. In addition, the water will evaporate from the soil faster. As a result, some areas will become drier than before. Winds will blow harder and perhaps with a different pattern. Hurricane storm (hurricane) that obtain power from the evaporation of water, will become larger. Contrary to the warming that occurred, some very cold period will probably happen. Weather patterns become more unpredictable and extreme.

Sea surface height
As the atmosphere warms, the ocean surface layer will also be warmer, so the volume will expand and raise the sea level. Warming will also melt much glacier ice, especially around Greenland, further swelling the sea. Of sea level worldwide has increased by 10 - 25 cm (4 - 10 inches) during the 20th century, and IPCC scientists predict a further rise of 9 to 88 cm (4 to 35 inches) in the 21st century.
Changes in sea level will affect coastal life. Increase of 100 cm (40 inches) will sink 6 percent of Dutch regions, 17.5 percent of the area of Bangladesh, and many islands. Erosion of cliffs, beaches, and dunes will increase. When the high seas to reach the estuary of the river, flooding due to high water will rise on the mainland. Rich countries will spend huge funds to protect coastal areas, while poor countries may only be able to evacuate from coastal areas.
Even a modest rise in sea level will greatly change coastal ecosystems. Increase of 50 cm (20 inches) will immerse half of the coastal marshes in the United States. New marshes will also be formed, but not in urban areas and areas that have been built. This sea-level rise will cover much of the Florida Everglades.

Agriculture
One might assume that a warmer Earth would produce more food than ever before, but it is actually not the same in some places. Southern Canada, for example, may benefit from higher rainfall and more length of planting. On the other hand, semi-arid tropical agricultural land in some parts of Africa may not be able to grow. Desert agricultural areas that use irrigation water from distant mountains may suffer if the snowpack (a collection of snow) winter, which serves as a natural reservoir, will melt before the peak of the months of planting. Food crops and forests may be susceptible to insect and disease attacks more powerful.
Animals and plants
Animals and plants are living things that are difficult to avoid the effects of warming because most of the land has been controlled by humans. In global warming, animals tend to migrate toward the poles or up the mountain. Plants will change the direction of its growth, find new areas for the duration of habitat becomes too warm. However, human development will prevent this transfer. The species that migrate north or south is blocked by the cities or agricultural lands may be dead. Some types of species that are not able to rapidly move toward the poles may also be destroyed.

Human health
In a world of warm, scientists predict that more people are dying from disease or die from heat stress. Outbreaks of diseases commonly found in tropical areas, such as diseases caused by mosquitoes and other disease-carrying animals, will be more widespread because they can move into areas previously too cold for them. Currently, 45 percent of world population lives in areas where they may be bitten by mosquitoes carrying the malaria parasite; percentage will increase to 60 percent if temperatures rise. Other tropical diseases also can be spread like malaria, such as dengue fever, yellow fever, and encephalitis. Scientists also predict rising incidence of allergies and respiratory diseases as warmer air will increase pollutants, mold spores and pollen.

The debate about global warming
Not all scientists agree about the circumstances and consequences of global warming. Some analysts still question whether the temperature actually increased. Others recognize the changes that have occurred but denied that it is still too early to make predictions about the circumstances in the future. Such criticism can also argue the evidence shows the human contribution to global warming by arguing that the natural cycle can also increase the temperature. They also point out the facts that the continuous heating can be advantageous in some areas.
The scientists who question global warming tends to show three differences between the prediction model is still questionable with the behavior of global warming is actually happening on the climate. First, warming tends to stop for three decades in the mid-20th century; even a cooling period before the rise again in the 1970s. Second, the total warming over the 20th century only about half of that predicted by the model. Third, the troposphere, the lowest atmospheric layer, does not heat up as fast as the model prediction. However, supporters believe there is global warming can answer two of the three questions.
Lack of heating at mid-century due to the large spread of air pollution particulate-particulate matter, especially sulfates, into the atmosphere. These particulates, also known as aerosols, reflect some sunlight back into space. Sustained warming finally overcome this effect, partly because of the control of pollution that causes air to be cleaner.
State of global warming since 1900 that were not as predicted due to the large heat absorption by the oceans. Scientists have long predicted this but do not have enough data to prove it. In 2000, U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) provides a new analysis of water temperature as measured by observers around the world during the last 50 years. The measurement results show the warming trend: the world of sea temperature in the year 1998 higher than 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.3 degrees Fahrenheit) than the average temperatures the last 50 years, but there was little change significantly.
The third question is still confusing. Satellites detect fewer than the predicted warming in the troposphere model. According to some critics, the reading of the atmosphere is right, while the measurement of the surface of the Earth's atmosphere can not be trusted. In January 2000, a panel appointed by the National Academy of Sciences to discuss this issue recognize that the warming Earth's surface can not be doubted. However, measurements of the lower troposphere of the prediction model can not be explained clearly.

Controlling global warming
Total consumption of fossil fuels in the world increased by 1 percent per year. Steps taken or currently being discussed that no one can prevent global warming in the future. The challenge today is to overcome the effects that may arise while performing these steps to prevent further climate change in the future.
Severe damage can be overcome in various ways. Coastal areas can be protected by walls and barriers to prevent entry of sea water. Alternatively, the government can help the population in coastal areas to move to higher ground. Some countries, such as the United States, can save plants and animals while maintaining the corridor (line) habitat, clearing land for construction from south to north. The species can gradually move along this corridor to go to a colder habitat.
There are two main approaches to slow down the increasing greenhouse gases. First, prevent the carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by storing the gas or its carbon component somewhere else. This method is called carbon sequestration (removing carbon). Second, reducing greenhouse gas production.

Eliminate carbon
The easiest way to remove carbon dioxide in the air is to maintain trees and plant more trees. Trees, especially young and fast growing, absorb very much carbon dioxide, breaking through photosynthesis and store carbon in wood. Around the world, the level of forest encroachment has reached an alarming level. In many areas, the plants that grow back very little because the soil loses its fertility when modified for other uses, such as for agriculture or housing development. Steps to overcome this is to reforestation that play a role in reducing the increasing greenhouse gases.
Carbon dioxide gas can also be eliminated directly. You do this by injecting (injecting) the gas into oil wells to stimulate the oil out to the surface (refer to Enhanced Oil Recovery). Injection can also be done to isolate this gas under the land such as in oil wells, coal layer or aquifer. This has been done in one of Norway's offshore drilling rig, where the carbon dioxide brought to the surface with natural gas was captured and injected back into the aquifer so it can not go back to the surface.
One source contributor of carbon dioxide is the combustion of fossil fuels. Use of fossil fuels began to increase rapidly since the industrial revolution in the 18th century. At that time, coal became the dominant energy source for later replaced by oil in the mid-19th century. In the 20th century, began regular use of gas energy in the world as an energy source. The change trend of fossil fuel use is actually indirectly have reduced the amount of carbon dioxide released into the air, because the gas release less carbon dioxide compared to oil, especially when compared with coal. Nevertheless, the use of renewable energy and more nuclear energy to reduce the release of carbon dioxide into the air. Nuclear energy, although controversial for reasons of safety and hazardous waste, not even completely remove the carbon dioxide.

International Approvals
International cooperation is needed to succeed in reducing greenhouse gases. In 1992, at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 150 countries pledged to tackle greenhouse gases and agreed to translate these intentions in a binding contract. In the year 1997 in Japan, 160 countries formulate a stronger agreement known as the Kyoto Protocol.
This agreement, which has not been implemented, called on the 38 industrialized nations who hold the largest percentage in the release of greenhouse gases to cut their emissions to a level 5 percent below emissions in 1990. This reduction must be achieved no later than year 2012. At first, the United States had volunteered to conduct a more ambitious cuts, promising to reduce emissions to 7 percent below 1990 levels; the European Union, which wants a tougher agreement, committed 8 percent and Japan 6 percent. The remaining 122 other countries, most developing countries, was not asked to commit in the reduction of gas emissions.
However, in the year 2001, the President of the United States that were elected, George W. Bush announced that an agreement for reduction of carbon dioxide is a very large cost. He also denied by arguing that developing countries are not burdened with the requirements of this carbon dioxide reduction. Kyoto Protocol does not affect anything if the industrialized countries responsible for contributing 55 percent of greenhouse gas emissions in 1990 not to ratify. It successfully met the requirements when the year 2004, Russian President Vladimir Putin to ratify this treaty, provides a way for this agreement began February 16, 2005.
Many people criticized the Kyoto Protocol too weak. Even if the agreement is implemented soon, it will only slightly reduce the increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. A tough action will be required later on, especially since developing countries are exempted from this agreement will result in half of the greenhouse gas emissions in 2035. Opponents of this protocol has a very strong position. Rejection of this agreement in the United States mainly expressed by the oil industry, coal industry and other companies whose production depends on fossil fuels. Opponents claim that the economic costs required to implement the Kyoto Protocol can menjapai 300 billion U.S. dollars, mainly due to energy costs. In contrast the Kyoto Protocol advocates believe that only the required fee of 88 billion U.S. dollars and can be more or less again, and returned in the form of saving money after a change to the equipment, vehicles and industrial processes more efficient.
In a country with strict environmental policy, the economy can continue to grow in spite of various kinds of pollution have been reduced. But to limit carbon dioxide emissions will prove difficult. For example, the Netherlands, the country is also a pioneer of industry environments, have successfully overcome various kinds of pollution but fails to meet its target of reducing carbon dioxide production.
After 1997, the representatives of the Kyoto Protocol signatories meet regularly to menegoisasikan issues unresolved, such as rules, methods and penalties that must be applied in each country to slow greenhouse gas emissions. The negoisator designing systems in which a country that has a successful cleaning program can benefit by selling unused pollution rights to other countries. This is called carbon trading system. For example, a difficult country to further improve results, like the Netherlands, could buy pollution credits on the market, which can be obtained with a lower cost. Russia, a country that earns a profit if the system is applied. In 1990, Russia's economy is very bad and greenhouse gas emissions is very high. Since then the Russians managed to cut emissions of 5 percent below 1990 levels, he is in a position to sell emission credits to other industrial countries, especially those in the European Union.
Global Warming, Tragedy of Modern Civilization
June 5, 2006 (World Environment Day)
On June 5, 2007, countries around the world generally memperingatnya as World Environment Day. Global warming resulting in climate change (climate change) is not to be advanced in a multiparty awareness. Global warming (global warming) has become a major focus of the world community, particularly countries that experienced industrialization and high consumption patterns (consumptive lifestyles). Not many indeed who understands and cares about climate change issues. Because many say, is that the environmental impacts usually occur cumulatively. At this point, the environmental problems are often not considered important by many, the main recipient of the mandate power in making policy.
Climate change caused by global warming (global warming), the main trigger is the increase of carbon emissions, resulting from the use of fossil energy (fuel oil, coal and the like, which can not be updated). Biggest producer of industrial countries like the United States, England, Russia, Canada, Japan, China, etc.. This is caused by the consumption pattern and lifestyle of the northern state of country-10 times higher than the population of the southern states. For developing countries, although not large, involved also contributed to the development scenario based on growth. Industrilisme spur and rising consumption pattern of course, though not as high as the north country. The largest carbon-producing industries in developing countries like Indonesia is the mining companies (oil, coal and raw material mainly fossil). In addition to forest destruction in Indonesia, which are listed on the world record for "Guinness Book Of Records" as the country's fastest
damaged forests.

According to the findings Intergovermental Panel and Climate Change (IPCC). An international panel consisting of the institution of more than 100 countries around the world. An agency under the United Nations, but its power over the UN. Declared in 2005 there was an increase in world temperatures, while in Asia 0,6-0,70 higher, namely 10. The next is the availability of water in tropical countries is reduced 10-30 percent and the melting of Gleser (iceberg) in the Himalayas and the Antarctic. In general who also felt by the entire world today is increasingly long summers and short growing season, besides the more widespread storms and flooding in major cities (El Nino) in the entire world. And an increase in extreme weather, which of course strongly felt in tropical countries. If we associate this with the Indonesian territory of deeply felt, as well as the towns that had once been known for cool and cold hot increasingly alone. For example in East Java

we can feel is the city of Malang, Batu, Pasuruan in Regions Prigen Welirang Mountain Slope and the surrounding region is also the foot of Mount Semeru. Or in other cities such as Bogor, West Java, East Nusa Tenggara Ruteng, is an area formerly known as cold but not anymore.

This temperature rise is apparently caused the increasing number of outbreaks of endemic diseases "old and new" equitable and continued to appear, such as leptospirosis, dengue, diarrhea, malaria. Though diseases like malaria, dengue fever and diarrhea is a disease that should have been passed long and able to handle and now has caused thousands of people were infected and died. In addition, hundreds of coastal villages in Java threatened drowning due to rising sea levels, the indicator seemed to be getting close when we saw the tide rising in the third week in May 2007 yesterday. Starting from Kenjeran Beach, Beach Popoh Tulungagung, Ngeliyep Malang and other beaches on the islands in Indonesia.

For other countries rising sea levels can be seen with the higher waves on the beaches of Asia and Africa. Moreover, it is added to the melting of the Himalayan mountain gleser in Tibet and in the northern hemisphere. Annunciator by the IPCC in this case directly contribute to increasing sea levels as high as 4-6 meters. And if absolutely everything melt will increase sea levels as high as 7 meters in the year 2012. And in 30 years this could threaten the lives of coastal and exceptional food shortages, caused by climate change can already we feel now with the increasingly short rainy season while the dry season has become longer. Until about pests in addition to crop failure, but due to the water in the plant kekuarangan the mother-father of many farmers who fail.

So with such a situation what is needed by a small world "local" and we as individual residents of planet earth? What is needed is a LIFESTYLE REVOLUTION, for thereby reducing both energy usage of electricity, fuel, water has become a major source of the less source of life.

Media Growth

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 03:55:00 +0000

Media Growth

To grow a microorganism, needed a food substrate is called the culture medium. This medium contains Nutrients needed by these Microorganisms. Nutrients These can be inorganic salts, and organic compounds such as proteins, pepton, amino acids, and vitamins needed for growth (Tarigan, 1988).
Many media are required for special purposes, such as for recognition, calculation, and the isolation of type-specific types of bacteria. For this purpose, a microbiologist based media sharing and application functions, as follows (Tarigan, 1988):

1. Selective media
This media can provide sufficient Nutrients for the growth of certain microbial species and can inhibit the growth of other microbes that are not expected to also grow on this medium. Selective media designed to suppress the growth of unwanted microbes and encourage the growth of unwanted microbes.

2. Differential Media
This media is used to grow certain microbes, and can Distinguished various types of microbes.

3. Media Tester (assay media)
This media is used to test vitamins, amino acids and antibiotics.

4. Port Calculation (Enumeration)
This media is used to calculate the number of bacteria present in a material.
Here are some types of media that is usually used in testing samples of food, beverages and traditional medicine in microbiology testing laboratories Balai Besar POM in Bandung:

a. EMBA (Eosin Blue Metilen order)
This media is used for the isolation of pathogenic Enterobacteriaceae such as Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, Salmonella and Enterobacter cloacae typimurium (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). EMBA is a differential solid medium can be used to replace the Mac Conkey order (Tarigan, 1988).
Eosin and blue metilen serves to inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative bacteria. Metilen blue Eosin and also serves as an indicator of acid production (Tarigan, 1988). The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton 10 - Lactose 5
- Sucrose 5 - Dipotasium hydrogen phosphate 2
- Eosin Y yellowish 0.4 - 0:07 Blue Metilen
- Agar-agar 13.5

b. Mac Conkey Brothers
This media is solid and differential media, which is used for the selection and growing Enterobacteriaceae and Gram-negative bacteria are rod-shaped. Content of bile salts and crystal violet in the medium can inhibit the growth of Gram-positive bacteria and Gram-negative (Tarigan, 1988).
This fluid contains lactose, when the degradation will produce acid and gas, which indicate the presence of Escherichia coli. The gas formed is collected in Durham tubes and formed acid was detected by using the purple bromokresol indicator turns yellow. Ox bile content of the medium can support the growth of non-bacterial Digestion. The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton of casein 20 - 5 dried ox bile
- Lactose 10 - 0:01 purple Bromokserol

c. In order to Mannitol Salt
This medium is a medium containing 7.5% NaCl, which can inhibit the growth of most bacteria. This medium also contains mannitol, phenol red as pH indicator, is useful to detect the existence of acid produced by Staphylococcus that can ferment mannitol. Staphylococci ferment mannitol that can result in a yellow zone around the growth, while not able to ferment mannitol, will not cause color changes in the media (Tarigan, 1988).

d. Selenite Cystine Brothers (SCB)
This media is used for enrichment and isolation of Salmonella species from specimens such as urine and faeces (Tarigan, 1988). Sodium selenite is an inhibitor for bekteri coliform and Enterococcus in the first 6-12 hours of Incubation (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton of casein 5 - L (-) Cystine 0:01
- Phosphate buffer 10-4 Sodium hydrogen selenite
- Lactose 4

e. Pepton Dillution Fluid (PDF)-Buffer
Is a solution to the diluent and sample homogenization. This fluid is rich in Nutrients that can increase the growth of bacteria. The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton 10 - Disodium hydrogen phosphate dodecahidrat 9
- Sodium Chloride 5 - Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate 1.5

f. Plate Count To (Casein-dextrose Yeast Pepton order)
This medium contains no inhibitors or indicators, are generally used to calculate the total microbes present in milk, water, and other materials. The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton of casein 5 - D (+) glucose, 1
- Yeast extract 2.5 - To 14

g. Baird-Parker To (Staphylococcus Selective To Base acc. To Baird-Parker).
This medium contains lithium chloride and telurit to inhibit the growth of microbial flora. Whereas pyruvate and Glycine selectively stimulate the growth of microbes only in this case Staphylococcus. Staphylococcus colonies are characterized by a zone and the ring formed. This form is the result of proteolysis and lipolisis and the reduction of the tellurium telurit that produces shiny black colonies (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The following is a composition which is listed on the bottle BPA medium (g / l) are:
- Pepton of casein 10 - Glycine 12
- Extract the meat from 5 to 5 Lithium Chloride
- Yeast extract 1 - agar-agar 15
- Sodium pyruvate 10 - Egg-yolk telurit 50 ml
- Sulfametazin 0:05 g (If necessary)

h. To TCBS (sucrose Thiosulfate Citrate Bile order)
Used for isolation and selective medium for Vibrio cholerae. High concentrations of thiosulfate and citrate, and a strong base in the medium inhibits the growth of Enterobacteriaceae. Ox bile and cholate suppress the growth of Enterococci. Mixed bromtimol indicators timol blue and blue change the color to yellow when acid is formed even though the medium is a strong base (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The following is a composition which is listed on the bottle TCBS medium (g / l) are:
- Pepton of casein 5 - sucrose 20
- Pepton of meat 5 - sodium chloride 10
- Yeast extract 5 - Iron (III) citrate 1
- Sodium Citrate 10 - 0:04 Blue Timol
- Sodium thiosulfate 10 - 0:04 Blue Bromtimol
- Ox bile 5 - so-so 14
- Sodium Cholate 3

i. Bismuth Sulfite To acc. To Wilson-Blair (BSA)
This media is used to Isolate and differentiation of Salmonella typhi and other Salmonella. Brilliant green and bismuth are used to inhibit the growth of the bacterial flora. Colonies of Salmonella positive H2S showed black color caused by the formation of iron sulfide. Reduction of bismuth Ions to metallic bismuth raises the sparkling color around the colonies (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton of meat 10 - bismuth sulfite indicator 8
- Extract the meat 5 - Iron (III) sulfate 0.3
- D (+) glucose, 5-4 disodium hydrogen phosphate
- Agar-agar 15 - Roya green 0025

j. For SPS (Sulfite Polymyxin Sulfadiazine order / perfringens Selective order)
This medium contains a broad spectrum of Nutrients. Sulfite reduced by Clostridia into sulfide, which reacts with iron and lead citrate black colony. Other microbes that reduce sulfite inhibited by the polimiksin and sulfadiazine. The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton casein 15 - Sodium sulfite 0.5
- Yeast extract 10 - Iron (III) citrate 0.5
- Polimiksin B sulfate 0:01 to 0:12 Sodium sulfadiazine
- Agar-agar 13.9

k. Lactose Brothers
This media is used to test coliform bacteria, especially Escherichia coli. The use of lactose is indicated by the formation of gas. This gas will then be collected through a tube of Durham (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton 5 - Lactose 5
- Extract the meat 3

l. Vogel for Johnson, Base
This media is used for a positive test for Syaphylococcus mannitol. Growth of other bacteria that grow inhibited by tellurite, lithium chloride, and Glycine concentration. Mannitol degraded to acid by Staphylococcus pathogens, the reaction is characterized by the phenol red changes color to yellow. Pathogen Staphylococcus telurite also reduce the metal tellurium, which causes black colonies (Sudarsono.dkk, 2003). The composition of this medium consisted of (g / L):
- Pepton of casein 10 - D (-) mannitol 10
- Yeast extract 5 - Dipotassium hydrogen phosphate 5
- Lithium chloride 5 - Glycine 10
- Phenol red 0025 - To 13
- Potassium telurit

Foods and Microorganism

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Mon, 02 Nov 2009 03:41:00 +0000

Important source of food is needed by the community. Types of food in the form of food and drink becomes a very necessary thing. Not a few people who consume foods derived from household industries, industrial and large industrial Menegah, both sold in the market and in shopping malls. Type of food and drink good food they receive is appropriate hygiene requirements, including the presence or absence of microorganisms contamination and nutrient content or owned by the food type (Pelczar and Chan, 1988).

Public consumption of food products tends to increase, along with lifestyle changes in society, including patterns of consumption. Community's willingness to accept and the demand for food, drinks and traditional medicine have been processed result in the growth of domestic industries, medium industries and large industries to produce various types of food (Tarigan, 1988). Besides technological advances have brought changes rapidly and significantly in the pharmaceutical industry, medicine native to Indonesia, food, cosmetics and medical devices. By using modern technology, these industries are now able to produce in a very large scale covers a range of products with a "range" is very broad.

The high consumption of processed food products, beverages and traditional drug is not selective manner lacks the proper types of food and not suitable for consumption. The greatest obstacle is not enough public knowledge to be able to choose and use these products properly, correctly and safely. On the other hand, advertising and incentive campaigns to encourage consumers to consume excessive and often irrational (POM, 2001).
Changes in production technology, the international trade system and the consumer lifestyles in reality increase the risk of the broad implications on the health and safety of consumers. If there is sub-standard product, damaged or contaminated by hazardous substances is a risk that there will be large scale and the extent and progress very quickly.

Food consisting of protein, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins and minerals. Most food is a good growth medium for various microorganisms. In general, the number and kinds of microorganisms found in food reflects the quality of the food sanitation. Microorganisms can damage food, beverages, traditional medicines by doing your metabolism and produce metabolic products that are not desirable and can cause disease, poisoning until the cause of death (Tarigan, 1988).

Microbiological examination of food, including food and beverages can provide information about the metahnya quality materials, state of cleanliness at the time of the effectiveness of the method of processing and preservation. For this purpose the need for a Control System for Food and Drugs effective and efficient are able to detect, prevent and control these products to protect the security, safety and health of consumers both inside and outside the country (POM, 2001).

LIPID

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 27 Aug 2008 02:22:00 +0000

LIPIDS

Lipids are organic compounds that are insoluble in water but can be extracted with non polar solvents such as chloroform, ether, benzene, alcohol, acetone, and karbondisulfid. These organic compounds are present in all cells and function as:

1. Energy storage and transport

2. Membrane structure

3. Leather protector, cell wall components

4. Chemical transmitter

Some lipid compounds have important biological activity in the body, including vitamins and hormones. Viewed from the angle of nutrients, fat is an important source of calories in addition to acting as a solvent in vitamins. Lipids can be classified according to chemical and physical properties.

Bloor dividing the lipids as follows:

1. Simple lipids

This group also called homolipida that is an ester form containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. If hydrolysis, lipids are included in this fatty acid and alcohol. This simple lipids can be divided into three categories, namely:

a. Fat, fatty acids and glycerol ester

b. Wax, fatty acid esters

2. Lipide Compound

This group of fatty acid esters with alcohols containing other clusters, for example phospholipide, serebrosida (glikolipida), sulfolipida, amino acids, lipids, and lipoproteins.

3. Lipid derivatives

Lipids is a result of hydrolysis derivatives group that had called earlier. Included in this group is fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, alcohols, aldehydes, and ketones.

Many physical properties of lipids that have amfipatik. Amfipatik term originally used by Hartley in 1936, giving derivatives of hydrocarbons which have one section (polar) "sympathetic" to the atmosphere of water and one part of the hydrocarbon (hydrophobic) that do not sympathize with the atmosphere of water.

Fatty acids are rarely found free in nature but exist as esters in combination with alcohol function. We can make some generalization about fatty acids, although there are exceptions as we shall see.

1. Fatty acids in general is a straight chain monocarboxylic acids.

2. Fatty acids typically have an even number of carbon atoms.

3. Fatty acids can be saturated or can have one or more double bonds.

Based on the absence of double bonds, fatty acids are divided into saturated fatty acids and unsaturated fatty acids. The animals at a higher level can be entered biosynthesis of saturated fatty acids and the mono-unsaturated from other sources such as carbohydrates. Acid-linoleic acid and linolenic acid and poly-unsaturated fatty acids higher-rise can not be produced in animals rise higher and therefore termed essential fatty acids.

Fatty acid salts are usually called soap. Cleaning power of soap resting on amfipatrik properties of soap molecules. Ions with Ca + + and Mg + + soap can form salts precipitated Ca or Mg. Therefore, if there is water or ions is called hard water. Soap has the properties can decrease the surface tension of water. This is evident from the emergence of bubbles when soap is dissolved in water and stirred.

Unsaturated fatty acid reaction on the bond easily entered rangkapnya. With hydrogen gas and catalytic hydrogenation reactions of Ni can occur, ie solving a single bond double bond. This hydrogenation process is of significant importance because it can alter fatty acid fatty acid liquid into solid. This is one of the margarine-making process at the head of palm oil.

Neutral fat is also called acyl glycerol or glyceride. Fat is a major component of fatty deposits in animal cells and plants, especially in adipose tissue of vertebrates.

Physical properties reflect the composition of neutral lipid fatty acids from fat. As a general proposition is the melting point of fatty acids decreases with increasing molecular weight and reduced ketidakjenuhan.

Fat composition of animals and plants having fatty acids contained therein is measured by the number of iodine. Iodine number is the number of grams of iodine, which can react with 100 grams of fatty acids. So, the more double bonds, the greater the number of iodine.

With fat hydrolysis process will break down into glycerol fatty acids. This process can be run by using acid, alkaline, or certain enzymes. Which uses alkaline hydrolysis process produces glycerol and fatty acid salt or soap. Therefore, the hydrolysis process that uses a base is called saponification process.

Oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids will generate peroxides and aldehydes will be formed. This is what causes the smell and taste unpleasant or rancid. The humidity, light, high temperatures and the presence of destructive bacteria are factors that menyebabkanterjadinya ketengikan fat.

Candles are esters of long chain fatty acids with monohydric alcohol. There are as pelidung skin and feathers, leaves danbuah protector, or as a secretion of insects. Candles insoluble in water.

Phospholipide is a glyceride containing phosphorus in the form of phosphoric acid ester. Phospholipide widely available in bacteria, plants and animal tissue. Fosfatidil fosfolipida called choline is usually found in the membrane and very little fat phospholipide have on deposit.

Sfingolipida is a lipid that did not contain glycerol amfipatik, especially abundant in brain and nerve tissue. These lipids are derived from sfingosin. Sfingolipida sfingomyelin most abundant is contained in the brain and nerve tissue and lipids in the blood.

Terpene and steroid is a lipid that can not be disaponifikasikan which means that the alkaline hydrolysis did not produce the soap. General structure which is common to all steroid framework perhidro siklompentano penantren. Steroids are widely available in nature. Among them in limited amounts but have important biological activity of bile acids, male and female sex hormones, hormones adreval cortex steroids and some poison contained in the class more number of sterols. Examples of cholesterol, lanosterol, phytosterol, and mikosterol.

Protein

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 27 Aug 2008 02:04:00 +0000

Protein is an organic compound of high molecular weight ranging from several thousand to millions. This protein is composed of atoms C, H, O and N and the other two elements such as P and S which form the amino acid units. These amino acids can be divided according to their chemical structure (aliphatic, aromatic, heterocyclic) or according to its R group.

Proteins are macromolecular polypeptides composed of a number of L-amino acids linked by peptide bonds. A protein molecule composed by a number of specific amino acids with a particular arrangement that has been and is also derived. At pH 7 or greater, is always negatively charged roteins, positive and non metallic charge neutralize the protein content and soluble protein is not anymore.
The properties of the amino acids that is almost all amino acids are not soluble in water and soluble in non polar solvent / organic such as ether, chloroform and acetone unless both carboxylic acid and aliphatic or aromatic organic amines. Amino acid crystals have a rather high melting point.
Determination of quantity and type of amino acid
Peptide bond linking the first amino acid with hidrolisisis disconnected. Free amino acids that have been then identified by chromatography or elektroforesisi. The number of amino acids was then calculated after mereaksikannya with tau ninhydrin color reaction that is typical or the spectrum of amino acids and other aromatic-lan. Peptide bond can puladihidrolisisi with acids, bases or enzymes.
Some reactions Proteins
1. With concentrated mineral acids precipitate the protein but = would be late returning the deposit if excessive acid.
2. Basa did not cause precipitation of the protein but resulted in hydrolysis and oxidative decomposition.
3. Heavy metals precipitate the proteins, depending on temperature and other elketrolit. Mercury chloride and silver nitrate to form deposits that can not be dissolved again while sulfate and feriklorida produces sediment which can be dissolved again.
4. Alkoloidal reagent such as trichloroacetic acid, acid tannat, fosfotungstat acid, ascorbic acid functions as a settling fosfomobolibdat protein when pH is more acidic than the protein isolistrik point.
5. Alcohol or an organic solvent are also settling in protein and more effectively at the point isolistrik proteins.
6. The heat causes coagulation of proteins with an effective temperature ranges between 38-750C. several factors affect these coagulation proteins but most easily at the point isolistriknya berkoagulasi. Insoluble coagulum except if the solvent can hydrolyze or break it.
Some Color Reactions of Protein
1. Millon reaction
This reaction is used to memerikasa triftofan in the protein molecule. Add 3 to 4 drops of Millon reagent into 5 ml of protein solution. Mix together and reheat. White precipitate that immediately arises slowly turn red. This reaction can not take place if the protein is not precipitated by concentrated acid.
2. Biuret Reaction
Add 2-3 drops of alkaline and Cu-sulfate solution (approximately 0.02 percent). Color change occurs, depending on the type of protein. This experiment is typical for peptide bond.
3. Reaction Xantoprotein
Nitric acid were added to the protein solution causes the yellow color turned into orange if added bases. This reaction occurs when the protein was found in the amino acid with an aromatic nucleus such as triftopfan, tyrosine, phenylalanine nd.
4. Experiment Hopkins-Cole
This reaction is specific for the amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan-containing material to form violet color at the boundary between the material and glyoxylate acid.
5. Ninhydrin reaction
This reaction is useful for all protein-containing compounds of at least one carboxyl group and an amino group which is free.
Protein denaturation
Most biologically active proteins functioned only on regional pH and temperature are limited. If the pH and temperature changes across these boundaries, will experience a denaturation of proteins. Because the enzyme is a protein, then the case of denaturation, the enzyme will lose its biological activity. In this case the peptide bond does not change that changes is the form of pleats. The process of returning to original form after denaturation called renaturation. For this pengembalin unnecessary chemicals, usually occur because of changes in pH or temperature.

Exprement Diffusion Process

noreply@blogger.com (tifa) — Wed, 13 Aug 2008 12:39:00 +0000

Diffusion Process Experience

Materials :

a. Filter paper
b. Water or alcohol
c. Ink
d. Capillarity
e. Plastic glass

Procedurs
1. Cut a filter paper in the size of 3 cm x 12 cm
2. Draw. a line in 2 cm from the paper’s corner in black ink or blue ink
3. Take a beaker glass or plastic glass, pour it with water about 1 cm high
4. Soak the paper in the water, with the line position above the water surface let it in 5 minutes and observe the changes
Question Experiments :
a. What do you think about the picture
This is an experiment about difusion process. The picture show a methods or simple process that can intoduce about movement molecules (ink) in medium (water) through filter paper this known as capillarity action.

b. Make hipotesis base on picture
Rise or depression of a liquid in a small passage such as small cross-sectional area (filter paper that draw with ink) changes a movement of molecules (ink) through liquid suface because of kinetis or capillarity action. Water is drawn into the fibres of ink and caused ink movement or rise to vertical section. Molecules movements (ink) from high concentration medium (wet fibre or filter paper has draw with ink) to low concentration (filter paper soak with water or alcohol). Process diffusion in water show a rise or movements ink through a filter paper.

Conclusion

The ink in piece paper will spread up. It caused the difusion process. Process diffusion is a process spread up molecules liquid, solid or gases because of capillarity action or kinetis force. Kinetis force is force that caused attractive (linked) or refuse between molecules. Molecules movements (ink) from high concentration medium to low concentration (water show a rise or movements ink through a filter paper).

Capillarity or capillary action, phenomenon in which the surface of a liquid (water) is observed to be elevated or depressed changes of ink where it comes into contact with a solid (filter paper). Capillarity can be explained by considering the effects of two opposing forces: adhesion, the attractive (or repulsive) force between the molecules of the liquid and those of the container, and cohesion, the attractive force between the molecules of the liquid. Adhesion causes water to wet a glass container and thus causes the water's surface to rise near the container's walls in this experience as filter paper. If there were no forces acting in opposition, the water would creep higher and higher on the walls and eventually overflow the container. The forces of cohesion act to minimize the surface area of the liquid when the cohesive force acting to reduce the surface area becomes equal to the adhesive force acting to increase it (e.g., by pulling water up the walls of a glass), equilibrium is reached and the liquid stops rising where it contacts the solid. In some liquid-solid systems, e.g., mercury and glass or water and polyethylene plastic, the liquid does not wet the solid, and its surface is depressed where it contacts the solid. So capillarity is one of the causes of the upward flow of water in the soil and in plantswater is a substance composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen and existing in gaseous, liquid, and solid states. Water is one of the most plentiful and essential of compounds. It is vital to life, participating in virtually every process that occurs in plants and animals. Although the molecules of water are simple in structure (H2O), the physical and chemical properties.