Uncovering coded antisemitism online takes both human expertise and AI automation

Wendy Melillo, American University School of Communication; Jeff Gill, American University, and Nathalie Japkowicz, American University

This article includes examples of antisemitic hate speech.

The men accused of carrying out high-profile antisemitic attacks in the United States in recent years shared an important characteristic: They posted hate speech on their social media accounts beforehand.

The FBI said the man who drove his truck into a synagogue outside Detroit in March 2026 posted on Facebook that “Israel is a cancerous/malignant growth” and “Israel is pure evil.” The online footprint of the gunman charged with shooting and killing two Israeli Embassy staffers at the Capital Jewish Museum in May 2025 contained anti-Israel comments. The shooter sentenced to death for killing 11 worshippers at the Tree of Life synagogue in Pittsburgh in October 2018 frequently used antisemitic hate speech in his social media.

Hate speech uses feelings, emotions and attitudes that seek to dehumanize individuals or groups. At times, animosity is clear. But it can also take a more hidden form, using code words or terms understood only by like-minded people. Coded hate speech can evade online content censors and recruit people who might balk at more clearly discriminatory speech.

There are an estimated 5.7 billion social media accounts worldwide. Even when hate speech is explicit, content moderators struggle with the volume and deciding how much to monitor users’ speech. There are also alternative – some argue extremist – sites that limit content moderation, including 4chan, BitChute, Gab, GETTR, Parler, Rumble and Truth Social.

We are a group of interdisciplinary researchers at American University who study the rhetorical strategies behind overt and coded hate speech on social media. Our Unmasking Antisemitism project uses artificial intelligence, qualitative analysis and survey experiments to develop studies and tools to detect both types of terms. This article discusses examples of antisemitic hate speech that are disturbing but illustrate types of terms and how to counter this dangerous influence.

Two types of hate speech

To understand the difference between direct and coded hate speech, consider shooter Robert Bowers’ language before the Tree of Life massacre. On Gab, he used older, virulently antisemitic slurs such as “kike,” a “highly offensive term used to insult and denigrate people of Jewish faith or ethnicity that is widely considered to be a form of hate speech,” according to the American Jewish Committee.

Other extremist terms are just as offensive but less obvious, such as “oven dodger,” which Bowers also used on Gab: a reference to how German Nazis systematically exterminated Jews during the Holocaust. Like overt phrases, coded terms often draw on older, well-researched antisemitic tropes, such as “Jews have too much power,” repacking them in new words and phrases.

They can also have double meanings, which makes hate speech harder to moderate. The original definition of “globalist” refers to a person who believes that policies should be planned with the whole world’s interest in mind rather than just one country. But globalist also has an antisemitic connotation.

As the American Jewish Committee “Translate Hate” glossary puts it, antisemites often use “globalist” to disparage Jews, promoting a conspiracy theory that “Jewish people do not have allegiance to their countries of origin, like the United States, but to some worldwide order – like a global economy or international political system – that will enhance their control over the world’s banks, governments and media.” This repackages long-standing Nazi and Soviet propaganda about Jews based on historical antisemitic tropes.

How terms develop

In the early days of social media, companies responded to criticism of the more hateful content on their platforms by using a combination of AI and human analysis to moderate content. The automated tools use natural language processing to analyze context, detect slurs and flag content. Human workers analyze more complex language, such as irony and slang.

But keeping up with the volume of posts is challenging, especially for more subtle hate speech. Our team’s goals are to identify coded antisemitic terms, understand how they develop, and create technology to track them.

The key is to understand that hate terms have a life cycle. Some take a path toward more public use, while others disappear.

New terms tend to emerge from a small set of people considered leaders or influencers in antisemitic circles online. In some cases, their communities adopt the term and normalize it; other times, it’s dropped from use.

The term “cultural Marxism,” which has its origins in the antisemitic belief that Jewish intellectuals seek to subvert Western culture, was adopted into wider use. “Jew jab,” on the other hand – a white supremacist conspiracy theory claiming that COVID-19 vaccines were a Jewish plot to harm people – soon disappeared.

Tracking hate

In our initial pilot project we started with 46 antisemitic terms, both overt and coded, from the American Jewish Committee’s glossary. We entered the terms in Pyrra, now called Alert Media – a private software company that allows users to scrape posts from a collection of social media sites.

Researchers trained in definitions of antisemitism, historical antisemitic tropes and hate speech detection identified 24 additional terms. White supremacists use the symbol “1488,” for example, to identify each other. The first part, “14,” references the “14-word” slogan of white supremacist leader David Lane. The “88” stands for “Heil Hitler,” based on “h” being the eighth letter of the alphabet. Other coded terms are less well known, such as “DOTR” or “Day of the Rope,” a reference to the 1978 book “The Turner Diaries,” which was written under a pseudonym by neo-Nazi William Pierce.

To track which coded terms have spread to the general public, we scrutinized mainstream media content and ran survey experiments to see whether people recognized them. We also developed an AI software tool designed to automatically track how coded language evolves. The app is trained on data from Pyrra and learns to identify new antisemitic terms based on the context in which they appear.

First, the app identifies distinctive terms based on how frequently they appear in each post, versus how rare they are on the platform in general. To find out whether these terms have an antisemitic connotation, we encode their context, such as other words in the post, and calculate whether it is close to the context of already known antisemitic terminology. Some of the terms our app has identified are explicit, while others are coded.

This approach can also be applied to hate speech targeted at other groups, such as Latinos, LGBTQ+ people and women. We aim to create a tool kit that can be distributed to nonprofit groups, think tanks and policymakers considering legislative efforts to curb hate speech.

Humans and machines

Given the massive number of posts on social media every day, our work illustrates how detecting new hate speech requires an interdisciplinary group of researchers working with machines.

One academic discipline working independently is too siloed, and humans alone can’t handle the scale. But machines alone can’t understand sophisticated human language, slang or context.

History shows that at every moment of profound technological change in our communication systems, incidents targeting Jews or other minority groups go up dramatically. This era’s technical innovation is unprecedented – but unfortunately, hate speech now travels around the globe almost instantly. Technology may be part of the problem, but its immense power can be harnessed to create a solution.

Wendy Melillo, Associate Professor of Journalism, American University School of Communication; Jeff Gill, Professor of Mathematics and Statistics, American University, and Nathalie Japkowicz, Professor of Computer Science, American University

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

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The WMNF Song of the Day for May 22, 2026 is “How Soon is Now?” by The Smiths.

The Smiths were an English rock band formed in Manchester in 1982, composed of Morrissey (vocals), Johnny Marr (guitar), Andy Rourke (bass) and Mike Joyce (drums). Morrissey and Marr formed the band’s songwriting partnership. The Smiths are regarded as one of the most important British bands and one of the pioneers of 1980s independent music.

In retrospect, it’s easier to see The Smiths made such an indelible impression. The irrepressible Morrissey was the focal point, his baritone croon expressing lyrics rich with vulnerable emotions, mordant humor, a library of literary references and stories that felt like kitchen sink dramas reimagined through song. Guitarist Johnny Marr was his perfect foil: his distinctive arpeggios and chiming melodies exuding melody and musicality while maintaining a punkish back-to- basics approach. But The Smiths were more than the total of their front duo. Andy Rourke’s fluid basslines seemingly effortlessly complemented Marr’s leads as much as they did Mike Joyce’s propulsive drum rhythms.

“How Soon is Now?” is the SOTD to remind you that there is a WMNF Event featuring Ordinary Boys. Ordinary Boys, formed in Miami in 2010, were created to honor the legacy of The Smiths and Morrissey. The band takes its name from Morrissey’s song “The Ordinary Boys.” What started as a one-off show at the legendary Churchill’s Pub quickly turned into a beloved act among Smiths and Morrissey fans.

This is WMNF’s last event at Ybor City’s beloved Crowbar before it closes forever. Come celebrate Crowbar and experience a night of unforgettable 80s alternative music. Ordinary Boys promise to bring down the house with their set of 80s covers and Smiths classics that will leave you utterly breathless.

If you want to find out more about The Smiths: https://www.officialsmiths.co.uk/

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The Tampa City Council voted 4 to 3 to approve a nonbinding memorandum of understanding for a new $2.3 billion Tampa Bay Rays stadium.

The memorandum details a $976 million public contribution toward the cost of the stadium, with $796 million from Hillsborough County and around $180 million coming from the City of Tampa.

Councilmember Luis Viera said it wouldn’t be reasonable to vote the memorandum down.

“There are legitimate concerns that I obviously acknowledge, but, to me, the good far outweighs the bad in terms of moving forward at this time. It clearly does to me.” Viera said.

Public comment was mixed, with some cautioning councilmembers on making the deal, saying more conversations need to be had with the taxpayers.

Stephanie Poynor says the decisions should be put on the ballot.

“I have a real issue – my momma always says, my husband says you can’t spend other people’s money. And if we are voting on this, and I understand the MOU, and I understand how it works. But I also understand that you guys should not be making this decision.” Poyner said.

Council members Charlie Miranda, Guido Maniscalco, and Lynn Hurtak voted no.

Council members Bill Carlson, Naya Young, Luis Viera, and Alan Clendenin voted yes.

On Wednesday, Hillsborough County commissioners voted 5 to 2 in favor of the memorandum.

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On this week’s Sustainable Living show, Anni is joined by expert guest Phil Reasons of Aquasol International to discuss sustainable food production through aquaponics. Phil has spent years designing and building systems that combine fish farming and plant production to create highly efficient food systems that conserve water and reduce environmental impact. He works with farms, schools, and communities to help people produce fresh food in smarter, more sustainable ways. His organization, Aquasol International, is “dedicated to advancing sustainable food production through aquaponics, greenhouse agriculture, and water-efficient farming systems.”

Topics discussed include:

-Phil’s background in agriculture and how he got started in aquaponics

-Phils work in disaster relief

-teaching people and communities about sustainable food systems

-how are aquaponics and hydroponics sustainable

-how sustainable food systems support local and global food communities

-small scale, backyard systems

and more!

Find out more about Phil and the work of Aquasol International on their website.

If you love the Sustainable Living Show, make sure to tune in every Monday at 11am on 88.5fm or listen to past episodes in the archives here. You can also stay up to date with show happenings on our Facebook page. Head over to the tip jar and direct your donation to Sustainable Living to show your monetary support. Remember, it takes a community to build a community.

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Listen:

Barrio walks are being held by Tampa IRC to provide the community with information they may not know. The walks aim to give out condensed information for people so they know what to do around immigration enforcement.

The Barrio walks consist of anywhere between two to five routes, depending on how many people come out, and walk around the surrounding community. Each group consists of at least one Spanish speaker and a a member who has done a walk before. This walk took place in West Tampa, near the Bravo Supermarket. Tampa IRC member Yun gave insight into this process.

“We go around the community and the affected areas of the community and pass out know your rights information so folks understand what their rights are around immigration enforcement.”

Each group went door to door, knocking on homes and businesses. Handing out flyers and red information cards. The cards are pocket information guides that have a script to say when speaking to immigration enforcement.

Each walk is arranged based on need. Wherever ICE or Immigration enforcement has been seen, a walk is organized to give those in the area the information they need to protect themselves.

Yun talked more about the effects the walk has on the community.

“The most common reaction we get is that folks just don’t know that they have any right when it comes to interacting with immigration enforcement, and generally, the reaction from the community has been positive, and folks are really receptive to just that fact that people are going around giving information about all of this.”

Each walk lasts about an hour throughout the designated area. Tampa IRC promotes the Barrio walks as family-friendly events to give people of all ages the opportunity to come out and support the cause.

You can find out more about Tampa IRC including information about joining their next walk on Instagram or Facebook.

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May is Mental Health Awareness month and more Tampa Bay residents are reaching out for mental health support than ever before. But leaders from the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay say significant gaps in emergency behavioral care still remain.

On May 20, Clara Reynolds, president and CEO of the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay, and Ken Gibson, senior director of marketing and PR, joined MidPoint to discuss the region’s growing mental health needs, how the community responds to crisis, and available resources.

“Our mission is to ensure that nobody in our community has to face a crisis alone,” Gibson said.

What is a mental health crisis?

The Crisis Center leaders define a crisis as “a challenge in life that needs a solution,” emphasizing that people do not need to wait until a situation becomes severe to seek help.

Clara Reynolds explained that behavioral changes are often the clearest indicators, including increased alcohol or substance use, disrupted sleep, social withdrawal, or noticeable shifts from someone’s normal routines. She encouraged loved ones to trust their instincts, start conversations with concern rather than judgment, and recognize that even if someone is “just struggling,” they still deserve support.

Youth are leading a behavioral health shift

One of the most notable changes since the COVID-19 pandemic has been the growing willingness of younger people to seek mental health help. Reynolds pointed out that younger generations have become more open about seeking therapy and are pushing employers to prioritize emotional well-being alongside physical health.

Gibson added that the pandemic accelerated what the organization had anticipated would be a behavioral health “tsunami.”

Veterans remain a priority population

The Crisis Center has also expanded services for veterans, a group Reynolds said often faces unique barriers when seeking help. She pointed to the creation of the Florida Veterans Support Line, a 24/7 resource staffed by veterans, regardless of discharge status, that connects callers with services both inside and outside the VA system.

“There’s nothing like that peer-to-peer connection,” Reynolds said.

Crisis response gaps

One of the biggest gaps Reynolds identified is greater access to mobile crisis response teams – licensed mental health professionals trained to respond to psychiatric emergencies. She explained that mental health emergencies are often better handled first by trained behavioral health professionals rather than traditional law enforcement responses. A behavioral health specialist may be able to quickly determine whether a person is a danger to themselves or others and whether safety concerns call for a law enforcement response.

“Law enforcement aren’t trained mental health professionals,” Reynolds said. “They are incredible individuals doing the very best with the skill sets they have, but mobile crisis response is the emergency response that should be available.”

The Crisis Center has already helped reshape crisis response in Tampa through a partnership with the Tampa Police Department, which trains behavioral health dispatch operators to quickly and accurately assess callers’ needs for mental health assistance.

Knowing when to call 911, 988, or 211

The MidPoint guests emphasized that knowing which number to call can make a critical difference.

Call 911 – if someone is in immediate danger or has access to lethal means, such as a firearm or another weapon.

Call 988 – for mental health crises, suicidal thoughts, emotional distress, or concern about a loved one.

Call 211 – for non-urgent support, including housing assistance, food resources, counseling referrals, and other community services.

Both 211 and 988 are answered locally by Crisis Center of Tampa Bay staff 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

A message for those struggling

Reynolds concluded the MidPoint discussion with a message aimed directly at anyone facing emotional distress.

“It’s okay to not be okay,” she said.

Gibson urged people not to isolate. He encouraged anyone who is struggling with emotional distress to reach out to someone they trust, whether that’s a friend, colleague, faith leader, or mental health professional.

The Crisis Center of Tampa Bay, a nonprofit that has served the region for more than 50 years, provides a wide range of services that extend far beyond a traditional hotline. Those include operating the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline locally, staffing the 211-community resource line, providing behavioral health ambulance transport, rape crisis services, trauma counseling, and youth and family behavioral health programs.

To learn more about the Crisis Center of Tampa Bay resources, please visit their website.

You can listen to this entire MidPoint show on demand from the archive here, on the WMNF app, or as a WMNF MidPoint podcast on Spotify or Apple Music.

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Hillsborough County approves a nonbinding deal for a new Tampa Bay Rays stadium

Commissioners voted 5-2 on Wednesday for the $2.3 billion ballpark development.

Hillsborough is investigating its emergency director, but no information has been disclosed to the public

Timothy Dudley Jr, is the center of a county investigation, but Hillsborough hasn’t disclosed any details.

Black Cemeteries Network kicks off its first convention in Tampa Bay today

The conference is a response to conversations, research and legislation surrounding the erased African-American cemeteries in Tampa Bay – especially Zion Cemetery and the cemeteries on the Tropicana Field property.

Humana Foundation releases report on seniors increasingly struggling with their mental health

The cause is a combination of leaving the workforce and losing a sense of community, losing support systems as partners or peers die or children moving away.

Pasco County Schools’ enrollment decline is due to school choice

Much of the growth in student numbers is happening within Pasco’s charter and voucher education.

The Scoop: Tampa Bay & Florida headlines by WMNF

The Scoop, produced by Demaria Green and Seán Kinane.

WMNF anchors Chris Young, Juanita Hurtado Huérfano, Seán Kinane, Lisa Marzilli. 
WMNF News Director Seán Kinane
WMNF reporters Chris Young, Juanita Hurtado Huérfano, Lisa Marzilli, Seán Kinane, Sofia Caballero, Daria Mironova
Special thanks to Taylor Lovejoy and Corey Beltran.

Theme music, Fresh06, by Stian via archive.org – CC-BY-NC-SA 2.5
https://archive.org/details/jamendo-001084/02.mp3
The Scoop logo by Robin Milcowitz / Greener Pixels / greenerpixels.com / WMNF

• information from News Service of Florida, the Associated Press and Florida Public Media was used in this report

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FPREN | By Andrew Wulfeck

NOAA forecasters expect atmospheric conditions associated with a developing El Niño to suppress Atlantic tropical cyclone activity during the 2026 season, increasing the likelihood of a below-normal year across the basin.

In its initial outlook released Thursday, the agency said there is a 55% chance of a below-normal hurricane season, with only 10% odds of the year finishing with above-normal activity.

Based on calculations involving the expected Accumulated Cyclone Energy, forecasters expect 8 to 14 named storms to form, of which 3 to 6 could become hurricanes, including 1 to 3 major hurricanes with sustained winds of at least 115 mph.

Typically, during an average year, 12 named storms form, with 7 becoming hurricanes and 3 reaching major hurricane status.

Experts with Colorado State University released their initial outlook in April and came up with similar figures, forecasting 13 named storms, 6 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes.

“So far, the 2026 hurricane season is exhibiting characteristics similar to the 2006, 2009, 2015 and 2023 seasons,” Phil Klotzbach, a CSU senior research scientist and lead author of the report, previously stated.

Forecasters with both groups said El Niño is expected to play the dominant role in suppressing activity during the peak months of hurricane season from August through October.

In the Atlantic basin, El Niño often increases upper-level winds across the Atlantic’s Main Development Region or what commonly referred to as the MDR.

The MDR stretches from the Caribbean through the tropical Atlantic and is where many long-lasting hurricanes typically form.

Despite expectations for a quieter season, officials continue to stress that seasonal outlooks are not landfall forecasts and even El Niño years can still produce devastating impacts.

For instance, the 2004 hurricane season, which featured El Niño conditions, produced 15 named storms, with five cyclones impacting Florida over a six-week time frame.

During an average year across the basin, the first named storm typically does not form until June 20, while the first hurricane usually does not develop until mid-August.

The first tropical storm of the 2026 season will receive the name Arthur, and there are no indications that formation will occur over the next few weeks.

The Atlantic hurricane season officially runs from June 1 through Nov. 30, with roughly 97% of all tropical cyclone activity taking place between those dates.

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