Z Code Writer

USKT Old CGPA / GPA Calculator

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 14 Mar 2021 17:40:00 +0000

University of Sialkot Old (USKT) CGPA Calculator Batch-18

Designed for University Of Sialkot (USKT) Student 2 Calculate their CGPA/GPA Developed By Abdul Saboor

Click For USKT New CGPA/GPA Calculator

INFO: If you want to find a CGPA, then first you need to find their GPA. Write your current CGPA on the Current CGPA Box and Total Credit Hour.

Current CGPA

Total Credit Hour

NOTE: If You Want To Find Just GPA Then Fill Below Option.

GPA Calculator

#Grade Points Credit HoursGrade Points

Please Double Click On Select Option to Get Value If The Value is not automaticaly Filled in The Box.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Sum:

GPA:

CGPA:

How To Calculate USKT GPA

You Just Need To Select the Select Option Box for selecting Grade and Credit Hours. When You Have Set Your all Subject Grade You Need to CLick on Calculate Button . It will Calculate your new GPA. If You want to Calculate your CGPA go on top current CGPA box and write your current CGPA And write sum of all Previous Credit hour on tottal credit Hour Box and simply Click on Calculate Buuton You will Get Accurate CGPA. This is simple Design of USKT (University Of Sialkot) CGPA / GPA Calculator For USKT Student. For Using This GPA Calculator, Student can calculate their CGPA/GPA easy and efficence way. The result Show on the base of GPA of the current Semester. We Try our Best to Give you Simple Interface of USKT CGPA Calculator. The CGPA Is the main Term of Every University For result.

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UOG CGPA GPA Calculator

USKT Old CGPA GPA Calculator

USKT New CGPA Calculator 2021

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Thu, 11 Feb 2021 18:56:00 +0000

University of Sialkot (USKT) New CGPA/GPA Calculator 2021

Designed for University Of Sialkot (USKT) Student 2 Calculate their CGPA/GPA Developed By Abdul Saboor

Click For Old USKT CGPA Calculator For Batch-18

INFO: If you want to find a CGPA, then first you need to find their GPA. Write your current CGPA on the Current CGPA Box and Total Credit Hour.

Current CGPA

Total Credit Hour

NOTE: If You Want To Find Just GPA Then Fill Below Option.

GPA Calculator

#Grade Points Credit HoursGrade Points

Please Double Click On Select Option to Get Value If The Value is not automaticaly Filled in The Box.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Sum:

GPA:

CGPA:

How To Calculate USKT GPA

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USKT CGPA GPA Calculator

HCI for people with disabilities

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Samad) — Thu, 24 Dec 2020 18:14:00 +0000

HCI for People with Disabilities

Description/Abstract

This article deals with the Human Computer Interaction(HCI) of people with disability and how the designed system can assist the disable person. This issue of disable people is currently becoming the interest of both the expert and non-expert population in the field of HCI. The introduction focuses on the clarification that what is HCI, how it is related to disabled people in aspect of communication, its requirement and importance. After that dimensions and types of disability is defined which ultimately leads to the requirement of having the solution of disability type in field of HCI. Solution of four major disabilities (i.e., visual, hearing, physical and speech disability) is explained that what kind of system is required for the concerned problem and how a related person can use it. References/Sources are mentioned at the end of the Article/Blog.

Introduction

Human-Computer Interface (HCI) is the study and development of computer based interfaces with the express purpose of making them convenient, simpler, easier and productive for the human. We can find applications and devices inferring new concepts of HCI. It is about designing new systems (specifically computer systems) that support human so they carry out their deeds productively and safely. It attempts to study new modes of communication that could be used for human computer communication and simultaneously to develop devices and techniques to use such modes. The technique devices can be used for communication with the human and in the same way human can communicate with such techniqued devices using their perceptual abilities, processes and organs. The serious and sensitive aspect of using such technology for the disabled people. They need more inclusive technology rather than having separate world(i.e., Virtual Reality). HCI is actively considering the assistance of disabled people. Human-Computer Interface (HCI) systems allows more natural communication with the machines.

What is Disability?

A disability is any condition of the body or mind (impairment) that makes it more difficult for the person with the condition to do certain activities (activity limitation) and interact with the world around them (participation restrictions). According to WorldBank.org , out of One billion people, 15% of the world’s population, experience some form of disability, and disability prevalence is higher for developing countries. One-fifth of the estimated global total, or between 110 million and 190 million people, experience significant disabilities. Persons with disabilities are more likely to experience adverse socioeconomic outcomes such as less education, poorer health outcomes, lower levels of employment, and higher poverty rates.

Dimensions:

According to the WHO, disability has three dimensions:

1. Impairment in a person’s body structure or function, or mental functioning; examples of impairments include loss of a limb, loss of vision or memory loss.

2. Activity limitation, such as difficulty seeing, hearing, walking, or problem solving.

3. Participation restrictions in normal daily activities, such as working, engaging in social and recreational activities, and obtaining health care and preventive services.

Major types:

Disability has many types which affects the person:

· Vision

· Movement

· Thinking

· Remembering

· Learning

· Communicating

· Hearing

· Mental health

· Social relationships

People with Visual Disabilities

Visual disability is one that impairs one’s vision or causes loss of vision. The main reason of assistance of HCI in this field is the interaction of disable people with computers. They can hardly read contexts of computer with their naked eyes and it also depends upon the level of vision that one find it difficult to see small icons and read small font of text. Normal eyeglasses and better interface design is the best solution for this level of vision. But for the people with extreme vision disability (who find trouble seeing large amount of text, keys of keyboard), one way is the use of system that make sounds when using multimedia. Sound multimedia helps visually disabled human to navigate through the multimedia menu and text reader helps to read the written message, screen readers such as JAWS, exist for blind people to navigate through a website. They read the text of the screen.

To perform a user's required task or activity, the user firstly needs to input the required information via some input device such as keyboard. But in case of visually impaired persons, they can not enter value or input in a normal way so new keyboard have been established to help them enter data into the system.

As the input is provided to the system with the use of input devise. Computer monitor is the component where the entered information has been displayed to see or get the output. So to ease this, the screen magnifiers have been developed to magnify the content of the screen.

Such a system should also have an option to zoom in and zoom out text feature or change of the text size so it becomes convenient for vision impaired people to read the content and context. Meanwhile, proper color contrast should be used (prominent between text, background and graphics) for color blind people. In other words, system with screen magnifier is better for such people but not for completely blind persons though having said they need a system with screen reader.

People with Hearing Disabilities

Hearing loss, deafness, hard of hearing, or hearing impairment, is defined as a partial or total inability to hear. Audio commonly used for feedback and situational awareness. Many such people with this disability cannot express themselves clearly in public as they cannot use speech as a medium of communication, yet a large part of the hearing population cannot communicate with the deaf because they do not know sign language.

Sign Language is the main communication medium of the hearing impaired or deaf people. In order to assist such people with hearing disability, a system is required which can help people with hearing loss one way is through auto transcription. Increase use of captions in video can help their accessibility. In most cases, websites or products have speech or video based clips. In this scenerio, speech/audio clips should have transcript and videos should have captions available. In this way, not only those with hearing impaired people are benefitted but also other users (like if someone is new in that language or one is travelling in a noisy environment i.e., bus, train so this can be helpful for both). Introducing Gesture-based interfaces can be somehow better for such people.

Having said earlier sign language is the better medium of communication for such people. Infering this knowledge, a new technology (which is still in its early stages of innovation) is Sign Language Recognition and Synthesis. It uses computer vision techniques to convert sign language videos into the spoken or written form. A hearing disabled person can wear a glove having sensors connected, and make gestures of sign language which will be converting to the spoken or written form. In the same way sign language is synthesized with gestures and can make a video visualisation though the system is not certain completely.

People with Physical Disabilities

A physical disability is a physical condition that affects a person’s mobility, physical capacity, stamina, or dexterity. This can include brain or spinal cord injuries, multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, respiratory disorders, epilepsy, hearing and visual impairments and more. People with physical disability have limited control over their body. Fine mouse movements, keyboard usage or any precise motion is difficult for them. For devising a system for such users, one can think of speech input rather than keyboarding. Head pointer technology (demo image is displayed below) can also be considered if motor control of extremities is greatly impaired

People with physical impairment have difficult precise motion than other technology user do when using components of system. For this, the system should be made least precision as possible. For example, buttons with mild hit should be triggered and enhancing the button's hit area. In case of interfaces, the designs should not be closed up too close as the probability of hitting wrong target is greater in physically impaired people.

People with Speech Disabilities

People who cannot speak or having difficulty in producing sounds fall under the class of speech disability. Such people only have a lack in slow communication as the medium of their communication is typing or writing. Spoken communication is far more faster than typing/writing. Such people can also use sign language and its technology to communicate. To make their communication more faster, common communication auto text suggestion is recommended in system which is already available in most of the system in this era.

Conclusion

It is necessary to say this research blog/article has its limitations. The first limitation is that the people has wide classification in sense of disability and they are further divided into sub-classes so it was not possible to mention all so a generic research based blog is made. HCI has always been characterized by the successful fallout of technologies from one application to other ones. Its technology getting innovated and improved according to the better concept. We live in an imperfect world and hence we should design products to be used by everyone with various different flaws, backgrounds, disabilities, and experiences. Technical developments in HCI allows us to be optimistic in forseeing the overcoming barriers to gain access to computer and through them to technical networks.

References

https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/disabilityandhealth/disability.html

https://medium.com/@kalyan.vejalla/hci-for-people-with-disabilities-979b6371467b

https://blog.google/products/android/braille-keyboard/

https://www.disabled-world.com/disability/types/hearing/

https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/9/18/3790/htm

http://parkinsonsdysarthria.weebly.com/aac-assessment.html

Explain Loops

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 26 Jul 2020 15:19:00 +0000

What is Loop?

A method or mechanism through which a statement or a set of statements of program can be executed again and again (repeat) that is called loop. The body of loop can be executed again and again for a given number of times.

Loop Statements

Loop statement are used to execute a statement or a set of statements again and again. Loops are the most important function of any programming language. Loop Statement is also known as iterative structure or repetitive structure. When we need to use loop we must need to tell the system starting number and ending number to execute yhe loop statement otherwise it may give error or infinite loop.

Types of Loop Statements in C

In C/C++ language there are three types of loop statements.

'while' loop
'do-while' loop
'for' loop

Control Variable

Any variable which is used in loop statement to control the number execution or flow in the loop that is known as loop control variable. Usually, we initialize variable at before the body of loop because it will be see where the loop statement will be execute first.

'while' Loop

'while' loop is a conditional loop structure in programming language. It is used to execute a statement or a set of statements as long as the given condition remains true. This loop structure is used when the programmer does not know in advance the number of repetition of loop.
The general syntax of 'while' structure is as follows:
while (condition)
statement ;
next_statement ;

The syntax of 'while' structure for a group of statements is as follows:
while (condition)
{
group of statements ;
}
next_statement ;

Flowchart of 'while' Loop

Following is the flowchart of 'while' loop structure:

While loop diagram

The Switch Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 26 Jul 2020 15:18:00 +0000

The switch Statement

The 'switch' statement is another selection structure in programming language. It can be used as alternative of if else if structure. We can used this when we have multiple option given and we need to select one option in the given.

For example, usually, this structure is used for menu selections.

The 'switch' structure contains only one expression at its beginning and multiple cases within its body. Each case contains a set of statements.
The general syntax of 'switch' structure is as follows:
switch (expression)
{
case label 1 :
set of statements-1
break ;
case label 2 :
set of statements-2
break ;
--- ---------------------
--- ---------------------
default:
set of statements-n
}

Flowchart of 'switch' Structure

The flowchart of switch structure is as follows:

Flowchart Switch Statement

The 'break Statement

The 'break' statement is used to exit from the body of the 'switch' structure. In the 'switch' structure, the 'break' statement is normally used at the end of statements in each case. If all 'break' statements are omitted from the 'switch' structure, then the statements of all remaining cases that come after the matched case are also executed.

Difference Between 'switch' and Nested 'if-else' Structures

The 'switch' Structure

It is easy to use and to understand.
It can be used for only simple menu selections.
It is fast because computer evaluates only one expression.
it uses single expression which returns a single integer value or a single character.

Nested 'if-else' Structure

It is complicated. It is difficult to use and to understand.
It uses multiple expressions and each returns are true or false value.
It is very slow because computer evaluates more than one expire.
It can used for complicated multiple choices.

Find Median of Grouped And UnGrouped Data

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 25 Jul 2020 05:34:00 +0000

What is Median ?

Median is a middle value in the given sorted data. It may be ascending or descending That is called Median.

Median In Un-Grouped Data

In Un-Grouped data we have more two categories.

i. Even

ii. Odd

Even

If our observed data is even, than we need to add both center values.

Formula:

Median of Ungrouped Data Formula of Even Number

Odd

If our Observed data is odd we simply put the middle Number on the Array.

Formula:

Median of Ungrouped Data Formula of Odd Number

Median In Group Data

In this method we have given class intervals and frequency we simply solve this using formula.

Formula:

Formula of Median in grouped Data

Median of Un-Group Data Code / Program in C /C++

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(){

int num;

float x[10],sum=0,mean,temp[10],Oloc,Eloc;

cout<<"Enter Total Number ";

cin>>num;

cout<<"X"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cin>>x[i];

}

cout<<" Given Data is: ";

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<x[i]<<", ";

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

for(int j=i+1;j<num;j++){

if(x[i]>x[j]){

temp[i]=x[i];

x[i]=x[j];

x[j]=temp[i];

}

cout<<endl<<" Arange : ";

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<x[i]<<", ";

}

cout<<endl;

if(num % 2 == 1){

Oloc=x[num/2];

cout<<" Median of Odd Data is "<<Oloc;

}

else{

Eloc=(x[num/2-1]+x[num/2])/2;

cout<<" Median of Even Data is "<<Eloc;

}

return 0;

}

Input

Odd Data

Enter Total Number 9

Given Data is: 5, 7, 9, 8, 3, 2, 1, 6, 4,

Arange : 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9,

Median of Odd Data is 5

Output

Input

Even Data

Enter Total Number 8

Given Data is: 5, 1, 2, 9, 7, 3, 2, 4,

Arange : 1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 9,

Median of Even Data is 3.5

Output

Median of Group Data Code / Program in C /C++

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(){

float num,sumf=0,median=0,sumCF=0;

float start[10],end[10],f[10];

cout<<" \t\t <<----- Median Of Grouped Data ----->> "<<endl<<endl<<endl;

cout<<"Enter Total Number ";

cin>>num;

cout<<"Enter Class Intrvals"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<i+1<<"- Range Start ";

cin>>start[i];

cout<<i+1<<"- Range End ";

cin>>end[i];

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<i+1<<"- Enter Frequency of this Range ";

cin>>f[i];

}

int CF[10],loc,index;

float CBStart[10],CBEnd[10];

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

sumf=sumf+f[i];

CF[i]=sumf;

CBStart[i]=start[i]-0.5;

CBEnd[i]=end[i]+0.5;

loc=sumf/2;

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

if(CF[i]>=loc){

index=i;

i=num;

}

cout<<endl;

cout<<"Class Interval Frequency Class Boundaries Cumulative Frequency"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<start[i]<<" - "<<end[i]<<"\t\t"<<f[i]<<"\t\t"<<CBStart[i]<<" - "<<CBEnd[i]<<"\t\t\t"<<CF[i]<<endl;

}

float l,h,f1,c;

l=CBStart[index];

h=(end[index]-start[index])+1;

f1=f[index];

c=CF[index-1];

cout<<endl;

cout<<" Lower Class Boundary (l) "<<l<<endl;

cout<<" Hight (h) "<<h<<endl;

cout<<" Frequency oF Location (f) "<<f1<<endl;

cout<<" Sum of Frequency (Sum(f) "<<sumf<<endl;

cout<<" C (C) "<<c<<endl;

cout<<endl;

median=(l+(h/f1)*((sumf/2)-c));

cout<<"Median = l+(f/n)*((sum(F)/2)-c) = "<<median;

return 0;

}

Input

Enter Total Number 5

Enter Class Intrvals

1- Range Start 2

1- Range End 4

2- Range Start 5

2- Range End 7

3- Range Start 8

3- Range End 10

4- Range Start 11

4- Range End 13

5- Range Start 14

5- Range End 16

1- Enter Frequency of this Range 6

2- Enter Frequency of this Range 3

3- Enter Frequency of this Range 9

4- Enter Frequency of this Range 10

5- Enter Frequency of this Range 12

Output

Find Mean in UnGroup Data in C\ C++ Program

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Thu, 16 Jul 2020 04:46:00 +0000

What is Mean ?

Mean is define as the sum of all observed data divided by total number. The mean or arithmetic mean is average of group measure. It is also called Arithmetic Mean.

Mean in Ungroup Data

In Ungroup Data, we have only given data X that means we solve this Array of data. Formula of Mean on in group Data:

Here n is the total number of X.

Program in C / C++

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(){

float x[10],num,sum=0,mean;

cout<<"Enter Total Number ";

cin>>num;

cout<<"X"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cin>>x[i];

sum=sum+x[i];

}

cout<<"Sum: "<<sum<<endl;

mean=sum/num;

cout<<"Mean = Sum(x)/n = "<<mean;

return 0;

}

Input:

X: 5, 10, 15, 20, 25

Output:

Mean in Group Data

In Group Data, we have given data Class interval and frequency (f). Formula of mean group data.

Step 1: Find X of every index.

X= lover Class interval + Higher Class interval /2

Step 2: find F*X.

we simply multiply every index f*x and Sum of all F*X.

Step 3: Sum of F.

Program in C /C++

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main(){

float x[10],fx[10],num,sumf=0,sumfx=0,mean;

float start[10],end[10],f[10];

cout<<" \t\t <<----- Mean Of Group Data ----->> "<<endl<<endl<<endl;

cout<<"Enter Total Number ";

cin>>num;

cout<<"Enter Class Intrvals"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<i+1<<"- Range Start ";

cin>>start[i];

cout<<i+1<<"- Range End ";

cin>>end[i];

cout<<i+1<<"- Enter Frequency of this Range ";

cin>>f[i];

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

sumf=sumf+f[i];

x[i]=(start[i]+end[i])/2;

fx[i]=f[i]*x[i];

sumfx=sumfx+fx[i];

}

cout<<"Class Interval Frequency\tX\tF*X"<<endl;

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

cout<<start[i]<<" - "<<end[i]<<"\t\t"<<f[i]<<"\t\t"<<x[i]<<"\t"<<fx[i]<<endl;

}

cout<<endl;

cout<<"Sum(F) = "<<sumf<<endl;

cout<<"Sum(FX) = "<<sumfx<<endl;

mean=sumfx/sumf;

cout<<"Mean = Sum(fx)/Sum(f) = "<<mean;

return 0;

}

Input:

Class Interval | Frequemcy

5-10 | 8

11-15 | 16

16-20 | 2

21-25 | 5

26-30 | 10

Output

Shortest Job First (SJF) in Operating System

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 12 Jul 2020 17:11:00 +0000

Shortest Job First (SJF) in Operating System

Shortest Job First (SJF) is a scheduling algorithm in which the process having the smallest execution time it will be execute first and the next process will execute after previous smaller process. This scheduling method can be preemptive or non-preemptive. This method reduces the average waiting time for other processes awaiting execution.

Program in C / C++

#include<iostream>

#include<conio.h>

int main(){

int arr[5],sort[5],num,temp;

system("COLOR F9");

printf(" ENTER a Integer NUMBER ");

scanf("%i",&num);

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

printf(" Your Job Number ");

scanf("%i",&arr[i]);

sort[i]=arr[i];

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

for(int j=i+1;j<num;j++){

if(sort[j]<sort[i]){

temp=sort[i];

sort[i]=sort[j];

sort[j]=temp;

}

for(int i=0;i<num;i++){

printf(" Inputs %i Priority %i Job %i \n",arr[i],i+1,sort[i]);

}

getch();

}

Shortest Job First (SJF)

First Come First Serve (FCFS) in Operating System

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Fri, 10 Jul 2020 18:12:00 +0000

First Come First Serve (FCFS) in Operating System

First Come First Served (FCFS) is a process scheduling algorithm in operating system (OS) that automatically execute processes and queued data by their sequence. In this Algorithm which process comes first to the queue is execute first, the next process will execute when the previous process complete their execution. FCFS is also known as (FIFO) First in First Out and First Come First Choice (FCFC).

Program in C / C++

#include<stdio.h>

int nxt=0,arry[5],c=0,d;

void menu();

void Insert();

void Delete();

void Display();

int main(){

int ch=1;

menu();

while(ch!=0){

printf(" Enter Your Choice ");

scanf("%i",&ch);

switch(ch){

case 0:

printf(" Exit ........ \n");

break;

case 1:

Insert();

break;

case 2:

Delete();

break;

case 3:

Display();

break;

default:

printf(" Invalid Choice \n");

}

void menu(){

printf("--------- Menu --------\n");

printf(" Press 1 for Insert\n");

printf(" Press 2 for Delete\n");

printf(" Press 3 for Display\n");

printf(" Press 0 for Exit\n\n");

}

void Insert(){

if(c<5){

c++;

printf(" Enter data ");

scanf("%i",&d);

arry[nxt]=d;

nxt++;

}

else{

printf(" Que is Full \n");

}

void Delete(){

if(c>0){

c--;

for(int i=0;i<nxt;i++){

arry[i]=arry[i+1];

}

nxt--;

printf("\n Deletion Have Done \n\n");

}

else{

printf(" Empty ...! \n");

}

void Display(){

if(c>0){

for(int i=0;i<nxt;i++){

printf(" Priority %d",i+1);

printf(" Job %d \n",arry[i]);

}

else{

printf(" Empty ...! \n");

}

First Come First Serve (FCFS)

Define Bridge ...!

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Fri, 01 May 2020 19:28:00 +0000

A bridge is a type of computer network device that provides interconnection with other bridge networks that use the same protocol. Bridge devices work at the data link layer of the Open System Interconnect (OSI) model, connecting two different networks together and providing communication between them. Bridges are similar to repeaters and hubs in that they broadcast data to every node. However, bridges maintain the media access control (MAC) address table as soon as they discover new segments, so subsequent transmissions are sent to only to the desired recipient. Bridges are also known as Layer 2 switches.

A bridge uses a database to ascertain where to pass, transmit or discard the data frame.
If the frame received by the bridge is meant for a segment that resides on the same host network, it will pass the frame to that node and the receiving bridge will then discard it.
If the bridge receives a frame whose node MAC address is of the connected network, it will forward the frame toward it.

In computer networking, a bridge serves the same purpose. It connects two or more local area networks (LANs) together. The cars, or the data in this case, use the bridge to travel to and from different areas of the network. The device is similar to a router, but it does not analyze the data being forwarded. Because of this, bridges are typically fast at transferring data, but not as versatile as a router. For example, a bridge cannot be used as a firewall like most routers can. A bridge can transfer data between different protocols (i.e. a Token Ring and Ethernet network) and operates at the "data link layer" or level 2 of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) networking reference model.

A bridge operates at data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of source and destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol. It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.

A network bridge is a computer networking device that creates a single aggregate network from multiple communication networks or network segments. This function is called network bridging.[1] Bridging is distinct from routing. Routing allows multiple networks to communicate independently and yet remain separate, whereas bridging connects two separate networks as if they were a single network.[2] In the OSI model, bridging is performed in the data link layer (layer 2).[3] If one or more segments of the bridged network are wireless, the device is known as a wireless bridge.

The main types of network bridging technologies are simple bridging, multiport bridging, and learning or transparent bridging

Prime Number Program In C / C++

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 18 Apr 2020 22:06:00 +0000

Prime Number Program In C / C++

A whole Number which is greater than 1 and which is divider of itself. For example 13 divided only 13,17 divided only 17 and series is 2,3,5,7,11,13,17, ...

Prime Code in C

#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>

int main(){
int num,i,j;
int temp=0;
printf(" Enter Any integer Number ");
scanf("%d",&num);
if(num<2){
printf(" Number Should be greater than 1 \n");
}
else{
for(i=2;i<=num;i++){
for(j=2;j<i;j++){
if(i%j==0){
temp=1;
}
}
if(temp==0){
printf("\n %d",i);
}
else{
temp=0;
}
}
}
return 0;

}

Prime Number Code in C++

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main(){
int num,i,j;
int temp=0;
cout<<" Enter Any integer Number ";
cin>>num;
if(num<2){
cout<<" Number Should be greater than 1 \n";
}
else{
for(i=2;i<=num;i++){
for(j=2;j<i;j++){
if(i%j==0){
temp=1;
}
}
if(temp==0){
cout<<"\n"<<i;
}
else{
temp=0;
}
}
}
return 0;

}

Implementation Of Hash Table Code

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 21 Dec 2019 13:47:00 +0000

Implementation Of Hash Table Code

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

// Create an Entity

class Entry{

public:

int key;

int value;

Entry(int k,int v){

key= k;

value = v;

}

};

class HashTable{

Entry **temp;

public:

int size;

//Constructor

HashTable() {

cout<<" Enter Size of Table: ";

cin>>size;

temp = new Entry * [size];

for (int i = 0; i< size; i++) {

temp[i] = NULL;

}

// Hashing Funtion

int HashFun(int k) {

return k % size;

}

// Insertion In Hashing

void Insert(int k,int v){

if(k<=size && k>0){

int h = HashFun(k);

while(temp[h] != NULL && temp[h]->key == k){

h = HashFun(h + 1);

}

if(temp[h] != NULL)

delete temp[h];

temp[h] = new Entry(k, v);

}

else{

cout<<" You Are Enter Invalid Key "<<endl<<endl;

}

// Searching In Hashing

int SearchKey(int k){

int h = HashFun(k);

while (temp[h] != NULL && temp[h]->key != k){

h = HashFun(h + 1);

}

if(temp[h] == NULL){

return -1;

}

else{

return temp[h]->value;

}

// Delection In Hashing

void Delete(int k){

int h = HashFun(k);

while (temp[h] != NULL){

if(temp[h]->key == k)

break;

h = HashFun(h + 1);

}

if (temp[h] == NULL){

cout<<" No Element Found at Key "<<k<<endl<<endl;

return;

}

else{

delete temp[h];

}

cout<<" Element Successfuly Deleted "<<endl<<endl;

}

};

int main(){

HashTable h;

int k, v;

int c;

while(1){

cout<<endl;

cout<<" 1. Insert Element into Table"<<endl;

cout<<" 2. Search Element from Key"<<endl;

cout<<" 3. Delete Element from Key"<<endl;

cout<<" 4. Exit"<<endl;

cout<<"\nEnter your Choice: ";

cin>>c;

switch(c){

case 1:

cout<<"Enter Element to Insert: ";

cin>>v;

cout<<"Enter key at which Element to be Insert: ";

cin>>k;

h.Insert(k, v);

break;

case 2:

cout<<"Enter key which Element you want to Search: ";

cin>>k;

if(h.SearchKey(k) == -1){

cout<<" No Element Found at Key "<<k<<endl<<endl;

continue;

}

else{

cout<<" Element at Key "<<k<<" : ";

cout<<h.SearchKey(k)<<endl<<endl;

}

break;

case 3:

cout<<"\n Enter Key which Element you want to Delete: ";

cin>>k;

h.Delete(k);

break;

case 4:

exit(1);

default:

cout<<"\n Please Enter Correct Option\n";

}

return 0;

}

Introduction To Hashing

Hashing Introduction

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 21 Dec 2019 08:34:00 +0000

Introduction

Searching Techniques:

There are several searching techniques like linear search, binary search etc. In these techniques, time taken to search any particular element depends on the total number of elements. For Example complexity of Linear Search O(n), Binary Search O(logn), Hash table O(1).

Hashing:

Hashing is an algorithm that calculates a fixed-size bit value from indexes. It is a searching technique that Used to Uniquely identify a specific object from a group of similar object.

Hash:

Hash is a function that convert one value to another. Hashing data is a common practice in computer science and is used for several different purposes.

Hash Function:

Hash function is a function that maps any number or string to a small integer value. Hash function takes the data item as an input and returns a small integer value as an output. The small integer value is called as a hash value. Hash value of the data item is then used as an index for storing it into the hash table.

h(k) = k mod (%) SizeOfArray

Properties of Hash Function:

- It is efficiently computable.

- It minimizes the number of collisions.

- It distributes the keys uniformly over the table.

Collision:

Hash function is get a number of a key, there is possibility that there are two key result in same value. The situation where a newly inserted key maps to an already occupied slot in hash table is called collision. We must need to solve it. There are basic two methods of solving collision.

2. Separate Chaining:

In this technique, each cell point to a linked list of a record. If any key has same number than that index creates a linked list Which have same function value.

2. Open Addressing:

Like separating chaining, open addressing is also a method for handling collisions. In this collision, All the element is stored in a separate index (itself) in hash table. If any bucket is already occupied, then it is increased key every time until it found empty index to place. It has also three types.

i. Quadratic Probing:

Quadratic probing is similar to linear probing but it has one difference When collision occurs, we probe for 𝑘^2 bucket in 𝑘^𝑡ℎ iteration. We keep probing until an empty bucket is found. Formula h(k) = mod (%) SizeOfArray

ii. Quadratic Probing:

iii. Double hashing:

Double hashing is similar to linear probing but it has also difference We use another hash function hash2(k) and look for k * hash2(k) bucket in 𝑘^𝑡ℎ iteration. It requires more computation time as two hash functions need to be computed. h(k) = key mod(%) SizeOfArray

h(k) = (h(k) –k) mod(%) h(k)

Functions in Hashing

Insertion:

Move to the bucket corresponds to the above calculated hash index and insert the new node at the end of the list.

int insert(int k, int v){

int hash = HashFun(k);

while (temp[hash] != NULL && temp[hash]->key == k) {

hash = HashFun(hash + 1);

}

if (temp[hash] != NULL)

delete temp[hash];

temp[hash] = new insert(int k,int v);

}

Searching:

For search value from hash table, calculate the hash index for the key, move to the bucket corresponds to the calculated hash index, search the list in the current bucket.

void SearchKey(int k){

int h = HashFunc(k);

while (temp[h] != NULL && temp[h]->key != k){

h = HashFunc(h + 1);

}

if (temp[h] == NULL)

return -1;

else

return temp[h]->value;

}

Deletion:

To delete a node from hash table, calculate the hash index for the key, move to the bucket corresponds to the calculated hash index, search the list in the current bucket to find and remove the node with the given key (if found).

void Delete(int k) {

int h = HashFun(k);

while (temp[h] != NULL) {

if (temp[h]->key == k)

break;

h = HashFun(h + 1);

}

if (temp[h] == NULL) {

cout<<"No Element found at key "<<k<<endl;

return;

} else {

delete temp[h];

}

Implementation Of Hash Table

1D Array

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 14 Dec 2019 18:43:00 +0000

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
int arr[10],sum=0,i;
cout<<"Enter 10 numbers"<<endl;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
cin>>arr[i];
sum = sum+arr[i];
}
cout<<"Sum = "<<sum;
return 0;
}

Triangle

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 14 Dec 2019 18:42:00 +0000

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main(){
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++){
for(int j=1; j<=i; j++){
cout<<" ";
}
for(int k=5; k>=i; k--){
cout<<"*";
cout<<" ";
}
cout<<endl;
}

}

Nested 'if' With Sequence of 'if' Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 18 Aug 2019 12:37:00 +0000

Nested 'if' With Sequence of 'if' Statement

The nested 'if' structure may contain multiple 'if' statements that may be nested up to any level. Some 'if' statements are executed while other may be skipped.
In a sequence of 'if' statements, multiple 'if' statements are written one after the other. All 'if' statements are executed in an order. No 'if' statement is skipped.
Following program finds whether a number is positive, negative or zero:

#include <stdio.h>
void main (void)
{
int num;
printf ("Enter a number ? ") ;
scanf ("%d" , &num) ;
if (num > 0)
printf ("The number is positive") ;
if (num < 0)
printf ("The number is negative") ;
if (num == 0)
printf ("The number is zero") ;
}

In the above program, three 'if' statements are given in a sequence. Suppose the user enters a positive number. The number is tested with first 'if' statement. The answer is true because number is positive. The message is displayed on the display screen. After displaying the message, other two 'if' statements will also be executed. Although the answers of these two 'if' statements will be false. There is no need to execute these 'if' statements. These statements should be skipped. Otherwise processor of computer has to consume extra time without any purpose.
The 'if-else-if' structure can be used to handle this kind of situation.

The 'if-else-if' Statement

The 'if-else-if' statement is also called multiple 'if-else' statement or nested 'if-else' statement. It is used to execute on block of statements from multiple blocks of statements. In this statement/structure, multiple conditions and multiple blocks of statements are given. When any given condition is true, the statement associated with that condition are executed. All other blocks of statements are ignored.
The general syntax of nested 'if-else' is as follows:

if (condition-1)
{ Block-1 }
else if (condition-2)
{ Block-2 }
------------------------
------------------------
else if (condition-m)
{ Block-m }
else
{ Block-n }

The use of "else" part of condition-m is optional.

Working of 'if-else-if' Structure

The 'if-else-if' structure is executed as follows:

The conditions in this structure are evaluated in the given sequence until a true condition is found.
When true condition is found, the statements associated with that condition are executed. All remaining conditions are skipped.
If all conditions are false, then the block of statements following the last else is executed.

Flowchart of 'if-else-if' Structure

The flowchart of nested 'if-else' structure is as follows:

Union, Intersection & Difference Source Code

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 10 Aug 2019 13:32:00 +0000

Write a program to Calculate Union, Intersection & Difference of set A and B in C++ Source Code.

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>
using namespace std;

// Intersection oF set A and B

int intersection(){
int v;
int n=0,m=0,o=0;
cout<<" Enter size of Set A : ";
cin>>n;
cout<<" Enter size of Set B : ";
cin>>m;
int a[n],b[m],c[o];
cout<<" Enter Elements of Set A \n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>> a[i];
}
for (int i=0;i<n;i++){
for (int j=i;j<n;j++)
if(a[i]>a[j])
{ v=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=v;
}
}
for(int i=0;i<n;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<n;)
{
if(a[i]==a[j])
{ for(int k=j;k<n-1;++k)
a[k]=a[k+1];
--n; }
else
++j; }
cout<<" Enter Elements of Set B \n";
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
cin>> b[i]; }
for (int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
for (int j=i;j<m;j++)
if(b[i]>b[j])
{
v=b[i];
b[i]=b[j];
b[j]=v;
}
}
for(int i=0;i<m;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<m;)
{
if(b[i]==b[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<m-1;++k)
b[k]=b[k+1];
--m; }
else
++j;
}
for( int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<m;j++)
{
if(a[i]==b[j])
{
c[o]=a[i];
o++;
}
}
}
cout<<" A Intersection B = {";
for(int i=0;i<o;i++)
{
cout<<c[i];
if(i<(o-1))
{
cout<<", ";
}
}
cout<<"}";
}
void setting(int r[],int r1){

for(int i=0;i<r1;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<r1;)
{
if(r[i]==r[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<r1-1;++k)
r[k]=r[k+1];
--r1;
}
else
++j;
}
int t;
for (int i=0;i<r1-1;i++)
{
for (int j=i;j<r1;j++)
if(r[i]>r[j])
{
t=r[i];
r[i]=r[j];
r[j]=t;
}
}
cout<<" Union of set A & B\n\n A U B = {";
for(int i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
cout<<r[i];
if(i<(r1-1))
{
cout<<", ";
}
}
cout<<"}";
}

// Union of Set A and B

int Union(){
int n=0,m=0,o=0;
cout<<" Enter size of set A : ";
cin>>n;
cout<<" Enter size of set B : ";
cin>>m;
o=n+m;
int a[n], b[m], u[o];
cout<<" Enter elements of set A \n\n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>> a[i];
}
cout<<" Enter elements of set B \n\n";
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
cin>> b[i];
}
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
u[i]=a[i];
}
int k=0;
for(int i=n;i<o;i++)
{
u[i]=b[k];
k++;
}
setting(u,o);
}

// Difference of Set A - B

int difference(){
int n=0,m=0,o=0;
cout<<" Enter size of set A : ";
cin>>n;
cout<<" Enter size of set B : ";
cin>>m;
int a[n];
int b[m];
cout<<" Enter elements of set A \n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{ cin>> a[i]; }
int t;
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)
{for (int j=i;j<n;j++)
if(a[i]>a[j])
{ t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=t
;}}
for(int i=0;i<n;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<n;)
{ if(a[i]==a[j])
{ for(int k=j;k<n-1;++k)
a[k]=a[k+1];
--n; }
else
++j; }
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<" ";
cout<<" Enter elements of set B \n";
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
{ cin>> b[i]; }
for (int i=0;i<m;i++)
{for (int j=i;j<m;j++)
if(b[i]>b[j])
{ t=b[i];
b[i]=b[j];
b[j]=t;
}}
for(int i=0;i<m;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<m;)
{
if(b[i]==b[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<m-1;++k)
b[k]=b[k+1];
--m; }
else
++j; }

for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
cout<<b[i]<<" ";
cout<<"\n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<m;j++)
{
if (a[i]==b[j])
{ for( int z=i;z<n;z++)
{
int t=a[z];
a[z]=a[z+1];
a[z+1]=t;

}
n--;}}}
cout<<" Difference of A to B \nA-B = {";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{ cout<<a[i];
if(i<(n-1))
{ cout<<", "; }}
cout<<"}";
}

// Menu of the program

void menu(){
cout<<"\t ======== Welcome ========\n";
cout<<"\t Enter 1 for Union \n";
cout<<"\t Entet 2 for Intersection \n";
cout<<"\t Enter 3 for Difference \n";
cout<<"\t Enter 0 for Exit \n";
cout<<"\n\n Enter Your Choice : ";
}

// Main Program

int main(int argc, char** argv)
{
int no;
menu(); // call menu
Repeat:
cin>>no;
if ( no > 3 || no < 0 )
{
cout<<" You Are Entered a Wroung Number!! \n Please Try Again ...! \n";
cout<<"\n\n Enter Your Choice : ";
goto Repeat;
}
switch(no)
{
case 0:
{
break;
}
case 1:
{
Union();
break;
}
case 2:
{
intersection();
break;
}
case 3:
{
difference();
break;
}
}
getch();
return 0;
}

Click Here To Download

Difference Of Set A and B Source Program

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Mon, 05 Aug 2019 17:56:00 +0000

Write a program to Calculate Difference of set A and B in C++

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>
using namespace std;
int difference(){
int n=0,m=0,o=0;
cout<<" Enter size of set A : ";
cin>>n;
cout<<" Enter size of set B : ";
cin>>m;
int a[n];
int b[m];
cout<<" Enter elements of set A \n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>> a[i];
}
int t;
for (int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for (int j=i;j<n;j++)
if(a[i]>a[j])
{
t=a[i];
a[i]=a[j];
a[j]=t;
}
}
for(int i=0;i<n;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<n;)
{
if(a[i]==a[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<n-1;++k)
a[k]=a[k+1];
--n; }
else
++j; }
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
cout<<a[i]<<" ";
cout<<endl;
cout<<" Enter elements of set B \n";
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
cin>> b[i];
}
for (int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
for (int j=i;j<m;j++)
if(b[i]>b[j])
{
t=b[i];
b[i]=b[j];
b[j]=t;
}
}
for(int i=0;i<m;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<m;)
{
if(b[i]==b[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<m-1;++k)
b[k]=b[k+1];
--m;
}
else
++j;
}
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
cout<<b[i]<<" ";
cout<<"\n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
for(int j=0;j<m;j++)
{
if (a[i]==b[j])
{
for( int z=i;z<n;z++)
{
int t=a[z];
a[z]=a[z+1];
a[z+1]=t;
}
n--;
}
}
}
cout<<" Difference of A to B \n A-B = {";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{ cout<<a[i];
if(i<(n-1))
{ cout<<", "; }}
cout<<"}";
}

int main(int argc, char** argv)
{
cout<<"\t ***** Difference ***** \n";
difference();
getch();
return 0;
}

Intersection Of Sets A and B Source program

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sun, 04 Aug 2019 19:01:00 +0000

Write a program to calculate intersection of set A and B in C++.

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>

using namespace std;

// Intersection portion

int intersection(){

int v;

int n=0,m=0,o=0;

cout<<" Enter size of Set A : ";

cin>>n;

cout<<" Enter size of Set B : ";

cin>>m;

int a[n],b[m],c[o];

cout<<" Enter Elements of Set A \n";

for(int i=0;i<n;i++)

{

cin>> a[i];

}

for (int i=0;i<n;i++){

for (int j=i;j<n;j++)

if(a[i]>a[j])

{ v=a[i];

a[i]=a[j];

a[j]=v;

}

for(int i=0;i<n;++i)

for(int j=i+1;j<n;)

{

if(a[i]==a[j])

{ for(int k=j;k<n-1;++k)

a[k]=a[k+1];

--n; }

else

++j; }

cout<<" Enter Elements of Set B \n";

for(int i=0;i<m;i++)

{

cin>> b[i]; }

for (int i=0;i<m;i++)

{

for (int j=i;j<m;j++)

if(b[i]>b[j])

{

v=b[i];

b[i]=b[j];

b[j]=v;

}

for(int i=0;i<m;++i)

for(int j=i+1;j<m;)

{

if(b[i]==b[j])

{

for(int k=j;k<m-1;++k)

b[k]=b[k+1];

--m; }

else

++j;

}

for( int i=0;i<n;i++)

{

for(int j=0;j<m;j++)

{

if(a[i]==b[j])

{

c[o]=a[i];

o++;

}

cout<<" A Intersection B = {";

for(int i=0;i<o;i++)

{

cout<<c[i];

if(i<(o-1))

{

cout<<", ";

}

cout<<"}";

}

int main(){

cout<<"\t ***** INTERSECTION *****\n";

intersection();

getch();

return 0;

}

Union Of Set A and B Source Program

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Sat, 03 Aug 2019 14:12:00 +0000

Write a program to calculate Union of set A and B in C++.

#include <iostream>
#include <conio.h>
using namespace std;

void setting(int r[],int r1){

for(int i=0;i<r1;++i)
for(int j=i+1;j<r1;)
{
if(r[i]==r[j])
{
for(int k=j;k<r1-1;++k)
r[k]=r[k+1];
--r1;
}
else
++j;
}
int t;
for (int i=0;i<r1-1;i++)
{
for (int j=i;j<r1;j++)
if(r[i]>r[j])
{
t=r[i];
r[i]=r[j];
r[j]=t;
}
}
cout<<" Union of set A & B\n\n A U B = {";
for(int i=0;i<r1;i++)
{
cout<<r[i];
if(i<(r1-1))
{
cout<<", ";
}
}
cout<<"}";
}

// Union

int Union(){
int n=0,m=0,o=0;
cout<<" Enter size of set A : ";
cin>>n;
cout<<" Enter size of set B : ";
cin>>m;
o=n+m;
int a[n], b[m], u[o];
cout<<" Enter elements of set A \n\n";
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
cin>> a[i];
}
cout<<" Enter elements of set B \n\n";
for(int i=0;i<m;i++)
{
cin>> b[i];
}
for(int i=0;i<n;i++)
{
u[i]=a[i];
}
int k=0;
for(int i=n;i<o;i++)
{
u[i]=b[k];
k++;
}
setting(u,o);
}

int main(){
cout<<"\t ***** UNION ***** \n";
Union();
getch();
return 0;
}

Click Here To Download .CPP File

Nested 'if' Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Mon, 29 Jul 2019 19:40:00 +0000

Nested 'if' Statement

An ' if ' statement within another ' if ' statement is called nested ' if ' statement. The ' if ' statement that contains another ' if ' statement is called outer ' if ' statement. The ' if ' statement used inside outer ' if ' statement is called inner ' if ' statement. The nested ' if ' statements are used when multiple conditions have to check. Nested can be up to any level. However, it increases the complicity of the logic of program.
The general form of nested 'if' statement is given as follows:

if (condition-1)
{
if (condition-2)
{
Block-1 ;
}
else
{
Block-2 ;
}
else
{
Block-3 ;
}

In the above syntax, the 'if' statement that has "condition-1" contains another 'if' statement that has "condition-2". The Block-1 represents the statement(s) of inner 'if' statement, while Block-2 represents the statement(s) of its 'else' part. The Block-3 represents the statement(s) of 'else' part of outer 'if' statement.

Flowchart of Nested ' if ' Structure

The flowchart about general form of nested 'if' structure is as follows:

Working of Nested ' if ' Structure

The nested ' if ' structure is executed as follows:

The condition of the outer ' if ' statement is evaluated first.

If condition of the outer ' if ' statement is true, inner 'if' statement is executed.

If condition of the inner ' if ' statement is true, Block-1 is executed.

If condition of the inner ' if ' statement is false, Block-2 is executed.

If condition of the outer ' if ' statement is false, Block-3 is executed.

Example

Following statements check whether the value of variable 'a' is greater than the values of variables 'b' and 'c';
if (a > b)
if (a > c)
printf ("a is greater than b and c") ;
In the above piece of code, the 'if' structure that has condition (a > c) is inner ' if ' structure. It comes inside the ' if ' structure that has condition (a > b).

Conditional Operator

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Fri, 26 Jul 2019 19:36:00 +0000

Conditional Operator

The conditional operator is also used for making two-way decisions. It can be used in place of simple 'if-else' structure. It is denoted by ? and : signs. Three operands are used with conditional operator. It is also called ternary operator. The general syntax of conditional operator is as follows:
(condition) ? exp1 : exp2

Write a program that inputs two numbers and displays greater number using conditional operator.

Example in C

#include < stdio.h >

#include < conio.h >

void main ( )

{

int a , b ;

clrscr ( ) ;

printf ( " Enter first Number : " ) ;

scanf ( " %d " , &a ) ;

printf ( " Enter second Number : " ) ;

scanf ( " %d " , &b ) ;

( a > b ) ? printf ( " %d is greater " , a ) : printf ( " %d is greater " , b ) ;

getch ( ) ;

}

Example in C++

#include < iostream >

using namespace std;

int main ( )

{

int a , b ;

cout << " Enter first Number " ;

scanf >> a ;

cout << " Enter second Number " ;

scanf >> b ;

( a > b ) ? cout << a << " is greater " : cout << b << " is greater " ;

retirn 0 ;

}

Output of the program

Enter first Number: 5

Enter second Number: 15

15 is greater

'if-else' Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Thu, 25 Jul 2019 19:47:00 +0000

The 'if-else' Statement

The 'if-else' statement is another form of 'if' statement. It is used for making two way decisions. In this statement/structure, one condition and two blocks of statement are given. It executes one block of statements when the condition is true and the other when condition is false. In any situation, one block of statements is executed and the other is skipped.
The general syntax of simple 'if-else' structure is as follows:

if (condition)
statement - 1 ;
else
statement - 2 ;

In the above syntax, "statement-1" will be executed if the condition is true and statement-2 will be ignored. If the condition is false, "statement-2" is executed and "statement-1" will be ignored.
In case of compound statement, the syntax of 'if-else' structure is as follows:
if (condition)
{
Block-1
}
else
{
Block-2
}

The Block-1 indicates a sent of statements on one side and Block-2 indicates set of statements on another side. The 'if-else' structure may contain a single statement (without curly brackets) on one side and compound statement on another side.

Flowchart of 'if-else' Structure

The flowchart of 'if-else' structure is as follows:

'if-else' Statement

Write a program that input a number and finds whether it is even or odd.

Example in C

#include < stdio.h >

#include < conio.h >

void main ( )

{

int num ;

clrscr ( ) ;

printf ( " Enter a Number : " ) ;

scanf ( " %d " , &num ) ;

if ( n%2 == 0 )

printf ( " %d is Even Number " , num ) ;

else
printf ( " %d is Odd Number " , num ) ;
getch ( ) ;
}

Example in C++

#include < iostream >

usimng namespace std ;

int main ( )

{

int num ;

system ( " cls " ) ;

cout << " Enter a Number : " ;

cin >> num ;

if ( n%2 == 0 )

cout << num << " is Even Number " ;

else

cout << num << " is Odd Number " ;

return 0 ;
}

Output of the program

Enter a Number : 31

31 is odd Number

Limitation of 'if' Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Wed, 24 Jul 2019 20:16:00 +0000

Limitation of 'if' Statement

Although, 'if' statement is the simplest form of selection structure but its use is limited in programs. It executes a statement or set of statements if the given condition is true. But if the given condition is false, then no alternate action is performed. It means the simple 'if' statement cannot be used for making two-way decisions.
Suppose you want to execute one set of statements if the given condition is true and other set of statements if given condition is false. In this situation, you cannot handle this kind of problem properly using simple 'if' statement. However, this kind of problem can be handle using sequence of simple 'if' statements. This is not a proper way.
Following programs find whether given number is positive or negative using sequence of simple 'if' statements.
#include <stdio.h>
void main (void)
{
int num ;
printf ("Enter a number ? ") ;
scanf ("%d", &num) ;
if (num > 0)
printf ("The number is positive") ;
if (num < 0)
printf ("The number is negative") ;
}
In the above program two simple 'if' statements are given in a sequence. Suppose the user enters a positive number. The number is tested with first 'if' statement. The answer is true because number is positive. The message will be displayed on screen. After displaying the message, next 'if' statement will also be executed. Although the answer of this 'if' statement will be false. There is no need to execute this 'if' statement. This 'if' statement should be skipped; otherwise processor of computer has to consume extra time without any purpose.
In the above program, if the second 'if' statement is omitted and the user enters a negative number, the condition will return false. No message will be displayed on the screen.
In either case, there should be proper reason from the program. The 'if-else' structure can be used to handle this kind of situation.

if Statement

noreply@blogger.com (Abdul Saboor) — Wed, 24 Jul 2019 16:32:00 +0000

The 'if' Statement

The 'if' statement is the simplest form of selection structure. It is a decision making statement. It is used to execute or to ignore a statement or a set of statements after testing a condition.

The ' if ' statement evaluates the condition. If the given condition is true, the statement or a set of statements following the ' if ' statement is ignored and control transfers to the statement that comes after the 'if' structure.

The syntax of 'if' statement for a single statement is as follows:

if ( condition )

statement - 1 ;

statement - 2 ;

In the above syntax:

condition It indicates the test condition. It can be a relational expression or logical expression.

statement-1 It is a single statement which will be executed if the condition is true. If the condition is false, statement-1 is ignored.

statement-2 This statement comes after the 'if' structure.

A set of statements following the 'if' statement can be given. In this case, these statements are written within curly braces { }. The set of statements surrounded by curly braces { } is called compound statement.

The syntax of 'if' statement for compound statement is as follows:

if ( condition )

{

statement - 1 ;

statement - 2 ;

- - - - - - - - - -

statement - m ;

}

statement - n ;

In the above syntax, the set of statements (from statement-1 to statement-m ) represent the compound statement. The statement-n represents the statement that comes after the 'if' structure.

Flowchart of Simple ' if ' Structure

The flowchart of 'if' statement is as follows:

Flowchart Of ' if ' Statement

Write a program that inputs a number and displays a message if the number is greater than 100.

Example in C

#include < stdio.h >
#include < conio.h >
void main ( )
{
int n ;
printf ( " Enter a Number " ) ;
scanf ( " %d " , &n ) ;
if ( n >= 100 )
printf ( " Number is greater than 100\n" ) ;
getch ( ) ;
}

Example in C

#include < iostream >

using namespace std ;

int main ( )

{

int n ;
cout << " Enter a Number " ;
cin >> n ;
if ( n >= 100 )
cout << " Number is greater than 100 " ;
return 0;
}